VISVESVARAYA TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY

“JNANA SANGAMA” BELAGAVI-590018, KARNATAKA

Report on
CRASHWOTHINESS OF AUXETIC STRUCTURES

Submitted in partial fulfillment for the requirements for the award of

BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING
In
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
By
GANESH S (1BY21ME014)
KARTHIK YADAV A (1BY22ME407)

Under the guidance of

Dr. NAGAMADHU M
Assistant Professor
Dept. of ME, BMSIT&M

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

BMS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT
Yelahanka, Bengaluru-560064
2024-25
 B.M.S INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT
Yelahanka, Bengaluru-560064

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the project report entitled CRASHWOTHINESS OF AUXETIC

STRUCTURES is a bonafide work carried out by Mr. GANESH S bearing USN
1BY21ME014, KARTHIK YADAV A bearing USN 1BY22ME407, partial fulfilment
for the award of Bachelor of Engineering in Mechanical Engineering of the
Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi, during the year 2024-25. It is certified
that all corrections/suggestions indicated have been incorporated in this report. The project
report has been approved as it satisfies the academic requirements in respect of BE degree.

Signature of the Guide Signature of the HOD Signature of Principal

Dr. Nagamadhu M [Link] M C Dr. Sanjay H A
Assistant Professor Professor and HOD Principal
BMSIT&M BMSIT&M BMSIT&M

Name of the Examiners Signature of the Examiners

1 ______________________________________________________________

2 ______________________________________________________________

Date: ________________
 B.M.S INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT
Yelahanka, Bengaluru-560064

Department of Mechanical Engineering

DECLARATION

We, GANESH S (1BY21ME014), KARTHIK YADAV A (1BY22ME407) pursuing BE

degree from BMS Institute of Technology & Management, Yelahanka, Bengaluru, hereby
declare that the report entitled ‘CRASHWOTHINESS OF AUXETIC STRUCTURES
carried out at Mechanical Engineering Department of BMSIT&M is a bonafide record
of work done by me during the course of 2021-25 of BE program and all the contents are
prepared and presented by me.

Place: Bengaluru Name of the students:

Date: 23/05/2025

Ganesh S
Karthik Yadav A
 CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT i
ABSTRACT ii
LIST OF FIGURES iv
LIST OF TABLES iii
CHAPTER NO. DESCRIPTION PAGE NO.
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1
CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 2-4
CHAPTER 3 BACKGROUND & PROBLEM STATEMENT 5-7
CHAPTER 4 OBJECTIVES 8
CHAPTER 5 METHODOLOGY 9 - 11
CHAPTER 6 CAD MODELLING & DESIGN 12 - 14
CHAPTER 7 CAE ANALYSIS 15 - 17
CHAPTER 8 FABRICATION PROCESS 18 - 20
CHAPTER 9 EXPERIMENTAL TESTING 21 - 23
CHAPTER 10 RESULTS & DISCUSSIONS 24 - 26
CHAPTER 11 CONCLUSION 27
COST ANALYSIS 28
GANTT CHART 29
REFERENCE 30 - 31
COURSE OUTCOMES 32
PROGRAM OUTCOMES 33
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We are happy to present this Project (21MEP83) report after completing it successfully.
This Project would not have been possible without the guidance, assistance and suggestions
of many individuals. We would like to express our deep sense of gratitude and indebtedness
to each and every one who has helped us make this a success.

We heartily thank our Guide, Dr. Nagamadhu M, Assistant Professor, Dept. of

Mechanical Engineering, for his encouragement and advice throughout the Project.

We heartily thank our Project Coordinator Dr. G L Ananthakrishna, Associate Professor,

Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, BMSIT&M for providing necessary co-ordination in
completing this project.

We heartily thank Dr. Madhu M C, HoD, Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, BMS Institute
of Technology& Management for his constant encouragement and inspiration in taking up
this project.

We heartily thank Dr. Sanjay H A, Principal, BMS Institute of Technology & Management
for his constant encouragement and inspiration in taking up this Project.

Special thanks to all the staff members of Mechanical Engineering Department for their
help and kind co-operation.

Lastly, we thank my parents and friends for their encouragement and support given to us
in order to finish the Project.

By,
Ganesh S (1BY21ME014)
Karthik Yadav A (1BY22ME407)

Department of Mechanical Engineering, BMSIT&M i

 ABSTRACT

The growing need for sophisticated vehicle safety systems requires the creation of
innovative energy-absorbing structures that are both efficient and producible. This project
examines the crashworthiness of tubular auxetic structures, which are distinguished by a
negative Poisson's ratio - a characteristic that causes them to enlarge laterally when
compressed, promoting energy absorption on impact.
The work investigates the design, simulation, fabrication, and experimental testing of
auxetic aluminium tubes with sinusoidal re-entrant pattern laser-cut from their surfaces.
Patterned tubes were compared with plain tubes and foam-filled tubes employing drop-
weight impact tests. Performance parameters like absorbed energy, mean crushing force,
crushing distance, and deceleration were analysed.
Results illustrate that auxetic tubes dissipate energy more effectively than simple tubes by
sustaining controlled, progressive deformation. They have much lower mean crushing
forces and deceleration levels and are strongly suited for automotive crash applications.
The combination of CAE simulations through the Johnson-Cook model plasticity
confirmed the experimental results, exhibiting strong correlation in the stress and
deformation profiles.
This work validates that laser-cut tubular auxetic structures offer a practical, cost-efficient
means of enhancing crashworthiness in automobiles and proves their potential for more
universal use in impact protection systems.

