ECT 414

BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING
CO1 : Understand basic bioelectric potentials and its implications in
diagnostics

CO2 : Understand the principles used for diagnosis of abnormalities in the

cardiovascular system

CO3:
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Explain the techniques used for diagnosis and therapy in the
neuromuscular system

CO4 : Understand the principle and working of different types of bio medical
equipment/device

CO5 : Classify various diagnostic medical imaging techniques

 ECT 414
BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING
Module I (8 hours)
• Introduction to bio-medical engineering, overview of anatomy
and physiological systems of the body.
• Sources of bio-electric potential: Resting and action potential,
propagation of action potentials. Bioelectric potentials
examples (ECG, EEG, EMG, ERG, EOG, EGG concept
only.) TRACE KTU
• Electrode theory: Nernst relation, Electrode skin interface
• Bio potential electrodes: Microelectrodes, skin surface
electrodes, needle electrodes
• Instrumentation for clinical laboratory: Bio potential
amplifiers-instrumentation amplifiers, carrier amplifiers,
isolation amplifiers, chopper amplifiers
➢Biomedical Engineering is the application of engineering
principles and design concepts to medicine and biology

➢The biomedical engineering provides electrical, electronic,

electro-optical, and computer engineering support to clinical
and biomedical applications.
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➢Biomedical Engineering improves the field of healthcare
diagnosis, monitoring and therapy.
 Importance of Biomedical Engineering

•Studying of BME helps in the following manner:

➢ To understand mechanisms, efficiencies and physical
changes of various subsystems of the human body
➢ To get quantitative and qualitative knowledge through
different instruments which helps in analyzing disorders
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and further mechanism for cure process.
➢ To get quantitative and qualitative knowledge of what does
drug do to the body and what body does to the drugs.
Block diagram of medical instrumentation system

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Major Components of Medical Instrumentation System

1. Energy Source 2. Measurand 3. Sensor / Transducer
4. Signal Conditioning 5. Output Display
➢Energy Source
Used to energize the whole instrumentation system
Examples: Different sources used are electric, light,
infrared, mechanical and ultrasound

➢Measurand: Physical quantity that system

measures.
Examples:
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Internal (Blood Pressure)
On the Body Surface (Electrocardiogram)
Emanate from the body (Infrared Radiation
Derived from Tissue Sample (such as Blood or a
Biopsy)

➢Transducer/sensor:convert one energy to another, -

to give a usable output in response to the measurand
➢Signal Conditioner: converts the output of transducer
into electrical quantity suitable for operation of the display
or recording system. May be a simple resistance network
or impedance matching to multistage amplifiers and other
complex circuitry. This step may also include
amplification, filtering, or conversion either A/D or D/A.

➢Display system: for visible representation of the

quantity as a displacement on a scale or on a chart of a

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recorder or on a CRO. There are other forms also
available such a audible signals from alarms or foetal
Doppler ultrasonic signals
The best form for the display may be:
a. Numerical
b. Graphical,
c. Displacement,
d. CRT
e. Visual / Hearing
• These signals after processing may be passed on to
➢ Alarms:- with upper & lower adjustable thresholds to
indicate that the measurand goes beyond the preset
level.
➢ Data Storage: to maintain data for future.
➢ Data transmission : for carrying information got to other
parts of the integrated system

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• Measurement in biomedical instrumentation can be divided in to two
1. VIVO
• Measurement is made on or within the human body
• E.g. Device inserted in to the blood stream to measure PH of blood
2. VITRO
• • Measurement is performed outside of the body.
• E.g. Measurement of blood PH from blood samples
 Anatomy and physiological systems of the body

➢Human anatomy is the scientific study of the body’s structures.

➢Some of these structures are very small and can only be observed and

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analyzed with the assistance of a microscope.
➢ Other larger structures can readily be seen, manipulated, measured,
and weighed.
➢The word “anatomy” comes from a Greek root that means “to cut
apart.”
➢Anatomy classified as follows:
– Gross anatomy/ Topograhical anatomy/ Macroscopic
anatomy:- study of the larger structures of the body, those
visible without the aid of magnification. for eg. Heart, lungs
kidneys etc.

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➢Regional Anatomy: All structures in one particular region.

➢Systemic Anatomy: System by System

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– Microscopic anatomy: study of structures that can be
observed only with the use of a microscope or other
magnification devices

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(i)Cytology: function ,structure and development of cells are
studied.
 (ii)Histology: Study of body tissues.

-Developmental Anatomy: structural changes to body

through out life span
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(i) Embryology: development which occur before birth
➢Human physiology is the scientific study of the chemistry
and physics of the structures of the body and the ways in
which they work together to support the functions of life.
➢Homeostasis is the state of steady internal conditions
maintained by living things.
(i)Cell physiology: study of the functions of the cells
(ii)Pathophysiology: relates to pathological functions of
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the organs
(iii)Circulatory physiology :study of blood circulation
related to functioning of the heart
(iv)Respiratory physiology: deals with the functioning of
the breathing organs.
 Relationship between Anatomy and Physiology

➢ Anatomy and Physiology are always related .

➢Structure determines what functions can take place.

➢Anatomy and physiology are studied together to give a full
appreciation and understanding of the body.

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➢For example, the lungs are not muscular chambers like the heart and
can not pump blood, but because the walls of lungs are very thin, they
can exchange gasses and provide oxygen to the body.
➢For example, bones can provide support and protection to internal
organs (their function) because bones contain hard mineral deposits (their
structure).
 Physiological systems of the body

[Link] system :
➢ External cover of the body(skin)
➢ Protects deeper tissues from injury
➢ Site of cutaneous,receptors, sweat and oil glands
➢ Regulates body temp; synthesize vitamin D
➢ Excretes salts & urea; pain, pressure
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[Link] system
➢ Bones, cartilages, ligaments, joints
➢ Protects and supports body organs
➢ Hematopoiesis; store minerals
➢ Framework for muscles & movements
[Link] system
➢ Muscles
➢ Provides body movement
➢ Facial expression, post
➢ Produce body heat

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[Link] system:
➢ Consist of brain, sensory receptor, nerves and spinal cord
➢ Control haemostatic by stimulating particular muscle contraction
and gland secretion
➢ relays messages through nerve impulses
➢ Responsible for controlling and integrating the other systems of the
body
➢ Neurons are the basic units
What Are the Major Parts of a Neuron ?
➢ Dendrites – receive information- branch-like extensions that receive
impulses and carry them toward cell body. Dendrites receive impulses
from many other axons.
➢ Cell body – generates electrical signals or action potentials .
➢ Axon – transmits signals at the synapse by way of neurotransmitters

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 3 types of neurons

• Sensory Neurons: carry impulses from inside and outside the body to brain
and spinal cord.

