CHAPTER 19

DC to DC Converters
- Switched-Mode

A switched-mode power supply (smps) or switching regulator, efficiently converts a dc voltage level to
another dc voltage level, via an intermediate magnetic (inductor) storage/transfer stage, such that a
continuous, possibly constant, load current flows, usually at power levels below a few kilowatts.
Shunt and series linear regulator power supplies dissipate much of their energy across the regulating
transistor, which operates in the linear mode. An smps achieves regulation by varying the on to off time
duty cycle of the switching element. This switching minimises losses, irrespective of load conditions.
Figure 19.1 illustrates the basic principle of the ac-fed smps in which the ac mains input is rectified,
capacitively smoothed, and supplied to a high-frequency transistor chopper. The chopped dc voltage is
transformed, rectified, and smoothed to give the required dc output voltage. A high-frequency
transformer is used if an isolated output is required. The output voltage is sensed by a control circuit that
adjusts the duty cycle of the switching transistor in order to maintain a constant output voltage with
respect to load and input voltage variation. Alternatively, the chopper can be configured and controlled
such that, in delivering the required output power I-V, the input current tracks a scaled version of the
input ac supply voltage, therein producing unity (or controllable) power factor I-V input conditions.
The switching frequency can be made much higher than the 50/60Hz line frequency; then the filtering
and transformer elements used can be made small, lightweight, low in cost, and efficient.

ac mains voltage
feed-back for unity
input power factor

Figure 19.1. Functional block diagram of a switched-mode power supply.

BWW
Chapter 19 DC to DC Converters – Switched-Mode 796

Depending on the requirements of the application, the dc-to-dc converter can be one of four basic
converter types, namely
 forward
 flyback
 balanced
 resonant.

19.1 The forward converter

The basic forward converter, sometimes called a step-down or buck converter, is shown in figure 19.2a.
The input voltage Ei is chopped by transistor T. The symbol E is used at the input rather than V,
because the input is an emf energy source. When T is on, because the input voltage Ei is greater than
the load voltage vo, energy is transferred from the dc supply Ei to L, C, and the load R. When T is turned
off, stored energy in L is transferred via diode D to C and the load R.
If all the stored energy in L is transferred to C and the load before T is turned back on, operation is
termed discontinuous inductor current, since the inductor current has reached zero. If T is turned on
before the current in L reaches zero, that is, if continuous current flows in L, inductor operation is termed
continuous.
Parts b and c respectively of figure 19.2 illustrate forward converter circuit current and voltage wave-
forms for continuous (figure 19.1b) and discontinuous (figure 19.1c) current conduction of inductor L.
For analysis it is assumed that components are lossless and the output voltage vo is maintained
constant because of the large magnitude of the capacitor C across the output. The input voltage Ei is
also assumed constant, such that Ei ≥ vo.

iL = io

tD tD

Figure 19.2. Non-isolated forward converter (buck converter) where v0 ≤ Ei:

(a) circuit diagram; (b) waveforms for continuous output (inductor) current; and
(c) waveforms for discontinuous output (inductor) current.
797 Power Electronics

19.1.1 Continuous inductor current (CCM - continuous conduction mode)

The inductor current is analysed first when the switch is on, then when the switch is off. When transistor
T is turned on for period tT, the difference between the supply voltage Ei and the output voltage v0 is
impressed across L. From V = L di/dt = L Δi/Δt, the linear current change through the inductor will be
  E v o
i L  i L  i L  i  t (19.1)
L
When T is switched off for the remainder of the switching period, tD = τ- tT, the freewheel diode D
conducts and -v0 is impressed across L. Thus, using V = L Δi/Δt, rearranged, assuming continuous
conduction (CCM)
v
i L  o  (  t  ) (19.2)
L
Equating equations (19.1) and (19.2), because the net inductor energy is constant, gives
(E i - v o ) t T  v o ( - t T ) (19.3)
This expression shows that the inductor average voltage is zero, and after rearranging with v o I o  E i I i :
v o I i tT
     tT f 0 1 (19.4)
Ei I o 
This equation also shows that for a given input voltage, the output voltage is determined by the
transistor conduction duty cycle δ and the output is always less than the input voltage. This confirms
and validates the original analysis assumption that Ei ≥ vo. The voltage transfer function is independent
of the load R, circuit inductance L and capacitance C.
The inductor rms ripple current (and here capacitor ripple current) from equations (19.1) and (19.2), for
continuous inductor current, is given by
i 1 vo 1 Ei
iLr  L 
L 1 -     1 -    (19.5)
2 3 2 3
. . 2 3 L .