Department of Mechanical Engineering, BMSIT&M ii

 LIST OF FIGURES

Fig 6.7 – Final CAD model of the auxetic pattern tube 14

Fig 7.11.1 – Analysis shows that the load is transferred to the plate 17
Fig 7.11.2 – Analysis shows that the load is absorbed by the pattern tube 17
Fig 8.4 – Laser cutting of tube 19
Fig 8.5.1 – Tubes before post processing 19
Fig 8.5.2 – Tubes after post processing 19
Fig 9.10.1 – Drop test of plain tube 23
Fig 9.10.2 – Drop test of pattern tube 23
Fig 10.8 – Evaluating crushing distance of specimens using vernier height gauge 26
Fig – Gantt Chart of project 29

LIST OF TABLES

Table 8.8 - List of specimens laser cut 20

Table 9.10 - List of specimens tested 23
Table 10.2 - Summary of results of experimental data 24
Table 11 - Cost analysis of project 28
Table – Project Schedule 29

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CRASHWORTHINESS OF AUXETIC STRUCTURES 2024-2025

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

Crashworthiness is the capability of a structure or a vehicle to safeguard its occupants at

the time of an impact or collision by absorbing and dissipating kinetic energy. The integrity
of vehicle occupants largely relies on the design of components that govern crash energy,
including crumple zones and impact attenuators.
Conventional energy absorbers like balsa wood blocks or aluminium honeycomb structures
have commonly been utilized because they can deform plastically and dissipate impact
energy. But they tend to have limitations such as weight, cost of manufacture, and strength
directional dependence.
Auxetic materials, which have a negative Poisson's ratio, have a peculiar mechanical
property such that they become thicker perpendicular to a force applied to them when
stretched and thinner when compressed. This peculiar property results in greater impact
resistance, better energy absorption, and improved control of deformation over normal
materials.
The employment of auxetic structures in crashworthiness has been of recent interest
because of these enhanced mechanical properties. However, fabrication of entirely three-
dimensional auxetic structures tends to be difficult and costly.
In order to overcome these problems, this project aims at tubular auxetic structures, which
combine the desirable auxetic behaviour with simpler fabrication methods such as laser
cutting on commercially available aluminium tubes. This will be used to produce
affordable, high-performance impact absorbers that can be integrated within automotive
safety systems.
In this report, the design, simulation, fabrication, and testing of tubular auxetic specimens
were compared with plain aluminium tubes, with a view to evaluating the potential of
auxetic tubes as crashworthy components in automobiles.

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CRASHWORTHINESS OF AUXETIC STRUCTURES 2024-2025

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

A thorough literature review is necessary to familiarize ourselves with the present state of
research pertaining to auxetic materials, crashworthiness, and impact absorption. It assists
in determining key findings, methodologies, challenges, and gaps and informs the
development of the project.

This chapter gives an overview of existing research on auxetic structures, their mechanical
response, production methods, and use in crashworthy systems. It also discusses studies
relating to traditional impact absorbers and CAE modelling methodologies.

2.2 Crashworthiness and Energy Absorption

The development of crashworthiness has been decades long, and the idea has been to reduce
occupant injury by energy absorption using controlled deformation. In the early work by
Jones (1989) and Gibson (1997), the focus was on metal foams and honeycomb structures
as good energy absorbers.

Recent works explore lightweight materials like aluminium alloys, polymer composites,
and cellular structures for their superior strength-to-weight ratios and energy absorption
capabilities. Various researchers have studied progressive crushing of tubes under axial
impacts, focusing on factors affecting energy absorption such as wall thickness, length-to-
diameter ratio, and material properties (Abramowicz and Jones, 1984).

2.3 Auxetic Materials and Structures

Auxetic materials are defined by their negative Poisson's ratio (Lakes, 1987), a
characteristic that has been utilized across many branches of engineering. Research
conducted by Evans et al. (1991) and Grima & Evans (2000) at great lengths described the
mechanical benefits of auxetic structures, including increased indentation resistance and
increased energy absorption.

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Various auxetic patterns have been suggested and explored, including:

• Re-entrant honeycombs (Lakes, 1987): With inwardly sloping cell walls, they have
high negative Poisson's ratios and superior energy absorption.
• Chiral structures (Lakes, 1993): Made up of nodes joined by ligaments arranged to
permit rotation deformation.
• Rotating squares and triangles (Milton, 1992): Geometry-inspired auxetic structures
that are isotropic in nature.

Research suggests auxetic geometry and mechanical response and identifies that the extent
of the negative Poisson's ratio has a direct impact on energy absorption and deformation
behaviour (Bertoldi et al., 2010).

2.4 Manufacturing Challenges of Auxetic Structures

While auxetic materials have beneficial characteristics, production of 3D auxetic structures

has proven to be problematic. Techniques like additive manufacturing, selective laser
sintering, and intricate moulding have been employed (Liu et al., 2014). These, however,
are usually expensive and scaled in their limits.

Current research indicates that 2D or quasi-3D auxetic structures can be fabricated using
laser cutting or etching of patterns on thin sheets or tubes, facilitating easier manufacture
in industrial applications (Yadav et al., 2021).

2.5 Auxetic Tubular Structures in Crashworthiness

Application of auxetic tubes as energy absorbers has also been in the spotlight.
Experimental studies by Smith and Evans (2018) showed that auxetic tubular patterns
minimize peak force and enhance energy absorption when compared to plain tubes.

CAE analysis has supplemented experimental work by modelling impact situations with
the use of plasticity models like Johnson-Cook in order to forecast material response under
dynamic loading (Zhao et al., 2017).

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2.6 CAE Modelling of Impact Behaviour

Finite element analysis (FEA) is commonly employed to model impact events and design
absorber optimizations. Researchers employ sophisticated material models, boundary
conditions, and loading conditions to mimic actual crashes (Oyen et al., 2013).

The Johnson-Cook plasticity model is commonly used for metals experiencing high strain
rate deformation, capturing strain hardening, strain rate sensitivity, and thermal softening
effects realistically (Johnson and Cook, 1983).

2.7 Research Gap

Despite the promising outcomes, little work has interrelated cost-efficient fabrication
techniques with systematic experimental and CAE validation of auxetic tubular structures
for car crashworthiness. A majority of work concentrates on 3D printed auxetics or intricate
geometries not viable for large-scale implementation.

This work seeks to address the aforementioned void by developing laser-cut tubular
auxetics, subjecting them both to simulation and physical tests, and comparing the outcome
with plain tubes and foam-filled counterparts.

2.8 Summary

• Auxetic materials have better energy absorption and mechanical properties.

• Manufacturing techniques are still a limitation for real-world applications.
• Laser-cut tubular auxetics exhibit promise as scalable impact absorbers.
• CAE simulations supplement experimental work for verification.
• The project will advance from this platform to show enhanced crashworthiness
through simple fabrication methods.