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• Interneurons: found within brain and spinal cord, process incoming
impulses and pass them on to motor neurons.
• Motor Neurons: carry impulses away from the brain and spinal cord.
Central Nervous System
➢ Made up of brain and spinal cord
➢ Acts as body’s control center,
coordinates body’s activities
➢ Impulses travel through the
neurons in your body to reach
the brain
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in this diagram.
Peripheral Nervous System
➢ Made up of all the nerves that carry
messages to and from the central nervous
system.
➢ Similar to telephone wires that
connect all of our houses in the
community
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➢ Central Nervous System and Peripheral
Nervous System work together to make
rapid changes in your body in response
to stimuli.
➢ Peripheral Nervous System is green in
this diagram.
 Peripheral Nervous System: 2 parts
• Somatic Nervous System
➢ Relay information between skin, skeletal muscles and central
nervous system
➢ You consciously control this pathway by deciding whether or
not to move muscles (except reflexes)
➢ Reflexes: Automatic response to stimulus

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• Autonomic Nervous System
➢ Relay information from central nervous system to organs
➢ Involuntary: You do not consciously control these

– Sympathetic Nervous System: controls in times of stress,

such as the flight or fight response

– Parasympathetic Nervous System: controls body in times of

rest
 So how do these neurons work if someone
taps you on the shoulder . . .
1. Receptors in the skin sense touch or other stimuli.
2. Sensory neurons transmit the touch message.
3. Information is sorted and interpreted in the brain. A
response in determined by interneurons.
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4. Motor neurons transmit a response message to the
shoulder muscles.
5. The shoulder muscles are activated, causing the head
to turn.
 How is an impulse transmitted?
1. Stimulus excites sensory neuron.
2. Depolarization (a change in charge due to sodium ions) creates
a wave of changing charges down the axon.
3. Impulse moves across synapse (tiny space between one
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neuron’s axon and another’s dendrites) with the help of
neurotransmitters

This is an image of neurons

located in the cerebral cortex of a
hamster.
 The Brain
The Brain
Three main sections
• Cerebrum
– 2 hemispheres
– Controls memory,

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• Cerebellum
– Controls balance, posture and
coordination
• Brainstem
– Controls involuntary activities
such as breathing
 The Cerebrum

➢ Controls conscious activities,

intelligence, memory, language,
muscles.
➢ Wrinkled with countless folds and
grooves and covered with an outer
layer of gray matter called the
cerebral cortex.
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➢ Divided into 4 lobes
 The Cerebellum

➢ Muscle coordination is developed here as well as the memory of

physical skills.
➢ If the cerebellum is injured, your movements become jerky.
➢ When you see an amazing athlete perform, you are watching a
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well-trained cerebellum at work.
 The Brainstem

➢ Made up of the medulla oblongata, pons and midbrain.

➢ Medulla oblongata controls involuntary activities such as heart rate

digestion and breathing

➢ Pons and midbrain act as pathways connecting various part of the brain
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with each other.

➢ Sometimes called the reptilian brain, because it resembles the entire brain
of a reptile.
[Link] System
➢ Pituitary, thyroid, parathyroids, adrenals, thymus, pancreas, pineal,
ovaries, testes…..etc
➢ Hormone secretion to regulate body processes such as growth,
reproduction, metabolism,…. etc
➢ Slow -acting control system

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[Link] vascular System
➢ Heart, blood vessels, capillaries &blood
➢ Carries O2 nutrients, hormones, & other substances to and from
tissue cells
➢ White blood cells protect against bacteria, toxins, tumors
➢ Transport blood to the body
 [Link] Immune System:
➢ Lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, spleen, tonsils
➢ Complements circulatory system by returning leaked fluid back to
blood vessels
➢ Protect the body by attacking foreign substances entering body
system or Cleanses the blood; involved in immunity

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6. Respiratory System
➢ Nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, & lungs
➢ Keeps blood supplied with O2 & removes CO2
➢ Carries out gas exchanges through air sacs in lungs
[Link] System
➢ Oral cavity, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine,
rectum, anus (liver & pancreas)
➢ Breakdown the food for absorption
➢ Indigested food will be removed as feces
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 [Link] System
➢ Kidney, ureter, urinary bladder, urethra
➢ Eliminates nitrogenous waste from the body (urea & uric acid)
➢ Regulation of water ,electrolytes and acid base balance in the body

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[Link] System
➢ Primary function for both sexes is to produce offspring
Respiratory System:

➢Pneumatic system in which diaphragm creates negative and

positive pressure in sealed chamber alternatively and cause air to
be sucked into and out of the lungs.
➢Lung connected to outside world through nasal cavities , pharynx
, larynx, trachea, and bronchiole
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➢The passage way bifurcates into each lung , wherein again it
divides into alveoli
➢Alveoli has a membrane through which gas are diffused

➢Oxygen is taken into the blood and carbon dioxide removed from
blood
➢In each minute 250mg of oxygen is taken and 250mg of
carbondioxide is given out
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The respiratory system supplies the blood with oxygen and removes carbon
dioxide waste that cells produce.
➢Nasal Cavity: Passes air through nose
➢ Mouth: Passes air through
➢Pharynx: The throat. Cone shaped passageway leading to trachea.
➢ Trachea: Windpipe. Main tube connecting nose/mouth to lungs.
➢Epiglottis: Flap that covers the entrance to the trachea.
➢Lungs: Main organ of the respiratory system.
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➢Bronchi: Two tubes inside of lungs that air passes through to the bronchioles.
➢ Bronchioles: Small branching out tubes divided into alveoli.
➢ Alveoli: Tiny air sacs that do the oxidation and the exhale of carbon dioxide
➢ Capillaries: Blood vessels that are imbedded in the walls of the alveoli. While
in the capillaries the blood discharges carbon dioxide into the alveoli and takes
up oxygen from the air in the alveoli.
➢Cilia: Hair like structures that remove dust and dirt from the air.
Working
➢Air that flows from the mouth or nasal cavity travels through the pharynx
and moves down to the trachea.
➢Then the air moves to the bronchi tubes as they enter the lungs.
➢ The primary organs of the respiratory system are the lungs, which
function to take in oxygen and expel carbon dioxide as we breathe.
➢ The gas exchange process is performed by the lungs and respiratory
system. Air, a mix of oxygen and other gases, is inhaled.
➢ In the throat, the trachea, or windpipe, filters the air. The trachea