while the inductor total rms current is

2
  ⅓  i  i  i  i 
2 2
½i L
i L rms  I L2  i L2r  I L2  
  L L L L  (19.6)
 3  .

The switch and diode average and rms currents are given by
IT  I i   I o I Tr ms   i L r ms
(19.7)
I D  I o  I i  1    I o I Dr ms  1   i L r ms
If the average inductor current, hence output current, is I L , then the maximum and minimum inductor
current levels are given by
 vo
L 
i L  I L  ½i L  I o  ½ 1 -  
(19.8)
 1 1      1 1 
vo    vo  R  2f L 
R 2L   
and
 vo
L 
i L  I L  ½i L  I o  ½ 1 -  
(19.9)
 1 1      1 1 
vo     v o   
R 2L   R 2f L 
respectively,
 
where ΔiL is given by equation (19.1) or (19.2). The average output current is
I L  ½(i L  i L )  I o  v o / R . The output power is therefore v o2 / R , which equals the input power, namely
E i I i  E i I T . Circuit waveforms for continuous inductor current conduction are shown in figure 19.2b.

Switch and converter utilisation ratios

The switch utilisation ratio, SUR, is a measure of how fully a switching device’s power handling
capabilities are utilised in any switching application. The ratio is defined as
Pout
SUR  (19.10)
p VT I T
where p is the number of power switches in the circuit; p=1 for the forward converter. The switch
maximum instantaneous voltage and current are V T and I T respectively. As shown in figure 19.2b, the
maximum switch  voltage supported in the off-state is Ei, while the maximum current is the maximum
inductor current i L which is given by equation (19.8). If the inductance L is large such that the ripple
Chapter 19 DC to DC Converters – Switched-Mode 798

current is small, the peak inductor current is approximated by the average inductor current I T  I L  I o ,
that is
vo I o v
SUR   o  (19.11)
1Ei I o Ei
which assumes continuous inductor current. This result shows that the higher the duty cycle, that is the
closer the output voltage vo is to the input voltage Ei, the better the switch I-V ratings are utilised.
While SUR represents the utilisation of a single switch, the total converter semiconductor utilisation is
represented by the factor Uf:
Prated 
Uf   (19.12)
 max rms    
V
∀Si
I

19.1.2 Discontinuous inductor current (DCM - discontinuous conduction mode)


The onset of discontinuous 
inductor current operation occurs when the minimum inductor current i L ,
reaches zero. That is, with i  0 in equation (19.9), the last equality
L

1 1   
 0 (19.13)
R 2f L
relates circuit component values (R and 
L) and operating conditions (f and δ) at the verge of
discontinuous inductor current. Also, with i  0 in equation (19.9)
L

I L  I o  ½i L (19.14)
which, after substituting equation (19.1) or equation (19.2), yields
(E  v o ) Ei vo
IL  Io  i  or  (1   ) or  (1   ) (19.15)
2L 2L 2L

If the transistor on-time tT is reduced (or the load current is reduced), the discontinuous condition

dead
time tx is introduced as indicated in figure 19.2c. From equations (19.1) and (19.2), with i L  0 , the
output voltage transfer function is now derived as follows

 (E i  v o ) vo
iL  tT  (  t T  t x ) (19.16)
L L
that is
vo 
 0  1 and tx  0 (19.17)
Ei t
1 x


This voltage transfer function form may not be particularly useful since the dead time tx is not expressed
in term of circuit parameters. Accordingly, from equation (19.16)
 (E  v o )
iL  i tT (19.18)
L
and from the input current waveform in figure 19.2c:
 t
Ii  ½i L T (19.19)