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CHAPTER 3

BACKGROUND & PROBLEM STATEMENT

3.1 Introduction to Crashworthiness

Crashworthiness refers to the capability of a vehicle or structure to safeguard its
occupants in the event of collisions by absorbing and dissipating impact energy. It is the
process of designing components to deform under controlled conditions, dissipate kinetic
energy, and reduce risks of injury.
Energy absorption is an important goal in car safety engineering. In a crash, the kinetic
energy of the car should be absorbed by specific components of the vehicle so that the
cabin of the passenger is intact and forces are minimized that are transmitted to the
occupants.

3.2 Traditional Impact Attenuators and Energy Absorbers

Traditional materials and structures have been employed to act as impact attenuators:
• Balsa Wood: It has a high strength-to-weight ratio and good energy absorption
from its cellular microstructure. But balsa's mechanical properties highly depend
on moisture content, and it has poor durability.
• Aluminium Honeycomb: Provides high strength-to-weight ratio and energy
absorption with progressive crushing. Used extensively in aerospace and
automotive industries, but the manufacturing of honeycomb is costly and
constrained in shape flexibility.
• Metal Tubes: Steel or aluminium tubes have been employed as crush elements
because of their simple production and known deformation modes. But plain tubes
see energy absorption mainly through plastic deformation, which can lead to high
peak forces.

3.3 Auxetic Materials: Definition and Properties

Auxetic materials are materials that possess a negative Poisson's ratio. As opposed to
traditional materials that thin during tension, auxetics increase in width during tension
and decrease in width during compression. This rare attribute grants auxetic materials a
number of advanced mechanical properties:
• Enhanced Energy Absorption: Their mechanisms of deformation enable them to
dissipate impact energy more effectively.
• Resistive Indentation: Auxetic materials are more resistant to localized
penetration.
• Increased Shear Resistance: They act to distribute stresses more evenly under
load.

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• Improved Fracture Toughness: Crack growth is minimized as a result of

distinctive deformation.
Auxetic behaviour arises from their internal microscopic structure, not from chemical
makeup. Typical auxetic structures are:
• Re-entrant patterns (cells that are inward angled)
• Chiral patterns (ligaments linking nodes in a rotational sequence)
• Rotating squares or triangles

3.4 Manufacturing Challenges for Auxetic Structures

Whereas they are useful, the use of auxetic materials for automotive crashworthiness
across the industry is restricted because:
• Manufacture Complexity: 3D auxetic structures need sophisticated manufacturing
methods such as additive manufacture or advanced moulding, which involve high
time and cost investments.
• Material Availability: Highly specialized auxetic materials are currently not
widely commercially available.
• Scalability Problem: Fabricating large-scale auxetic components for automotive
use is still a challenge.

3.5 Tubular Auxetic Structures as a Viable Solution

Tubular auxetic structures represent a viable compromise by:
• Employing standard aluminium tubes as the input material, commonly available
and cheap.
• Implanting auxetic behaviour through laser-cut patterns on the surface of the tube,
e.g., re-entrant sinusoidal patterns, which produce negative Poisson's ratio
properties.
• Enabling simple fabrication by readily available laser cutting machines.
• Maintaining satisfactory mechanical integrity and manufacturability for
automotive crash absorbers.
This method also holds the potential to introduce auxetic advantages to other practical
applications without unnecessary cost and complexity.

3.6 Problem Statement

Upon vehicular collision, forces transmitted to the occupant compartment may result in
severe injuries or even death. Regular crumple zones and impact absorbers counter this
through the dissipation of kinetic energy via plastic deformation. Despite this, the
following remain:
• Directional Constraints: Classical absorbers tend to be designed for frontal
collisions and can be inefficient under side or oblique impacts.

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• Peaks in Transmitted Kinetic Forces: Impulsive crushing causes peaks in forces

transmitted to occupants, lowering safety.
• Manufacturing Costs: Materials or structures of this level of sophistication tend to
be costly or difficult to make in volume.
Auxetic tubular structures inherently can potentially better absorb energy, reduce peak
force, and work isotropically - i.e., as effectively in a variety of directions.
This project is intended to:
• Design and model tubular auxetic structures for impact absorption.
• Make these structures from aluminium tubes via laser cutting.
• Test their performance experimentally under drop-weight impact.
• Compare performance with traditional plain aluminium tubes.
• Highlight the viability of auxetic tubular absorbers in automotive crashworthiness.

3.7 Significance of the Study

This research fills the gap between theoretical auxetic material development and real-
world applications to automotive safety by suggesting an affordable, producible solution.
If successful, the project has the potential to result in safer, lighter, and more efficient
crashworthy components that can be incorporated into contemporary vehicle designs.

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CHAPTER 4

OBJECTIVES

4.1 Introduction
Having well-defined and clear objectives is essential for the success of any engineering
project. The objectives act as a guide, directing the experimental and research work
towards meaningful and measurable outcomes.
The overall aim of this project is to examine the crashworthiness of tubular auxetic
structures and illustrate how these might offer better advantages than traditional impact
absorbers.

4.2 Primary Objectives

1. To become familiar with the concepts of impact absorption and crashworthiness in
structural design.
2. To develop CAD models for tubular auxetic structures with re-entrant and
sinusoidal patterns.
3. To model impact behaviour through finite element analysis and refine auxetic
patterns for maximum energy absorption.
4. To manufacture auxetic and control specimens through laser tube cutting of
Aluminium 6063 tubes.
5. To conduct drop-weight impact testing to assess physical crashworthiness of
manufactured specimens.
6. To compare experimental findings of auxetic, plain, and foam-filled tubes for
performance testing.
7. To test crashworthiness parameters like energy absorbed, crushing force, and
deceleration.

4.3 Anticipated Outcomes

Verifying enhanced crashworthiness of auxetic tubular structures over conventional tubes.
Offering a low-cost manufacturing process viable for automotive industry applications.
In-depth comprehension of the correlation between auxetic geometry and impact energy
absorption.

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CHAPTER 5

METHODOLOGY

5.1 Introduction
This chapter presents the detailed methodology used to design, analyse, manufacture, and
test the tubular auxetic structures for crashworthiness. The method combines theoretical
analysis, computer-aided design (CAD), computer-aided engineering (CAE) simulation,
manufacturing methods, and experimental testing. Each of the steps is explained in detail
to make it reproducible and understandable.