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branches into two bronchi, tubes that lead to the lungs.
➢ Once in the lungs, oxygen is moved into the bloodstream. Blood carries
the oxygen through the body to where it is needed.
➢ Red blood cells collect carbon dioxide from the body’s cells and
transports it back to the lungs
➢An exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide takes place in the alveoli,
small structures within the lungs. The carbon dioxide, a waste gas, is
exhaled and the cycle begins again with the next breath.
➢ The diaphragm is a dome-shaped muscle below the lungs that controls
breathing. The diaphragm flattens out and pulls forward, drawing air into
the lungs for inhalation. During exhalation the diaphragm expands to force

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air out of the lungs.
➢Adults normally take 12 to 20 breaths per minute. Strenuous exercise
drives the breath rate up to an average of 45 breaths per minute.
 Cardio vascular system

➢Closed hydraulic system

➢The cardiovascular system consists of heart and blood vessel
➢Sends blood to
➢Lungs for oxygen
➢Digestive system for nutrients
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➢Circulates waste products to certain organ systems for removal
from blood
➢Cone-shaped organ
➢The heart is about the same
size as your fist
➢In the mediastinum
➢Extends from the level of the

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second rib to about the level of
the sixth rib
➢Slightly left of the midline

23-39
➢ Heart is bordered:
➢ Laterally by the lungs
➢ Posteriorly by the vertebral column
➢ Anteriorly by the sternum

➢
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Rests on the diaphragm inferiorly

23-40
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 23-
42

Four valves of the heart:

Tricuspid valve – prevents blood from flowing back into the right
atrium when the right ventricle contracts

Bicuspid (mitral) valve – prevents blood from flowing back into

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the left atrium when the left ventricle contracts
Pulmonary semilunar valve – prevents blood from flowing back
into the right ventricle
Aortic semilunar valve – prevents blood from flowing back into
the left ventricle
Heart wall has 3 layers:
➢Pericardium:
outer layer of heart
prevents friction as heart beats.
➢Myocardium:
middle layer
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main muscle of he heart made of fibres
➢Endocardium:
inner layer
provides smooth lining for flow of blood
➢The heart beats on average 70 times per minute; 4,200 beats per
hour; 100,000 beats per day; 365 million beats per year; 30 billion
beats in an average life time of 80 years.
➢An adult heart pumps 7,500 liters of blood daily.
➢The human heart averages one hundred thousand beats daily.
➢With each beat, your heart fills with blood.
➢Then it contracts to pump the blood through the body.
➢Heart beat is Influenced by
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Exercise
Parasympathetic nerves
Sympathetic nerves
Cardiac control center
Body temperature
Potassium ions
Calcium ions
➢The blood in our bodies is used over and over again.
➢Its movement through the heart and around the body is called
circulation and can be viewed as a cycle.
➢Beginning at the left side of your heart, fresh, clean oxygen-
rich blood is pumped around our bodies. The cells throughout
our bodies take the oxygen from the blood and use it as fuel to
work and grow.
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➢The cells create carbon dioxide and other wastes that must be
removed to keep the cells healthy.
➢The blood is responsible for picking up the waste, delivering
it to the kidneys where, except for the carbon dioxide, it is
removed from the body.
➢Then the blood, with its load of carbon dioxide, returns to the
right side of the heart.
➢The right side of the heart pumps the blood to the lungs to get
rid of the carbon dioxide and to pick up fresh oxygen.
➢The oxygen-rich blood goes back to the left side of the heart
and is then pumped around the body to complete the cycle.
➢This all happens in less than a minute!!

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Sources of bio-electric potential: Resting and
action potential, propagation of action
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potentials. Bioelectric potentials examples
(ECG, EEG, EMG, ERG, EOG, EGG, etc
introduction only.) (2 hrs)
 What is bioelectric potential?

➢Communication with the neurons: - electrical signal

➢Electric current – movement of electrons
➢Bioelectric potential – movement of ions

➢Bioelectric potentials are generated by a variety of biological processes and

generally range in strength from one to a few hundred millivolts.

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➢These potentials generated in the human tissues are widely used for diagnostic
purposes.
➢Ion distribution: Anions(-vely charged)- chloride ions Cl-
Cations (+vely charged)-Sodium, Potassium
➢The cell membrane separates the intracellular fluid from extracellular fluid.
Both the compartments have different ionic composition.

➢All the bioelectric potentials are basically generated due to diffusion of ions
across the membrane either during resting or at any moment of excitation.
➢Bioelectric potential exist between the interior and exterior of all
cell membranes of the living body generated by the charged ions
that lie on either side of the cell membrane.
➢The Cell membrane of neurons have uneven distribution of
charges with the inside of the cell more negative than the outside
at rest called the resting membrane potential.
➢The resting potential is necessary for electrical excitability of
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nerve and muscle cells and sensory reception and to regulate
transfer of ions across the membrane
➢The generation of resting potential and all changes in potential
depends on the concentration gradient of ions across the cell
membrane.
➢Bioelectric potentials are a result of electrochemical activity of
excitable cells (in neuros, muscular or glandular system)
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➢Resting potential is generated by differential distribution of ions
inside and outside the cell.
➢Equilibrium potential is the potential when diffusion of an ion is
in equilibrium.
➢The magnitude of equilibrium potential for an ion may be
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predicted from NERST Equation.
➢Diffusion potential for each ion can be calculated by this
equation
 Sources of bio-electric potential :

➢ Human body is made up of a number of systems e.g- respiratory,

cardiovascular, nervous system, etc

➢ Each of these systems is made up of several subsystems that carry on many

physiological processes

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➢ Each physiological process is associated with certain types of signals referred
as Biomedical signals that reflect their nature and activities

➢ Different types of biomedical signals are:

Biochemical signals e.g. hormones, neurotransmitters
Bioelectrical signals e.g. potentials, currents
Biomechanical signals e.g. pressure, temperature
➢Bioelectric signals are specific types of biomedical signals which
are obtained by electrodes that record the variations in electrical
potential generated by physiological processes. Examples of
bioelectric signals are:

(i)Electrocardiogram (ECG) electrical activity of the heart /cardiac cells

(ii)Electroencephalogram (EEG) electrical activity of the brain.
(iii)Electromyogram (EMG) electrical activity of the muscle cells

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(iv)Electrooculogram (EOG)electrical activity of the eye muscles
(v)Electroretinogram (ERG)electrical activity of the retinal cells.
(vi)Electrogastogram (EGG)electrical activity of the stomach
 Electrical activity of excitable cells
Bioelectric Signals
➢Bioelectrical potential is a result of electrochemical activity across
the membrane of the cell.
➢Bioelectrical signals are generated by excitable cells such as nervous,
muscular, and glandular cells.
➢Electrically they exhibit a resting potential and when appropriately

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stimulated they exhibit action potential.
➢The individual excitable cell maintains a steady electrical potential
difference between its internal and external environments.
➢The resting potential of the cell is -40 to -90 mV relative to the
outside and +20 mV during action potential.
➢Volume conductor electric field is an electric field generated by many
excitable cells of the specific organ such as the heart.
Figure shows how resting potential is measured:

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➢An electronic stimulator supplies a brief pulse of current to the
axon, strong enough to excite the axon.
➢A recording of this activity is made via a micropipete.
➢The movement artifact is recorded as the tip of micropipette
drives through the membrane to record resting potential.
➢After sometime a electrical stimulus is delivered to the axon
and its field effect is recorded simultaneously.
The action potential proceeds along the axon with a constant
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conduction velocity.
➢ L: latent period= transmission time from stimulus to recording
site .
➢The figure also shows the Dc offset potential (resting potential)
Potential inside cells -40 to -90 mV relative to the outside.
➢Cell membrane is lipoprotein complex that is impermeable to
intracellular protein and other organic anions (A-)
➢Fluid inside the cell –intracellular fluid
➢Fluid outside cell – Extracellular fluid
➢These fluids are conductive fluids with charged atoms called ions.
➢Principal ions are Na and k
➢Excitable cell membrane allows readily k ions and blocks Na ions
➢Therefore concentration of Na ions more in extracellular fluid and since Na
ions are positive , outside of cell is more positive
➢Equilibrium state is reached when potential difference of -70mv across the
membrane and the intracellular fluid
➢This continues till an external stimuli disturbs. This is resting potential.

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➢Measurement is made inside the intracellular fluid with respect to
extracellular fluid
➢Therefore resting potential of the cell is referred to as negative.
At this state the cell is polarized and acts as a negative capacitor
➢The cell remains in the resting state until excited by external
force.
➢When excited by external force Na ions flows into the
intracellular fluid.
➢But k ions inside with higher concentration try to leave but are
unable to move as that of Na ions
➢Therefore exists a resultant potential called the action potential
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and is about +20mv
➢The process of excitation and changing potential from -70mv to
+20 mv is called depolarization
➢Now the cell is called depolarized cell equivalent to a positive
charged capacitor.
➢Once cell is completely depolarized , entry of Na ions stops and
the membrane reverts to original characteristics
➢By an active process Na ions are transported to outside of the cell
➢The pumping of Na from inside to outside is called sodium
pump.
➢The cell again becomes polarized and regains its resting
[Link] return of resting potential is called re-polarization
➢Figure below shows pattern of polarization and depolarization
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 The Resting State
➢Membrane at resting state is
-slightly permeable to Na+ and freely permeable to K+ and Cl-
-permeability of potassium PK is 50 to 100 times larger than
the permeability to sodium ion PNa.
➢Concentration difference causes diffusion gradient –directed
outwards across the membrane.
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➢K+ moves in such a way across the gradient making interior of
cell more negative.
➢Therefore a transmembrane potential difference is established.
➢Electrically we can describe a membrane as a leaky capacitor
➢The electric field supported by the membrane capacitor at rest is
directed inward from positive to negative across the membrane.
➢It tends to inhibit the outward flow of positively charged particles
as well as the inward flow of negatively charges ions.
 ➢thus the diffusional and electrical forces acting across the
membrane are opposed to each other and a balance is achieved
➢the membrane potential at equilibrium is called equilibrium
potential

2.5 mmol/liter of K+ 140 mmol/liter of K+ 2.5 mmol/liter of K+ 140 mmol/liter of K+

Cl- TRACE KTU
K+
Cl- K+
Electric Field
+ -
+ -
+ -
+ -
+ -
+ -

External media Internal media External media Internal media

Frog skeletal muscle membrane Frog skeletal muscle membrane

Diffusional force > electrical force Diffusional force = electrical force
 Sodium-Potassium Pump
➢Keeping the cell at resting state requires active transport of ionic
species against their normal electrochemical gradients-this mechanism
is Na-K pump
➢Sodium-potassium pump is an active transport that transports Na+
out of the cell and K+ into the cell in ratio 3Na+:2K+
➢Energy for the pump is provided by a cellular energy adenosine
triphosphate (ATP)
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+
2.5 mmol/liter of K +
140 mmol/liter of K
2K+ 3Na+

+ -
+ - Electric Field
+ -
+ -

External media Internal media

Frog skeletal muscle membrane

 Equilibrium Potential- Nernst Equation

RT K o K o At 37 oC
Ek = ln = 0.0615 log10
nF K i K i
Where n is the valence of K+.
GOLDMAN-HODGKIN-KATZ(GHK) formulation(influence of
other ionic species):
RT  PK K o + PNa Na o + PCl Cl i 
E=TRACE KTU
ln 
F  PK K i + PNa Na i + PCl Cl o 

E: Equilibrium transmembrane resting potential, net current is zero
PM : permeability coefficient of the membrane for ionic species M
[M]i and [M]o : the intracellular and extracellular concentrations of M
in moles/ liter
R: Universal gas constant (8.31 j/mol.k)
T: Absolute temperature in K
F: Faraday constant (96500 c/equivalent)
 The Active State
Membrane at resting state is polarized (more negative inside the cell)
Depolarization : lessening the magnitude of cell polarization by
making inside the cell less negative.
Hyperpolarization : increasing the magnitude of cell polarization by
making inside the cell more negative.

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A stimulus that depolarize the cell to a potential higher than the
threshold potential causes the cell to generate an action potential.
Action Potential:
- Rate: 1000 action potential per second for nerve
- The all-or-none property of the action potential means that the
membrane potential goes through a very characteristic cycle: a change
in potential from the resting level of a certain amount for a fixed
duration of time.
- v = 120 mV for nerve
 Action Potential
If stimulus depolarize the cell such that Vcell > Vthreshold an action
potential is generated.
External media Internal media
2.5 mmol/liter of K+ 140 mmol/liter of K+
Na+

Electric Field +
+
+
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-
-
-

depolarisation
repolarisation
K+

- +
Electric Field - +
- +
Resting potential
➢ The origin of action potential lies in the voltage and time
dependent nature of the membrane permeabilities to specific
ions, notably sodium, potassium.
➢ As the transmembrane potential (vm) is depolarised , the
membrane permeability to sodium (Pna) is increased.
➢ As a result sodium rushes into internal medium bringing about
further depolarisation.
➢ If membrane potential threshold is exceeded , this process is
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self regenerative and leads to runaway depolarisation.
➢ Under this condn vm approaches equilibrium potential of
sodium , of about 60mv
➢ Returning of the cell potential to the resting value is called
repolarisation.
➢ After repolarisation, for a short period of time, the cell
potential is increased which is called hyperpolarisation. During
that period, a stimulus has to be of larger magnitude in order to
excite a cell.
 Action Potential

Absolute refractory period: The time during which membrane can not
respond to any stimulus of any magnitude. This lasts for 1 ms in nerve
cells.
Relative refractory period: following the absolute refractory period is
the relative refractory period. During this period another action
potential can be triggered but a much stronger stimulation is required.