Eliminating i L yields
2I i v o  E i
 (1  ) (19.20)
 Ei L
that is
vo 2LI
1 2 i (19.21)
Ei  E i

Assuming power-in equals power-out, that is, E i I i  v o I o  v o I L , the input average current can be
eliminated, and after re-arranging yields:
vo 1 1
  (19.22)
Ei 2LI
1 2 o 1  22LI i
 E i  v o
799 Power Electronics

At a low output current or high input voltage, there is a likelihood of discontinuous inductor conduction.
To avoid discontinuous conduction, larger inductance values are needed, which worsen transient
response. Alternatively, with extremely low on-state duty cycles, a voltage-matching transformer can be
used to increase δ. Once a transformer is used, any smps technique can be used to achieve the desired
output voltage. Figures 19.2b and c show that the input current is always discontinuous.

19.1.3 Load conditions for discontinuous inductor current

As the load current decreases, the inductor average current also decreases, but the inductor ripple
current magnitude is unchanged.

If the load resistance is increased sufficiently, the bottom of the
triangular inductor current, i L , eventual reduces to zero. Any further increase in load resistance causes
discontinuous inductor current and the linear voltage transfer function given by equation (19.4) is no
longer valid and equations (19.17) and (19.21) are applicable. The critical load resistance for
continuous inductor current, (19.13), is specified by
vo v
Rcrit   o (19.23)
I o ½i L
Substitution for vo from equation (19.2) and using the fact that I o  I L , yields
vo i LL
Rcrit   (19.24)
I o I L (  t  )
Eliminating  i L by substituting the limiting condition given by equation (19.14) gives
vo i L L 2I LL 2L
Rcrit     (19.25)
I o I L (  t  ) I L (  t  ) (  t  )
Dividing throughout by τ and substituting   t T /  yields
v 2L 2L
Rcrit  o   (19.26)
I o (  t  )  (1   )
The critical resistance can be expressed in a number of forms. By substituting the switching frequency
( f s  1 /  ) or the fundamental inductor reactance ( X L  2 f s L ) the following forms result.
v 2L v 2L 2f s L XL
Rcrit  o   o    () (19.27)
I o  (1   ) E i  (1   ) (1   )  (1   )
Rearranged this equation gives Lmin. Notice that equation (19.27) is in fact equation (19.13), re-arranged.
If the load resistance increases beyond Rcrit, the output voltage can no longer be maintained with duty
cycle control according to the voltage transfer function in equation (19.4).

19.1.4 Control methods for discontinuous inductor current

Once the load current has reduced to the critical level as specified by equation (19.27), the input energy
is in excess of the load requirement. Open loop load voltage regulation control is lost and the capacitor
C tends to overcharge.
Hardware approaches can solve this problem – by producing continuous inductor current
 increase L thereby decreasing the inductor current ripple peak-to-peak magnitude
 step-down transformer impedance matching to effectively reduce the apparent load impedance

Two control approaches to maintain output voltage regulation when R > Rcrit are
 vary the switching frequency fs, maintaining the switch on-time tT constant so that ΔiL is fixed or
 reduce the switch on-time tT , but maintain a constant switching frequency fs, thereby reducing ΔiL.

If a fixed switching frequency is desired for all modes of operation, then reduced on-time control, using
output voltage feedback, is preferred. If a fixed on-time mode of control is used, then the output voltage
is control by varying inversely the frequency with output voltage. Alternatively, output voltage feedback
can be used.

19.1.4i - fixed on-time tT, variable switching frequency fvar

The operating frequency fvar is varied while the switch-on time tT is maintained constant such that the
ripple current remains unchanged. Operation is specified by equating the input energy and the output
energy, thus maintaining a constant capacitor charge, hence output voltage. That is, equating energies
v2 1
½ i LE i t T  o (19.28)
R f var
Chapter 19 DC to DC Converters – Switched-Mode 800

Isolating the variable switching frequency fvar gives

v o2 1
f var 
½ i LE i t T R
1
f var  fs Rcrit 
R (19.29)
1
f var 
R
That is, once discontinuous inductor current occurs, if the switching frequency is varied inversely with
load resistance and the switch on-state period is maintained constant, output voltage regulation can be
maintained.