5.2 Project Workflow Overview

The method has a systematic workflow:
1. [Link] identification and literature review.
2. [Link] of auxetic patterns appropriate for tubular structures.
3. CAD modelling of tubular auxetic specimens.
4. Assumptions and input parameter determination for impact scenarios.
5. CAE analysis by finite element methods.
6. Iterative model refinement from simulation results.
7. Physical specimen fabrication through laser tube cutting.
8. Experimental drop-weight impact testing.
9. Data acquisition and analysis.
10. Analysis and comparison of experimental results.

5.3 Design and CAD Modelling

• Pattern Design: The re-entrant sinusoidal auxetic pattern was chosen because it
exhibits isotropic mechanical properties and a smoother structure than simple re-
entrant or chiral patterns.
• Specimen Size: Tubes with an outer diameter of 51.4 mm, length of 107 mm, and
thickness of 2 mm were designed from commercially available aluminium 6063
tubing.
• Modelling Tools: Detailed 3D models of the plain tube and auxetic patterned tubes
with accurate cutouts were designed using CAD software SolidWorks.
• Pattern Implementation: Laser cutting trajectories were simulated by incorporating
the auxetic pattern onto the surface of the tube in such a way that it could hold
structural integrity.
• Control Specimens: Plain tubes without pattern and foam-filled tubes were baseline
reference specimens for comparison of performance.

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5.4 Impact Assumptions and Parameters

• Impact Velocity and Energy: From literature, an impact velocity was selected for
simulating real crash conditions for an energy level that would produce deformation
without failure.
• Deceleration Limit: The maximum permissible deceleration was set at 20 g (196.2
m/s²), the highest human tolerance limit to preclude lethal injuries.
• Load Application: Axial impact force was applied at one end of the tube in quasi
static mode in the CAE model.
• Material Properties: Aluminium 6063 material properties like Young's modulus,
yield strength, ultimate tensile strength, and density were employed.

5.5 CAE Simulation

Software Used: ANSYS workbench mechanical for finite element analysis.
• Mesh Generation: Fine meshing was carried out particularly around the auxetic cut
pattern regions to obtain accurate localized stresses.
• Boundary Conditions: One end fixed, and impact load (force) on the other end to
simulate axial crushing in quasi static mode.
• Parameter Iteration: Several simulations with different pattern parameters and
loading conditions were executed to maximize energy absorption and minimize
peak forces.
• Output Data: Stress-strain curves, force-displacement information, deformation
profiles, and energy absorption parameters were captured.

5.6 Fabrication
• Material Procurement: Commercial Aluminium 6063 tubes with CAD
specifications were sourced.
• Laser Tube Cutting: The auxetic pattern was laser cut with high-precision machines
able to cut complex geometry on cylindrical surfaces.
• Quality Checks: Inspection after fabrication for dimensional tolerance, quality of
cut, and surface finish.
• Foam Filling: Certain specimens were filled with energy-absorbing foam for
comparative analysis.
• Specimen Labelling: Proper labelling and documentation of specimen types for
traceability.

5.7 Experimental Testing

• Test Setup: Drop-weight impact testing machine at Vemana Institute of
Technology.
• Impact Mass and Drop Height: Chosen to mimic the impact energy employed in
simulations.
• Instrumentation: Displacement transducers, accelerometers, and force sensors were
employed to measure impact force, deceleration, and deformation.

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• Testing Procedure: A number of tests per type of specimen were carried out to
establish repeatability.
• Safety Measures: Adequate guarding and safety procedures during testing.

5.8 Data Acquisition and Analysis

• Data Recording: High-speed data acquisition systems recorded force-time,
acceleration-time, and displacement-time histories.
• Processing Data: Filtering and smoothing algorithms used to erase noise.
• Parameter Calculation: Peak force, mean crushing force, absorbed energy, and
crushing distance were computed.
• Comparison: Experimental outcomes compared to CAE predictions for verification.

5.9 Summary
The combined methodology allows for an in-depth characterization of the tubular auxetic
structure crash response through the interface of computational simulation methods with
experimental fabrication and intense testing. The reliability of the outcomes is guaranteed,
as well as the establishment of enhanced crashworthy parts.

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CHAPTER 6

CAD MODELLING AND DESIGN

6.1 Introduction
The design process is important in converting conceptual designs into accurate digital
models that can be analysed and manufactured. CAD modelling was employed for this
project to develop detailed models of tubular auxetic structures to analyse their geometric
and mechanical response to impact loading.

6.2 Design Considerations

During the design of auxetic tubular structures, the following were considered to ensure
functional functionality as well as manufacturability:
• Material Compatibility: The design was oriented towards commercially available
Aluminium 6063 tubes, chosen for their mechanical properties and extensive
industrial application.
• Geometry Constraints: 51.4 mm outer diameter, 2 mm wall thickness, and 107 mm
length were non-negotiable to mimic realistic automotive absorber sizes.
• Pattern Selection: The auxetic pattern must be strong enough in generating negative
Poisson's ratio behaviour and structurally sound enough to be fabricated through
laser cutting.
• Isotropy: The isotropic nature of mechanical properties was targeted to provide
uniform behaviour when loaded in multiple directions, for which re-entrant
sinusoidal auxetic pattern was chosen.
• Limitations during Fabrication: The geometry of the pattern was optimized for
conformity with laser tube cutting machines, excluding features too small or
complicated to be cut precisely.

6.3 Auxetic Pattern Design

Re-entrant Sinusoidal Pattern:
This morphology incorporates inward-curving (re-entrant) sinusoidal wave-like
topography along the tube surface. Smoothness imparted by the sinusoidal shape eliminates
stress concentrations found in sharp-cornered geometries, enhancing isotropic properties
and fatigue life.
Pattern Parameters:
• Amplitude and wavelength of the sinusoidal contours were parameterized to specify
the level of auxeticity.
• Cut width and spacing were selected to optimize structural strength and auxetic
deformation capacity.
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• Re-entrant angles were chosen from literature for optimal negative Poisson's ratio
while maintaining manufacturability.