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 Strength-Duration curve(SD curve)

➢strength-duration curve a graphic representation of the

relationship between the intensity of an electric stimulus at the
motor point of a muscle and the length of time it must flow to
elicit a minimal contraction.
➢A graphic representation of the pulse amplitude in voltage or
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current, required to produce an action potential in the cells. The
curve is plotted as a function of pulse duration and can be defined
by 2 points; the Rheobase and the Chronaxie. As the pulse
duration increases the voltage requirements decline (to a point)
➢The value derived from a strength‐duration curve that indicates
the minimum output that will stimulate the myocardium
irrespective of the pulse duration. The curve typically levels out
around a pulse duration of 1 msec.
- Rheobase is defined as the minimal current strength which
when applied for a infinite length of time will excite the
membrane.
- Chronaxie is the minimal duration of the DC pulse that is
required to excite the cell using twice the rheobase strength of
stimulus.
- Its value ranges from 0.02 ms in the largest peripheral neurons
to maximum of 1.5 ms in the smallest fibers.

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- Low chronaxie means greater membrane excitability.
- “rheo” means current and “base” means foundation: thus the
rheobase is the foundation, or minimum, current (stimulus
strength) that will produce a response.
-“chron” means time and “axie” means axis: chronaxie, then, is
measured along the time axis and, thus, is a Duration that gives a
response when the nerve is stimulated at twice the rheobase
strength.
The following steps are followed in order
to determine rheobase and chronaxie

Step 1 – determine the rheobase, which is

the minimum Stimulus Strength that will
produce a response. This is the voltage to
which the Strength-Duration curve
asymptotes. In the example above, this
value is 0.35 V.
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Step 2 – calculate 2´rheobase ( = 0.7 V in
the above example).

Step 3 – determine chronaxie, which is the

Stimulus Duration that yields a response
when the Stimulus Strength is set to
exactly 2´rheobase. In the example
above, the chronaxie is 0.22 ms.
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Rheobase amplitude
 Propagation of Action Potentials:
➢Ionic current flows in the cell during excitation state and action
potential.
➢This current will excite the neighboring cells and this will again
create a series of excitation of neighboring cells.
➢This chain of action potential will be unidirectional because of
refractory period.
➢As the action potential moves down the fiber , it cannot re excite
the portion of fiber immediately upstream due to existence of
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refractory period following the action potential.

➢The rate at which the action potential moves down the fiber or
propagated from cell to cell is called propagation rate.
➢Propagation of action potential is useful for communication
between brain and various points of the body
➢In nerve fibers the propagation rate is called nerve conduction
rate or conduction velocity.
➢Nerve conduction rate varies depending on the type and
diameter of the nerve fiber.
➢Velocity range in nerves is from 20 to 140 meters per sec
➢Propagation through heart muscle is with an average rate
of .2 to .4 m/sec
➢Special time delay fibers between the atria and ventricles
of the heart cause action potentials to propagate at an even
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slower rate .03 to .05 m/sec.
 Electrocardiogram (ECG)
➢ The biopotentials generated by the muscles of the heart result
in the ECG
➢ Heart divided into 4 chambers: 2 upper chambers , the left &
right atria & 2 lower chambers , the ventricles.
➢ Blood (poor with oxygen) flows from the body to the right
atrium and then to the right ventricle. The right ventricle pump
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the blood to the lung.
➢ Blood (rich with oxygen) flows from the lung into the left
atrium and then to the left ventricle. The left ventricle pump
the blood to the rest of the body.
 Electrocardiogram (ECG)

Diastole: is the resting or filling phase (atria

chamber) of the heart cycle.
Systole: is the contractile or pumping phase
(ventricle chamber) of the heart cycle.

The electrical events is intrinsic to the heart itself.

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- Each action potential in the heart originates near
the top of the right atrium at a point called
pacemaker or SA node.
➢ To initiate heart beat , the action potentials generated by the
pacemaker propogate in all directions along the surface of
both atria.
➢ The wave terminates at the a point near the center of the heart
called AV node(atrio ventricular node)

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➢ At this point some special fibers act as a delay line to provide
proper timing between the action of atria and the ventricles.
➢ Once the excitation has passed thro the delay line , it rapidly
spreads to all parts of both ventricles by the “bundle of his”.
➢ The fibers in this bundle called purkunje fibers divide into 2
branches to initiate action potential simultaneously and
terminates at the tip or apex of the heart.
SA node activates first the
right and then the left
atrium.

AV node delays a signal

coming from the SA node
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before it distribute it to the
Bundle of His.

Bundle of His and

Purkinje fibers activate the
right and left ventricles

A typical QRS amplitude is

1-3 mV
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➢ The P-wave shows the heart's upper chambers (atria)
contracting (depol.)and is designated as the isopotential line.
➢ The QRS complex shows the heart's lower chambers
(ventricles) contracting , a combination of both the atria
repolarisation and ventricular depolarisation.
➢ The T-wave shows the heart's lower chambers (ventricles)
relaxing (repol.)

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➢ The U-wave if present is believed to be due repolarization
(after potentials) of ventricular papillary muscles.
➢ P-R interval is caused by delay in the AV node
➢ S-T segment is related to the average duration of the plateau
regions of the individual ventricular cells
Elements of the ECG:
➢ P wave: Depolarization of both atria;
• Relationship between P and QRS
helps distinguish various cardiac
arrhythmias
• Shape and duration of P may
indicate atrial enlargement
➢ PR interval: from onset of P wave to
onset of QRS
• TRACE KTU
Normal duration = 0.12-2.0 sec
(120-200 ms) (3-4 horizontal
boxes)
• Represents atria to ventricular
conduction time (through His
bundle)
• Prolonged PR interval may
indicate a 1st degree heart block
➢ QRS complex: Ventricular depolarization
• Larger than P wave because of
greater muscle mass of ventricles
• Normal duration = 0.08-0.12
seconds
• Its duration, amplitude, and
morphology are useful in
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diagnosing cardiac arrhythmias,
ventricular hypertrophy, MI,
electrolyte derangement, etc.
• Q wave greater than 1/3 the
height of the R wave, greater than
0.04 sec are abnormal and may
represent MI
• ST segment:
• Connects the QRS complex and T
wave
• Duration of 0.08-0.12 sec (80-120
msec
• T wave:
• Represents repolarization or