Load resistance R is not a directly or readily measurable parameter for feedback proposes. Alternatively,
since v o  Io R substitution for R in equation (19.29) gives
R
f var  f s crit  Io
vo (19.30)
f var  Io
That is, for I o  ½i L or Io  v o / Rcrit , if tT remains constant and fvar is varied proportionally with load
current, then the required output voltage vo will be maintained.

19.1.4ii - fixed switching frequency fs, variable on-time tTvar

The operating frequency fs remains fixed while the switch-on time tTvar is reduced, resulting in the ripple
current being reduced. Operation is specified by equating the input energy and the output energy as in
equation (19.28), thus maintaining a constant capacitor charge, hence voltage. That is
v2 1
½i LE i t T var  o (19.31)
R fs
Isolating the variable on-time tTvar yields
v o2 1
t T var 
½ i LE i f s R
Substituting ΔiL from equation (19.2) gives
1
t T var  t T Rcrit 
R
.

(19.32)
1
t T var 
R
.

That is, once discontinuous inductor current commences, if the switch on-time is varied inversely to the
square root of the load resistance, maintaining the switching frequency constant, regulation of the output
voltage can be maintained.
Again, load resistance R is not a directly or readily measurable parameter for feedback proposes and
substitution of v o / Io for R in equation (19.32) gives
Rcrit
t T var  t T  Io
vo
.

(19.33)
t T var  Io .

That is, if fs is fixed and tT is reduced proportionally to Io , when I o  ½i L or Io  v o / Rcrit , then the
.

required output voltage magnitude vo will be maintained.

19.1.5 Output ripple voltage

Three components contribute to the output voltage ripple

 Ripple charging/discharging of the ideal output capacitor, C
 Capacitor equivalent series resistance, ESR
 Capacitor equivalent series inductance, ESL
The capacitor inductance and resistance parasitic series component values decrease as the quality of
the capacitor increases. The output ripple voltage is the vectorial summation of the three components
that are shown in figure 19.3 for the forward converter.

Ideal Capacitor: The ripple voltage for a capacitor is defined as

1 1
v C  C  i dt  C
Q
801 Power Electronics

Figures 19.2 and 19.3 show that for continuous inductor current, the inductor current which is the output
current, swings by Δi around the average output current, I o , thus

v C  1
C  i dt  ½ C1 2i 2 (19.34)
Substituting for  iL from equation (19.2)
v
v C  C1  i dt  ½ C1 i   ⅛ 1 o  (  t  ) (19.35)
2 2 C L

If ESR and ESL are ignored, after rearranging, equation (19.35) gives the percentage voltage ripple
(peak to peak) in the output voltage
½
v C v o f
  ⅛ 1  (1   ) 2  ½ 2 (1   )  c  (19.36)
vo vo LC  fs 
In complying with output voltage ripple requirements, from this equation, the switching frequency fs=1/τ
must be much higher that the cut-off frequency given by the forward converter low-pass, second-order
LC output filter, fc = 1/2π√LC. The voltage switching harmonics before filtering are the dc part δEi and
2E i
Vn  1  cos 2 n  (19.37)
n

ESR: The equivalent series resistor voltage follows the ripple current, that is, it swings linearly about
V ES R  ½i  RESR (19.38)

ESL: The equivalent series inductor voltage is derived from v  Ldi / dt , that is, when the switch is on
V ESL  L i / t on  L i /  (19.39)
When the switch is off
V ESL  L i / t off  L i / 1     (19.40)
The total instantaneous ripple voltage is
v o  v C V ES R V ES L (19.41)
Forming a time domain solution for each component, then differentiating, gives a maximum ripple when
t  2CRESR (1   ) (19.42)
This expression is independent of the equivalent series inductance, which is expected since it is
constant during each operational state. If dominant, the inductor will affect the output voltage ripple at
the switch turn-on and turn-off instants.