6.4 CAD Software and Tools

• Designs were created utilizing SolidWorks 2023, a popular parametric CAD
software.
• Surface modelling, patterning tools, and sheet metal design modules were used to
effectively model tube geometry and pattern cutouts.
• The wrap function was utilized to cast the auxetic pattern precisely onto the curved
cylindrical surface of the tube.

6.5 Steps in Model Development

1. Base Tube Modelling:
A 51.4 mm outer diameter, 2 mm thick, and 107 mm long hollow cylindrical tube was
modelled.
2. Pattern Sketching:
The auxetic sinusoidal pattern was drawn on a flat plane equal to the tube's surface
unwrapped length and circumference.
3. Pattern Projection:
The 2D pattern drawing was wrapped around the cylinder to follow the curved surface of
the tube.
4. Cut-Extrude Operation:
The pattern was removed from the tube solid body by cut-extrude the simulation of laser
cuts.
5. Multiple Patterns:
Different designs with different parameters (wavelength, amplitude) were made to examine
their impact on crashworthiness.
6. Control Models:
Plain tubes and foam-filled tubes were modelled to provide baseline comparison.

6.6 Model Validation and Quality Checks

• Dimensional Accuracy: Dimensions were checked against tolerances to prove
manufacturability.
• Surface Integrity: Surfaces were checked that there are no overlapping or
intersecting surfaces that may lead to errors in CAE or fabrication.
• File Export: STEP and IGES files were exported from the models compatible with
CAE software and laser cutting machines.

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6.7 Summary
The CAD modelling process effectively generated detailed, manufacturable tubular auxetic
structure models. These models formed the foundation of CAE simulations and fabrication
steering, allowing for smooth transitions between design and physical testing.

Fig 6.7 – Final CAD model of the auxetic pattern tube

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CHAPTER 7

CAE ANALYSIS

7.1 Introduction
Computer-Aided Engineering (CAE) analysis is of crucial importance in forecasting the
mechanical response of intricate structures under dynamic loads, like those of a vehicle
crash. This chapter outlines the finite element analysis (FEA) conducted on tubular auxetic
structures to model their crashworthiness and achieve optimal design parameters prior to
physical testing.

7.2 Objectives of CAE Analysis

Simulation of crushing of tubular auxetic specimens under axial compression loading.
• To compare deformation patterns, stress distribution, and energy absorption
behaviour.
• To predict parameters like mean crushing force and crushing distance.
• To minimize auxetic pattern geometry for enhanced crashworthiness.
• To confirm the validity of simulation models by comparison with experiments.

7.3 Software and Tools Employed

• ANSYS Workbench 2023 was the main software employed for finite element
modelling and simulation.
• Static structural solver was utilized.
• Preprocessing activities, such as geometry import, meshing, and boundary
condition definition, were conducted in the software environment.

7.4 Material Modelling

The specimens were modelled utilizing Aluminium 6063 with the following material
properties taken from literature and supplier information:
• Young's Modulus: 68.9 GPa
• Poisson's Ratio: 0.33
• Density: 2700 kg/m³
• Yield Strength: 150 MPa
• Ultimate Tensile Strength: 190 MPa

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7.5 Meshing Strategy

• A fine mesh was created, particularly around the auxetic cutouts, with tetrahedral
elements.
• The default element size was assigned 1 mm to strike a balance between
computational efficiency and precision.

7.6 Boundary Conditions and Loading

• One of the tube ends was constrained to mimic mounting on the vehicle frame.
• A compressive force was imposed to mimic the axial compression behaviour of the
test piece.

7.7 Simulation Procedure

• The simulation was executed as static structural simulation by inputting an assumed
average crushing force to determine the deformation.
• Automatic control of time steps by the solver ensured numerical stability.
• Nonlinear material response, large deformation, and contact interaction were
considered.

7.8 Results Extracted

• Deformation Patterns: Graphically viewed to see how auxetic tubes fail in axial
compression.
• Stress Distribution: Determined maximum stress concentration areas to evaluate
failure likelihood.
• Deformation values: To determine the energy absorbed
• Energy Absorbed: Calculated from area under the force-displacement curve.

7.9 Interpretation of Results

• Auxetic tubes had progressive, stable crushing with reduced peak forces relative to
plain tubes.
• Stress concentrations were minimized by the smooth sinusoidal pattern, reflecting
superior durability.
• Simulation results were used to inform subsequent design iterations through
adjustment of pattern wavelength and amplitude.

7.10 Validation and Correlation

• Experimental drop-weight tests were validated against CAE results.
• Differences were examined in light of assumptions and simplifications in material
behaviour and boundary conditions.

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7.11 Summary
The CAE analysis gave important insights into the mechanical behaviour of tubular auxetic
structures subjected to impact.
It facilitated design parameter optimization and created a predictive model that accurately
correlates with experiment results, demonstrating the viability of auxetic tubes for
crashworthiness purposes.

Fig 7.11.1 – Analysis shows that the load is transferred to the plate

Fig 7.11.2 – Analysis shows that the load is absorbed by the pattern tube

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CHAPTER 8

FABRICATION PROCESS

8.1 Introduction
The fabrication stage converts the computer-aided design models to physical specimens to
be experimentally tested. The chapter outlines materials applied, fabrication methods,
equipment, and quality control procedures in the production of the tubular auxetic
specimens for impact testing.

8.2 Material Selection

• Aluminium Alloy 6063 was used as the material of choice for the tubular specimens
because of its suitable mechanical properties, resistance to corrosion, and extensive
availability.
• Its moderate ductility and strength qualify it for energy absorption via plastic
deformation.
• Tubes were ordered with nominal outer diameter 51.4 mm, wall thickness 2 mm,
and length 107 mm as per the CAD drawings.

8.3 Fabrication Technique

• Laser Tube Cutting was utilized to develop the auxetic sinusoidal patterns on the
cylindrical tubes.
• The technique provides high accuracy, reproducibility, and capability of cutting
intricate shapes on curved surfaces without changes in tooling.
• Laser cutting parameters (power, speed, focus) were adjusted to provide clean cuts
free from thermal distortion or burr formation.

8.4 Laser Tube Cutting Setup

• The tubes were firmly clamped in the rotary fixture of the laser cutting machine for
360° access and simultaneous pattern cutting across the circumference.
• The CAD pattern files were translated into CNC-compatible programs with the help
of software.
• The laser beam was accurately guided based on the programmed paths to produce
the sinusoidal auxetic pattern.
• Cutting rates and laser power were properly optimized to prevent tube deformation
or melting.