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recovery of ventricles
• Interval from beginning of QRS to
apex of T is referred to as the
absolute refractory period
• QT Interval
• Measured from beginning of QRS
to the end of the T wave
• Normal QT is usually about 0.40
sec
• QT interval varies based on heart
rate
 Normal & Abnormal Cardiac
Rhythms
➢ Normal
– Heart rate is about 70 beats per minute (bpm)
– Bradycardia: slower that normal (during sleep)
– Tachycardia: higher than normal (during exercise, emotional
episodes, fever, fright)
➢ Abnormal
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– Idioventricular heart rate is about 30 - 45 bpm
– Disease can alter the conducting pathways (e.g., rheumatic heart
disease and viral infections)
– Infarction (loss of blood supply and muscle death) can alter the
heart muscle conducting pattern
Atroventricular node (AV) Block
➢ First degree:
– AV node is
diseased; P-R
interval is
prolonged
➢ Second degree:
– Greater damage
to the AV node;
some pulses are Complete block
not
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conducted
(2:1, 3:1, etc.)
➢ Third degree:
– Complete block;
cells in AV node
are dead; atria First-degree block
and ventricles
beat
independently.
Figure 4.17
 Electroencephalogram(EEG)
➢ The electroencephalogram (EEG) is a recording of the
electrical activity of the brain from the scalp.
➢ EEG has a complex pattern which is more difficult than the
ECG.
➢ The potential measured actually represents the combined effect

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of potentials from a wide region of cerebral cortex and form
various points beneath.
➢ The frequency of the EEG is affected by the mental activity of
a person.
➢ Certain characteristic EEG waveform can be related to
epileptic seizures and sleep.
➢ There are 2 very important parameters that must be considered
when making a clinical examination:
1. Age
[Link] of consciousness
➢ Age is directly related to frequency and inversely proportional
to amplitude. TRACE KTU
➢ Cerebrum has 4 lobes :
• Frontal
• Parietal
• Temporal
• occipital
 prefrontal
Frontal
Anteriror temporal

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Central
Posterior temporal

Parietal
occipital
➢ An alert person usually displays an unsynchronised high
frequency EEG.
➢ A drowsy person , particularly ones eyes closed often
produces a large amount of rhythmic activity of 8-13 Hz.
➢ As the person begins to fall asleep the amplitude and
frequency decreases and in light sleep a large amplitude and
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low frequency waveform emerges, and in deeper sleep he
result is even slower and larger amplitude waves.
➢ The period of high frequency EEG that occurs during sleep is
called paradoxial sleep, because the EEG is more like that of
an awake, alert person than one who is asleep.(rapid eye
movement(REM often associated with dreaming )
• EEG frequency bands are classified as follows.

➢ Alpha wave -- 8 – 13 Hz.(rhythmic, relaxed awake rhythm with eyes

closed, recorded mainly at the occipital )
➢ Beta wave -- >13 Hz. (14 – 30 Hz
(irregular, excitement, Recorded mainly at
the parietal and frontal regions )

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➢ Theta wave -- 4 – 7.5 Hz.
(rhythmic, Drowsy, sleep,
Recorded at the parietal and temporal regions )
➢ Delta wave – 1 – 3.5 Hz
(slow, normal sleep rhythm)
 Electromyogram
➢ Used for recording the bioelectric potentials associated with
the muscle activity whether muscle is contracting or not.
➢ Measured at the surface of the body near a muscle of interest
or directly from the muscle by penetrating the skin with needle
electrodes.(uses either surface electrodes or needle electrodes)

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➢ Surface electrodes pick up many overlapping spikes and
therefore produces an average voltage effect.
➢ Needle electrodes is in contact with a single muscle fiber and
will pick up spike type voltages
➢ The action potential of a given muscle has a fixed magnitude ,
regardless of the intensity of stimulus that generates the
response.
➢ The amplitude of the measured EMG waveform is the
instantaneous sum of all the action potentials generated at any
given time.
➢ These actions occur in both positive and negative polarities at
given pair of electrodes, they sometimes add and sometimes
cancel. Thus the EMG waveform appears very much like
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random noise.
➢ The instrument is useful for making a study of several aspects
of neuromuscular function, neuromuscular condition, extent of
nerve lesion , reflex responses etc.
➢ EMG measurements are also important of the myoelectric
control of prosthetic devices(artificial limbs)
Other Bioelectric Potentials:
ERG(Electroretinogram): A record of the complex pattern of
bioelectric potentials got from the retina of the eye. This is
usually a response to a visual stimulus.
The two components that are most often measured are the a
and b waves. The a wave is the first large negative component
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and b wave is corneal positive and usually larger in amplitude
EOG( Electro –Oculogram): A measure of the variations in the corneal – retinal
potential as affected by the position and movement of the eye.

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EGG(Electrogastrogram): the EMG patterns associated with the peristaltic
movements of the gastrointestinal tract.
Bio potential electrodes: Microelectrodes, skin surface electrodes,
needle electrodes (1 hr)

Instrumentation for clinical laboratory: Bio potential amplifiers-

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instrumentation amplifiers, carrier amplifiers, isolation amplifiers,
chopper amplifiers. (2 hrs)
 Polarizable and non polarizable electrodes
➢ 2 types based on what happens to an electrode when a current passes
between it and the electrolyte.
➢ Perfectly polarizable electrodes:
– No charge crosses the electrode when current is applied
– Noble metals are closest (like platinum and gold); they are difficult to
oxidize and dissolve.

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– Current does not cross, but rather changes the concentration of ions at
the interface.
– The electrode Behave like a capacitor.
➢ Perfectly non-polarizable electrodes:
– All charge freely crosses the interface when current is applied.
– No overpotential is generated.
– Behave like a resistor.
– Silver/silver-chloride is a good non-polarizable electrode.
Electrode skin
interface
➢The skin has 3 layers that
surround the body to protect it
from its environment.
➢Outermost layer , epidermis
plays the important role in the
electrode-skin [Link] has 3
sublayers.

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➢ -Stratum germinatium: cells
divide and grow in this layer
➢ - Stratum granulosum: They
die as they pass thro this layer
and lose their nuclear material.
➢ Stratum corneum: cells on
their onward journey from
stratum granulosum they
degenerate further forming the
startum corneum.
➢Deeper layer has the vascular
and nervous components of the
skin as well as the sweat glands ,
sweat ducts and hair follicles.
Equivalent circuit of the skin-electrolyte interface

➢ The figure shows the electric connection

between an electrode and the skin thro the
agency of electrolyte gel.
➢ Series resistance Rs is the effective

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of gel between the electrode and the skin.
➢ The epidermal layer has an electric
impedance that behaves as parellel Rc
circuit.
➢ For 1 cm2 , skin imapedance reducess
from aprox 200kohm at 1 Hz to 200 ohm
at 1 Mhz.
➢ The dermis and the subcutaneous layer
behaves as pure resistances. They generate
negligible dc potentials.
➢ A more stable electrode will result if the effect of stratum
corneum is reduced.
➢ For this either remove stratum corneum layer just under the
electrode or by vigorous rubbing with a pad soaked in acetone
to abrading the stratum corneum with sandpaper to puncture
the [Link] this may make the patient susceptible to irritation
from electrolyte [Link] choice of gel material is
important. TRACE KTU
➢ This process tends to short out Ese,Ce,Re, thereby improving
the stability.
➢ The parallel RpCp combination represents the wall of sweat
gland and duct. the galvanic skin reflex is the contribution of
sweat glands which has Na, K, and Cl.
 Motion artefacts

➢ It is a problem in biopotential measurements.