Δi o iC

τΔi/8C o VC

Δi R o VESR vc = vo

LΔi/ton

o VESL
- LΔi/tD

Figure 19.3. Forward converter, three output ripple components, showing:

left - voltage components; centre – waveforms; and right - capacitor model.

19.1.6 Apparent load resistance

The apparent or transformed load resistance Ri seen at the input is given by

Chapter 19 DC to DC Converters – Switched-Mode 802

Ei
Ri 
ii
(19.43)
E  i  1
 i   Ro o   2 Ro
i i  Vo  
That is, the apparent load resistance seen at the input is related to the square of the current transfer
function (for all smps operating in a continuous inductor current conduction mode).

Example 19.1: Buck (step-down forward) converter

The step-down converter in figure 19.2a operates at a switching frequency of 10 kHz. The output voltage
is to be fixed at 48V dc across a 1Ω resistive load. If the input voltage Ei =192V and the choke L =
200μH:
i. calculate the switch T on-time duty cycle δ and switch on-time tT.
ii. calculate the average load current I o , hence average input current I i .
iii. draw accurate waveforms for
 the voltage across, and the current through L; vL and iL
 the capacitor current, ic
 the switch and diode voltage and current; vT, vD, iT, iD.
Hence calculate the switch utilisation ratio as defined by equation (19.11).
iv. calculate the mean and rms current ratings of diode D, switch T and L.
v. calculate the capacitor average and rms current, iCrms and output ripple voltage if the capacitor
has an internal equivalent series resistance of 20mΩ, assuming C = ∞.
vi. calculate the maximum load resistance Rcrit before discontinuous inductor current. Calculate the
output voltage and inductor non-conduction period, tx, when the load resistance is triple the
critical resistance Rcrit.
vii. if the maximum load resistance is 1Ω, calculate
 the value the inductance L can be reduced, to be on the verge of discontinuous inductor
current and for that L
 the peak-to-peak ripple and rms, inductor and capacitor currents.
viii. specify two control strategies for controlling the forward converter in a discontinuous inductor
current mode.
ix. output ripple voltage hence percentage output ripple voltage, for C = 1,000μF and an equivalent
series inductance of ESL = 0.5μH, assuming ESR = 0Ω.
x. The apparent load resistance seen at the input, for the duty cycle and load for part i.

Solution

i. From equation (19.4), assuming continuous inductor current, the duty cycle δ is
v 48V
  o  = ¼ = 25%
E i 192V

Also, from equation (19.4), for a 10kHz switching frequency, the switching period τ is 100μs and the
transistor on-time tT is given by
v o tT 48V t
   T
Ei  192V 100μs
whence the transistor on-time is 25μs and the diode conducts for 75μs.

v o 48V
ii. The average load current is I o   = 48A = I L
R 1Ω
From power-in equals power-out, the average input current is
I i v o I o / E i  48V×48A/192V =12A

iii. From equation (19.1) (or equation (19.2)) the inductor peak-to-peak ripple current is
E v o 192V - 48V
i L  i  t  ×25μs = 18A
L 200μH

From part ii, the average


inductor current is the average output current, 48A. The inductor current is
continuous since i L  39A. Circuit voltage and current waveforms are shown in the figure to follow.
The circuit waveforms show that the maximum switch voltage and current are 192V and 57A
respectively. The switch utilising ratio is given by equation (19.11), that is
803 Power Electronics

v o2 48V 2
Pout R  1  21%
SUR  
E i  i o E i  i o 192V  57A
If the ripple current were assume small, the resulting SUR value of δ = 33% gives a misleading under-
estimate indication.

iv. Current iD through diode D is shown on the inductor current waveform. The average diode current is
  tT
ID   I L  (1   )  I L  (1  ¼)×48A = 36A

The rms diode current is given by
1  tT  i L 1 75μs 18A 2
i D rms 
.

 0
(i L 
  tT
t )2 dt 
100μs 0
.
 (57A-
75μs
t ) dt = 41.8A

Current iT through the switch T is shown on the inductor current waveform. The average switch current
is
t
I T  T I L   I L  ¼×48A = 12A

Alternatively, from power-in equals power-out
IT  I i  v o I o / E i  48V×48A/192V =12A

Ei -vo

3.6mV.s

(V)

192V

VTran VDiode

Icap VDiode VTran

0 18A
25
125

Figure 19.4: Example 19.1

The transistor rms current is given by

1 tT  i 1 25μs 18A 2
iT rms   (i L  L t ) dt   t ) dt
2
(39A+
.