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Fig 8.4 – Laser cutting of tube

8.5 Post-Processing
• Tubes, after being cut, were deburred to eliminate sharp edges or slag generated by
the laser.
• Visual inspection was performed to ensure pattern integrity, dimensional
tolerances, and surface finish.
• Solvents were used to clean tubes in order to remove residues.
• Cutting and filling specimens with energy-absorbing foam inside the tubes were
done.

Fig 8.5.1 – Tubes before post processing Fig 8.5.2 – Tubes after post processing

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8.6 Quality Assurance and Dimensional Inspection

• Callipers were utilized to perform dimensional checks for conformity to design
specifications.
• Pattern dimensions and tube geometry tolerances were kept within ±0.1 mm.
• Visual examination and roughness testers were used to check surface finish in order
to verify smooth edges reducing stress risers.

8.7 Challenges and Mitigation

• Ensuring repeat laser cutting quality on curved surfaces called for precise alignment
and machine setup.
• Preventing thermal damage included optimizing laser parameters and employing air
or inert gas assist.
• Manipulating thin-walled tubes during production to avoid bending or warping
required custom fixtures.

8.8 Summary
The manufacturing process was able to successfully create high-quality tubular auxetic
specimens that matched the CAD designs. Laser tube cutting was a useful and accurate
technique to achieve intricate auxetic patterns on cylindrical surfaces, allowing subsequent
experimental testing of crashworthiness.

Sl. No. Type of specimen Number of Specimen

1 Plain tube 2
2 Pattern tube 4
3 Pattern tube with foam 4
Total 10
Table 8.8 - List of specimens laser cut

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CHAPTER 9

EXPERIMENTAL TESTING

9.1 Introduction
Experimental testing is necessary to corroborate the theoretical and simulation predictions
of tubular auxetic structure crashworthiness. The present chapter outlines the test setup,
procedures, instrumentation, and data acquisition procedures employed to study the impact
performance of manufactured specimens.

9.2 Test Objective

• To measure the energy absorption capability, deformation characteristics, and
deceleration response of tubular auxetic structures subjected to impact loading.
• To contrast the crash performance of auxetic patterned tubes with plain tubes and
foam-filled tubes.
• To derive sound experimental data for correlation with CAE simulation output.

9.3 Test Equipment

Drop Weight Impact Testing Machine from Vemana Institute of Technology was utilised.
The equipment consists of:
• A guided vertical drop rig with a changeable drop height.
• A mass block (impact weight) to impart controlled kinetic energy at impact.
• Load cells to record impact force.
• Accelerometers to record deceleration upon impact.
• Displacement sensors to track crushing distance.
Data acquisition system with high sampling rate for precise time-resolved measurement.

9.4 Test Specimens

• Plain Aluminium Tube (Control specimen).
• Laser-cut re-entrant sinusoidal pattern on Tubular Auxetic Specimen.
• Auxetic Specimen with Foam Filling for hybrid energy absorption.

9.5 Test Setup and Procedure

1. Specimen is mounted vertically firmly on the impact surface.
2. The drop weight is lifted to a set height to attain the desired impact velocity and energy.

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3. The weight is released, impacting the top end of the test specimen axially.
4. Impact force, acceleration, and displacement are monitored by sensors both during and
after impact.
5. Multiple repeated tests are conducted for each specimen type for reproducibility.
6. Post-impact deformation is measured via photographs and measurements.

9.6 Test Parameters

• Impact Energy: Determined from drop weight mass and drop height to reflect
realistic crash conditions.
• Impact Velocity: Calculated from gravitational acceleration and height.
• Maximum Allowable Deceleration: Kept at less than 20 g to reflect human tolerance
levels.
• Number of Trials: one trial for each of the varying parameters needed.

9.7 Data Acquisition and Processing

• Raw sensor data collected by data acquisition hardware are processed with filtering
algorithms to eliminate noise.
• Force-time and acceleration-time graphs are charted.
• Energy absorption and crushing distance are determined from sensor readings.
• Peak decelerations, mean crushing force, and peak forces are obtained.

9.8 Observations and Initial Results

• Auxetic test specimens exhibited greater crushing distance at reduced peak force
than plain tubes.
• Peak forces of foam-filled specimens were higher because of stiffness contributed
by foam.
• Decelerations of auxetic tubes were within safe ranges while absorbing energy
equivalent to that of other specimens.
• The progressive crushing behaviour was visually verified in auxetic tubes, showing
stable energy dissipation.

9.9 Safety and Precautions

Safety guarding around the test rig to avoid harm due to ejecta.
Operators' personal protective equipment (PPE).
Equipment having been calibrated prior to testing to obtain precise measurements.

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9.10 Summary
Experimental testing confirmed the enhanced crashworthiness of tubular auxetic structures
subjected to impact loading. The data gathered provide an essential basis for comparison
with CAE simulations and underpin the practicality of these designs in real automotive
safety applications.
Sl. No. Type of specimen Drop Height in meters
1 Plain tube 3
2 Plain tube 2
3 Pattern tube 2
4 Pattern tube 1
5 Pattern tube 0.5
6 Pattern tube 0.25
7 Pattern tube with foam 2
8 Pattern tube with foam 1
9 Pattern tube with foam 0.5
10 Pattern tube with foam 0.25
Table 9.10 list of specimens tested

Fig 9.10.1 – Drop test of plain tube Fig 9.10.2 – Drop test of pattern tube

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CHAPTER 10

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

10.1 Introduction
The chapter discusses experimental results on drop-weight impact tests conducted using
three types of specimens: Plain Tube, Pattern Only (laser-cut auxetic tubes), and Pattern +
Foam tubes. The research investigates crashworthiness parameters like absorbed energy,
impact velocity, crushing distance, mean crushing force, and deceleration to determine
energy absorption behaviour and occupant safety implications.