➢ If a pair of electrodes is in an electrolyte and one moves while
the other is stationery , a potential difference appears between
the 2 electrodes during this movement. This potential is known
as motion artefact.

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➢ This problem is greatest in cardiac stress laboratories and it is
also serious in coronary care units where the patient is
monitored for long periods.
➢ These artefacts may result in a display being unreadable.
➢ In the above equivalent figure, electrolyte gel –skin potential
Ese can also cause motion artefact if it varies with movement
of electrode
 [Link] Surface electrodes

➢ They are the electrodes to get biopotentials from the surface of

the body and they are found in many sizes and forms.
➢ Larger electrodes can be associated with ECG. Whereas the
smaller one associated with EEG and EMG.
➢ There are many types of surface electrodes:
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– Metal plate electrodes
– Suction electrodes
– Floating electrodes
➢ One of the most frequently used forms of biopotential sensing
electrode is the metal plate electrode.
➢ There are types of metal plate electrodes:
– Limb electrode
– Metal disk electrode
– Disposible foam –pad electrode
 ➢ The one most commonly used for
limb electrodes with ECG is
shown below.
➢ It has a flat metal plate that has
been bent into cylindrical segment

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.
➢ A terminal is placed on its outer
surface near one end, this terminal
is used to attach the lead wire to
the ECG.
➢ A post placed near the center is
used to connect the rubber strap
to the electrode and place it in
place on an arm or leg.
 Metal disk electrode:
➢ This structure can be used as chest
electrode for recording the ECG
or in cardiac monitoring for long
term recordings.

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➢ This electrode has a lead wire
soldered to back surface.
➢ It is coated with electrolyte gel
and then pressed against the
patients chest wall.
 Disposaible foam-pad
electrodes:
➢ It has a large disk of plastic
foam material coated with a
silver plated disk on one
side attached to a silver snap
similar to that used on
clothing in the center of the

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other side.
➢ To apply the electrode to the
patient , the technician has
to clean the skin surface ,
open the electrode packet ,
remove the release paper
from the tack and press the
electrode against the patient.
 Suction electrodes
➢ This does not require any strap or adhesives for holding it in
place.
➢ Such electrodes mostly used in ECG as chest electrodes.
➢ It has a hollow metallic cylindrical electrode that makes
contact with the skin at its base.
➢ A appropriate terminal for lead wire is attached to the metal
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cylinder and suction bulb fits over its other base.
➢ Electrolyte gel is placed over the contacting surface of the
electrode and bulb is squeezed and the electrode is then palced
on the chest wall.
➢ The bulb is released and applies suction against the skin
holding the electrode.
 Floating electrodes

➢ The feature of this electrode is that the electrode element does

not come in contact with the skin .
➢ The element is surrounded by a electrolyte gel in a cavity.
➢ The electrode element can be disk made of a metal such as Ag

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coated with AgCl.
 [Link] Electrodes
➢ These can be used within
the body to detect potentials.
➢ They may called as either
percutaneous or internal
electrodes.
➢ The basic needle electrode
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consists of a solid needle
made of stainless steel with
a sharp point. The shank of
the needle is insulated with
a coating such as an
insulating varnish and only
tip is left exposed.
➢ A lead wire is attached to the other end of the needle and joint
is encapsulated in a plastic hub to protect it.
➢ This type of electrode is mainly used in EMG.

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➢ When placed in a particular muscle , it obtains an EMG from
that muscle and can then be removed.
 ➢ A variation of the earlier one is
shown.
➢ It has a hypodermic needle that
has been modified by running an
insulated material such as epoxy
resin.
➢ When the resin has been set , the
tip of the needle is filled to its
original level , exposing an

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oblique cross section of the
central wire which serves as the
active electrode.
➢ The needle is connected to the
ground thro the shield of a coaxial
cable.
 TRACE KTU
➢Multiple electrodes in a single needle can be formed .
➢2 wires are placed within the lumen of the needle and can be
connected differentially so as to be sensitive to electrical activity
only in the vicinity of the electrode tip.
➢the needle electrodes discussed just now are for acute
measurements and their size make them uncomfortable for long
term implantation.
 TRACE KTU
➢The wire electrodes are used for chronic recordings.
➢The bent in the wire helps in holding the wire in place in the
muscle.
➢another group of needle electrodes are used for monitoring the
fetal heart beat.
 3. Microelectrodes

➢ Used to study the electrical activity of individual cells.

➢ This type of electrode is small enough with respect to the size
of the cell in which it is inserted so that penetration by the
electrode does not damage the cell.

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➢ Microelectrodes can be made from solid metal needles .they
have tip diameters ranging from approximately 0.05 to
10microm.
➢ They are of 3 types:
• Metal microelectrodes
• Supported metal microelectrodes
• Micropipet electrodes
Metal Microelectrodes:
➢ Metal electrodes with very fine tips are used for recording
from single cells
➢ The metal microelectrode is essentially a fine needle of a
strong metal that is insulated with an appropriate insulator up
to its tip.
➢ Metal needle is prepared to produce a very fine tip usually
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done by etching .
➢ Materials used – stainless steel, platinum-iridium alloy and
tungsten.
➢ The etched needle is then supported in a larger metallic shaft
that can be insulated.(shaft is for mechanical support)
➢ The microelectrode and supporting shaft are insulated by a
film of varnish and tip is only uninsulated.
TRACE KTU
Supported – metal microelectrode:

➢ The figure shows a glass tube drawn to a micropipette

structure with its lumen filled with appropriate metal.
➢ microelectrode is prepared by first filling a glass tube with a
metal that has melting point near the softening point of the
glass.

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➢ Tube is heated to softening point and pulled to form a narrow
constriction.
 TRACE KTU

(a) Metal-filled glass micropipet.

(b) Glass micropipet or probe, coated with metal film.
Micropipet:

➢ Glass micropipete microelectrodes are fabricated from glass

capillaries.
➢ The center region of capillary tubing is heated with a burner to
the softening point .