10.2 Summary of Experimental Data

Specimen Drop Absorbed Impact Crushing Mean Deceleration
Height Energy Velocity Distance Crushing (m/s²)
(m) (J) (m/s) (mm) Force
(kN)
Plain 3 152.58 7.67 35.5 4.298 0.8285
Tube
2 101.57 6.26 22.5 4.5142 0.8708
Pattern 2 101.405 6.26 100.5 1.009 0.1949
Only
1 49.72 4.43 96 0.5179 0.1022
0.5 23.735 3.13 92.25 0.2573 0.0531
0.25 13.03 2.22 67.5 0.193 0.0365
Pattern + 2 103.36 6.26 100 1.0336 0.196
Foam
1 50.51 4.42 98 0.5154 0.0996
0.5 24.96 3.13 90.5 0.2758 0.0541
0.25 7.315 2.22 69 0.106 0.0357
Table 10.2 Summary of results of experimental data

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10.3 Absorbed Energy and Impact Velocity

Absorbed Energy:
The plain tubes absorbed the maximum energy values at all drop heights tested, in
accordance with their increased stiffness and resistance to deformation.
Auxetic Tubes:
Both Pattern Only and Pattern + Foam samples absorbed almost the same energy as plain
tubes at equivalent impact velocities, showing their ability to effectively dissipate impact
energy.
Impact Velocity:
Impact velocities are kept the same for equal drop heights in different specimens in order
to ensure fairness in comparison.

10.4 Crushing Distance

• Plain Tubes: Showed crushing distances between 22.5 mm and 35.5 mm at higher
energies.
• Patterned Tubes: The auxetic samples, Pattern Only and Pattern + Foam, crushed
over much greater lengths (around 67.5 mm to 100.5 mm), reflecting progressive
deformation and energy dissipation over an extended displacement.
The greater crushing distance of auxetic tubes decreases peak loads transmitted, enhancing
occupant protection by extending the impact duration.

10.5 Mean Crushing Force

• The mean crushing force of plain tubes was much greater, with an average of well
over 4 kN at high energies.
• Auxetic tubes had considerably lower mean crushing forces, ranging from about
0.19 kN to 1.03 kN, reflecting a more gradually changing force profile under
impact.
• The addition of foam slightly raised mean crushing force over Pattern Only tubes
but remained considerably less than for plain tubes.

10.6 Deceleration Characteristics

• The values of deceleration for plain tubes were significantly greater (max. 0.87
m/s²), reflecting more severe shocks imparted to the occupant.
• Auxetic tubes registered significantly lower peaks of deceleration, averaging less
than 0.2 m/s².
• Reduced deceleration indicates lower risk of occupant injury, validating the safety
benefit of auxetic structures.

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10.7 Crashworthiness Implications

• The results validate that auxetic tubular structures dissipate similar energy to plain
tubes but over a considerably longer crushing distance and at lower crushing forces.
• These conditions together significantly lower the acceleration at impact, which is
vital in reducing the severity of injury.
• Foam filling offers a minimal rise in mean crushing force but still has low
deceleration and high crushing distance, with potential for tailored absorber
adjustment.

10.8 Summary
• Plain Tubes: Increased force and acceleration with short crushing distances.
• Pattern Only Auxetic Tubes: Increased deformation with decreased force and
deceleration.
• Pattern + Foam Tubes: Similar advantages with somewhat higher stiffness.
Experimental evidence clearly substantiates the hypothesis that laser-cut tubular auxetic
structures enhance crashworthiness through enhanced energy absorption properties and
reduced occupant deceleration.

Fig 10.8 – Evaluating crushing distance of specimens using vernier height gauge

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CHAPTER 11

CONCLUSION

The current research effectively investigated the practicality and performance of employing
tubular auxetic structures as impact energy absorbers in the automotive field. By integrating
CAD modelling, finite element analysis, laser fabrication, and drop-weight impact testing,
the project assessed the crashworthiness of auxetic tubes in relation to ordinary plain
aluminium tubes and foam-filled designs in a systematic manner.

The auxetic tubes, engineered with a re-entrant sinusoidal structure, exhibited considerably
enhanced performance in regards to mean crushing force, crushing distance, and impact
deceleration. Absorbing energy comparable to that of plain tubes, but delivering a reduced
peak transmitted force and increased crushing distance, they augmented the safety profile
of the structure. The addition of PU foam also improved the structural stiffness and energy
dissipation, with potential for hybrid solutions.

The CAE simulations, having been verified through experimental results, reflected
accurately the deformation modes and stress patterns. This confirmed the accuracy of the
numerical method in predicting the dynamic behaviour of patterned structures and can be
applied for the design optimization of subsequent designs without full physical prototyping.

Overall, the results demonstrate laser-cut auxetic tubes to be not only convenient to produce
but also to be highly effective at crash energy management, making them prime contenders
for application within vehicle crumple zones and impact attenuators. The research also
establishes a groundwork for further investigation into pattern optimization, alternative
materials, and multi-directional crush simulations, furthering the application of auxetic
engineering in contemporary vehicle safety.

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COST ANALYSIS

SUMMARY OF EXPENSES:
The total cost incurred for the successful execution of the project titled "Crashworthiness
of Tubular Auxetic Structures" amounted to INR 17,150. The most significant portion of
the budget was allocated to laser cutting, which was necessary to create precise auxetic
patterns on the aluminium tubes. Drop-weight impact testing also constituted a substantial
cost due to facility usage and instrumentation. Materials such as PU foam and aluminium
tubes were sourced commercially, while miscellaneous and documentation costs covered
smaller essentials like tools, adhesives, and report printing.
This cost-effective approach demonstrates that auxetic crash absorbers can be developed
using accessible resources, strengthening the case for their practical implementation in real-
world vehicle safety systems.
SL. NO. PARTICULARS COST (INR)
1 Aluminium Tube 1100
2 Laser cutting 8800
3 PU Foam 550
4 Drop weight impact test 5000
5 Miscellaneous 200
6 Report Printout 1500
Total 17150
Table 11 – Cost analysis of project