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➢ It is then rapidly stretched to produce constriction.
➢ At the constriction 2 halves are broken apart to produce pipet
structure.
➢ A cap containing a metal electrode is then sealed to the pipet.
 Biopotential Amplifiers:

Basic function
• to increase the amplitude of a weak electric signal of biological
origin :
• typically process voltages but in some cases also process currents

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Typical bio-amp requirements
➢ high input impedance -greater than 10 Mohms
➢safety: protect the organism being studied -careful design to
prevent macro and microshocks - isolation and protection circuitry
to limit the current through the electrode to safe level
➢output impedance of the amplifier: should be low to drive any
external load with minimal distortion
 ➢ gain greater than 1000
➢biopotentials are typically less than a millivolt
➢most biopotential amplifiers are differential
➢ signals are recorded using a bipolar electrodes which are
symmetrically located
➢high common mode rejection ratio
➢biopotentials ride on a large offset signals
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➢ rapid calibration of the amplifier in laboratory conditions
➢ adjustable gains
➢ often the change in scale is automatic
➢therefore calibration of the equipment is very important
➢For any kind of measurement the signal is picked up from the
tissue interface either by electrodes or transducers or sensors.
➢In general a number of amplifiers are connected in the form of
chain.

1. Instrumentation Amplifiers:
This is a kind of differential amplifier which has in-built input
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buffers which eliminate need for input impedance matching
and avoids loading of sensor.
TRACE KTU
➢It has 3 op amps and 7 resistors.
➢By connecting a buffered amplifier to a differential amplifier is a
instrumentation amplifier
➢V1 is applied to positive terminal and V2 is the negative
input,V0 is proportional to the difference between the 2 input
voltages.
➢Opamp A3 and the its 4 equal resistors R form differential
amplifier with a gain of 1
➢Variable resistor Rvar is varied to balance out any common
mode voltage TRACE KTU
➢Resistor Rg is used to set the gain using the formula
Vo 2
= 1+
V 1 −V 2 a

Rg
a= Where
R
➢The important characteristics of this amplifier are
- Voltage gain from differential input V1-V2 to single
ended output is set by 1 resistor
- The input resistance of both inputs is very high and does
not change as gain is varied.
- V0 does not depend on common mode voltage , but only
on their difference.
➢The advantages of Instrumentation amplifier to the field of
biomedical are
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Extremely high input impedance
Low bias and offset currents
If source changes less deterioration in performance
Very high CMRR
High slew rate
Low power consumption
 2. Carrier Amplifier:

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➢Carrier type of amplifier is used to get zero frequency
response of the dc amplifier and the inherent stability of the
capacitance coupled amplifier and is used with strain gauge
transducer.
➢Carrier amplifier consists of an oscillator and a capacitance
coupled amplifier.
➢Function of oscillator is to energize the transducer with an
alternating carrier voltage
➢The transducer will change the amplitude of the carrier
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voltage in relation o the changes in he physiological variable
being measured.
➢The output of the transducer is an AM signal.
➢The AM signal is fed to a multistage capacitive coupled
amplifier.
➢In the photo sensitive detector circuit the signal is
demodulated
➢The voltage got from the demodulator can then be applied to
the driver sage of the writing system.
 3. Isolation Amplifiers:

➢Mainly used for providing protection against leakage currents

➢An isolation amplifier is designed to provide an electrical
barrier between the input and output in order to provide
protection in applications where hazardous conditions exist
➢They break the ohmic continuity between input and output
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of the amplifier.
➢Used to amplify low level signals.
➢Isolated power supplies are provided for both input and
output stages.
➢ 3types of Isolation [Link] isolation
[Link] isolation 3. Capacitive isolation
(i)Transformer isolation:
➢It uses either frequency-modulated or pulse-width modulated
carrier signal with 30kHz as carrier signal.
➢It consist of internal dc to dc converter having 20KHz oscillator,
transformer, rectifier and filter to supply isolated power.
➢Finds application in medical, industrial and nuclear areas

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 (ii)Optically isolated amplifier
➢Here isolation is achieved by optically.
➢A separate battery operated circuit supplies power to the patient
circuit and signal of interest is converted into light by bright source
LED
➢The light falls on phototransistor on output side, which converts
light signal into electrical signal.
➢Finds application in areas of medical measurement, industrial
process control, patient monitoring,SCR controls,Data acquisition
etc. TRACE KTU
 (iii)Capacitively coupled isolated amplifier
➢It uses digital encoding of input voltage and frequency
modulation to send the signal across differential capacitive barrier.
➢The input voltage is converted to proportional charge on the
switched capacitor.
➢Signals are sent across the differential capacitive barrier.
➢Separate power supply is needed on both sides of barrier.
➢Ripple noises are removed , avoids device noise and radiated
noise
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➢Has high gain stability and linearity
 Advantages of isolation amplifier:
➢All 3 types commonly used.
➢Transformer isolation amplifier has high CMMR,High
linearity and accuracy.
➢Opto coupled offers high linearity and improves patient
safety.
➢Opto coupled uses minimum number of components and is
cost effective. Capacitive coupled is most expensive.
➢Opto isolation amplifiers offer the lowest isolation voltage
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800v , transformer coupled 1200v and capacitance coupled
2200v.
➢Isolation resistance levels are of the order of 1010, 1012 and
1012 ohms for transformer coupled , optocoupled and
capacitance coupled amplifiers.
➢Capacitive isolation amplifier finds application in ECG,EEG
, patient monitoring and data acquisition.
 [Link] amplifiers:
➢Basically they are Dc amplifiers that operate on low frequency signals
➢As name indicates the amplifier employs chopper circuit to break up the
input signal so that it can be processed as if it were ac signal
➢It is then integrated back to dc signal at the output.
➢Even small dc signals from peizo electric and Hall sensors can be
amplified.
➢Finds application in electronic instrumentation where stability and

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accuracy are required.
 QUESTIONS FROM MODULE 1
1. What is bio-electric potential? Explain with necessary illustration.
2. Explain the construction of any two of them with necessary illustration.
(a) Microelectrodes (b) Skin surface electrodes (c )Needle electrodes
3. What is an isolation amplifier? What is its significance ? Illustrate any one
methods.
4. Explain with necessary diagram how action potential is generated in human
body and write Nernst equation for resting membrane potential

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5. What are the essential features required for bio-potential amplifier
6. Discuss the various types of electrodes used to measure bioelectric
potentials.
7. Define systolic and diastolic pressure , what is its significance.
8. Write notes on (i) Instrumentation amplifier (ii) Isolation amplifiers(iii)
Chopper amplifier (iv)Carrier amplifier
9. What is depolarization and repolarization in a cell?
10. Draw the equivalent circuit of skin electrolyte interface