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GANTT CHART

Fig – Gantt chart of project

Month Week(s) Activity / Milestone

Week 1–2 Project topic finalization and team formation
Aug-24
Week 3–4 Initial literature review, faculty guide approval, and problem definition
Week 1–2 Extended literature review on auxetic behavior, material properties, and crash studies
Sep-24
Week 3–4 Pattern selection (re-entrant, sinusoidal) and finalization of design strategy
Week 1–2 CAD modeling of plain and patterned tubes in SolidWorks
Oct-24
Week 3–4 Selection of material (Al 6063), pattern parameters, and start of CAE setup
Week 1–2 Finite element model development and boundary condition setup
Nov-24
Week 3–4 Optimization of auxetic pattern for performance; CAE result interpretation
Week 1–2 Iterative simulation analysis with varied pattern parameters
Dec-24
Week 3–4 Finalization of design parameters and validation of simulation results
Week 1–2 Procurement of materials (tubes, foam)
Jan-25
Week 3–4 Fabrication of specimens via laser tube cutting
Week 1–2 Visual inspection, quality check of specimens
Feb-25
Week 3–4 Drop-weight test setup coordination and safety planning
Week 1–2 Drop-weight impact testing of plain, patterned, and foam-filled specimens
Mar-25
Week 3–4 Data acquisition, force-displacement/deceleration curve analysis
Week 1–2 Correlation of CAE vs experimental results
Apr-25
Week 3–4 Graph plotting, interpretation, and final analysis of energy absorption data
Week 1 Report writing: Abstract, Methodology, Results, Conclusion
Week 2 Report formatting, printing, and binding
May-25
Week 3 Final presentation preparation
Week 4 Project viva and final submission
Table - Project schedule

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REFERENCES

1. Design, Manufacturing and Applications of Auxetic Tubular Structures: A

Review
[Link]
2. Advancing Auxetic Materials: Emerging Development and Innovative
Applications
[Link]
3. Hybrid Auxetic Structures: Structural Optimization and Mechanical
Characterization
[Link]
4. Auxetic Meta-Materials and Their Engineering Applications: A Review
[Link]
materials_and_their_engineering_applications_a_review
5. Crashworthiness Analysis of Double-Arrowed Auxetic Structure Under Axial
Impact Loading
[Link]
6. Crashworthy Examination of a Newly Proposed Impact Attenuator Design
[Link]
of_a_Newly_Proposed_Impact_Attenuator_Design_Experimental_Testing_and_N
umerical_Analysis
7. Design and Analysis of Chassis and Impact Attenuator
[Link]
8. To Design and Analysis of Attenuator Structure for Better Impact
Performance of FSAE Car
[Link]
9. Design and Analysis of Impact Attenuator: A Review
[Link]
mpact_Attenuator_A_Review
10. Design of Impact Attenuator for a Formula Student Racing Car: Numerical
Simulation
[Link]
nuator_for_a_formula_student_racing_car_Numerical_simulation_of_the_impact
_crash_test
11. Design of Attenuator for FSAE Car for Improved Impact Performance
[Link]
FSAE_Car_for_Improved_Impact_Performance
12. Design and Optimization of Impact Attenuator for a Formula SAE Racing
Car
[Link]

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13. Impact Attenuator Design for Improvement of Racing Car Driver’s Safety
[Link]
14. Impact Attenuator Optimum Design for a FSAE Racing Car by Numerical
and Experimental Crash Analysis
[Link]
15. Vehicle Crashworthiness and Occupant Protection
[Link]
24/Literature/Papers/Vehicle%20Crashworthiness%20and%20Occupant%20Prote
ction(Book).pdf
16. Honeycomb Safety Structure: Design, Analysis and Applications in Safe
Road Transport
[Link]
of_Attenuator_Structure_based_on_Recycled_Waste_Can_subjected_to_Impact_
Loading_Part_I_-_Absorption_Performance

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COURSE OUTCOMES

COURSE OUTCOMES:
CO1: Identify & define the problem for the project work.
CO2: Apply the knowledge to analyse and estimate the cost and time.
CO3: Examine and use appropriate tools to solve the defined problem in a team.
CO4: Develop an end product and prepare a technical report/paper.

CO-PO and CO-PSO Mapping:

PO1 PO2 PO3 PO4 PO5 PO6 PO7 PO8 PO9 PO10 PO11 PSO1 PSO2 PSO3
CO1: 3 2 1 1 - 1 - 3 3 1 2 3 3 3
CO2: 3 1 1 1 1 2 - 3 3 3 2 3 3 3
CO3: 3 2 2 2 3 1 - 3 3 1 2 3 3 3
CO4: 3 3 1 2 2 - 3 3 3 - 2 3 3 3

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Program Outcomes as defined by NBA (PO):

Engineering Graduates will be able to:
PO1: Engineering Knowledge: Apply knowledge of mathematics, natural science,
computing, engineering fundamentals and an engineering specialization to develop to the
solution of complex engineering problems.
PO2: Problem Analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature and analyse
complex engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions with consideration for
sustainable development.
PO3: Design/Development of Solutions: Design creative solutions for complex
engineering problems and design/develop systems/components/processes to meet
identified needs with consideration for the public health and safety, whole-life cost, net
zero carbon, culture, society and environment as required.
PO4: Conduct Investigations of Complex Problems: Conduct investigations of complex
engineering problems using research-based knowledge including design of experiments,
modelling, analysis & interpretation of data to provide valid conclusions.
PO5: Engineering Tool Usage: Create, select and apply appropriate techniques, resources
and modern engineering & IT tools, including prediction and modelling recognizing their
limitations to solve complex engineering problems.
PO6: The Engineer and The World: Analyse and evaluate societal and environmental
aspects while solving complex engineering problems for its impact on sustainability with
reference to economy, health, safety, legal framework, culture and environment.
PO7: Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics, human values,
diversity and inclusion; adhere to national & international laws.
PO8: Individual and Collaborative Team work: Function effectively as an individual, and
as a member or leader in diverse/multi-disciplinary teams.
PO9: Communication: Communicate effectively and inclusively within the engineering
community and society at large, such as being able to comprehend and write effective
reports and design documentation, make effective presentations considering cultural,
language, and learning differences
PO10:Project Management and Finance: Apply knowledge and understanding of
engineering management principles and economic decision-making and apply these to
one’s own work, as a member and leader in a team, and to manage projects and in
multidisciplinary environments.
PO11:Life-Long Learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability
for
i) independent and life-long learning
ii) adaptability to new and emerging technologies and
iii) critical thinking in the broadest cont

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Department of Mechanical Engineering, BMSIT&M i