 0 tT
.

100μs 0 25μs
= 24.1A
The mean inductor current is the mean output current, I o  I L  48A .
The inductor rms current is given by equation (19.6), that is
2 2
½ i L
I L rms  I L2     ½  18A
  48A  
2 
  48.3A
 3  3

v. The average capacitor current I C is zero and the rms ripple current is given by
Chapter 19 DC to DC Converters – Switched-Mode 804

1  tT 1 i  tT i L 
   0
i C rms  (  2 i L  L t )2 dt   ( 1 2 i L  t )2 dt 
tT   tT
.

0

1  25μs 18A 2 75μs 18A 2 
 .

100μs   0
(-9A+
25μs
t ) dt  
0
(9A-
75μs
t ) dt 

= 5.2A (= i L / 2 3)
The capacitor voltage ripple (hence the output voltage ripple), assuming infinite output capacitance, is
determined by the capacitor ripple current which is equal to the inductor ripple current, 18A p-p, that is
v o ripple  i L  RC esr
= 18A×20mΩ = 360mV p - p
and the rms output voltage ripple is
v o rms  i C rms  RC esr
= 5.2A rms×20mΩ = 104mV rms

vi. Critical load resistance is given by equation (19.27), namely

v 2L
Rcrit  o 
Io  (1   )
2×200μH
 = 16/3
100μs  (1-¼)
= 5⅓ Ω when I o =9A
Alternatively, the critical load current is 9A (½ ΔiL), thus from the immediately previous equation, the load
resistance must not be greater than v o / I o = 48V/9A = 5⅓Ω, if the inductor current is to be continuous.
When the load resistance is tripled to 16Ω the output voltage is given by equation (19.21), which is
shown normalised in table 19.2. That is
 8  R 16  100μs
v o  E i  ¼k  2  1  1  2  where k    8 thus
  k  L 200μH
 8 
v o  192V  ¼×8×¼2×  1  1  i L  14.625A 
  75V

¼  8 
2 

The inductor current is zero for an interval of the 100μs switching period, and the time is given by the
appropriate normalised expression involving tx for the forward converter in table 19.2 or by equation
(19.17), which when re-arranged to isolate tx becomes
 

   ¼ 
t x   1    100μs   1   36μs t T =25μs t D =39μs 
 vo   75V 
Ei   50V 


vii. The critical resistance formula given in equation (19.27) is valid for finding critical inductance when
inductance is made the subject of the equation, that is, rearranging equation (19.27) gives
Lcrit = ½  R  (1   )   (H)
= ½×1Ω×(1-¼)×100μs = 37½μH
This means the inductance can be reduced from 200μH with a 48A mean and 18A p-p ripple current, to
 
37½μH with the same 48A mean plus a superimposed 96A p-p 2I L ripple current. The rms capacitor
current is given by
i Crms = i L / 2 3 .

= 96A/2 3 = 27.2A rms

.

The inductor rms current requires the following integration

1  tT  i L 2  tT  i L 
   0 L tT
i L rms  (i  t ) dt   (i L  t )2 dt 
  tT
.

0
 
1  25μs 96A 2 75μs 96A 2 
100μs  
  (0+ t ) dt   (96A - t ) dt 
25μs 75μs
.

0 0

= 96/ 3 = 55.4 A rms
or from equation (19.6)
805 Power Electronics

i L rms  I L2  i L2ripple

 482  (96 / 2 3)2 = 55.4 A rms

viii. For R >16/3Ω, or I o  9A , equations (19.30) or (19.33) can be used to develop a suitable control
strategy.
(a) From equation (19.30), using a variable switching frequency of less than 10kHz,
R 5⅓ Ω
f var  f s crit Io  10kHz Io
vo 48V
10
f var   Io kHz
9
(b) From equation (19.33), maintaining a fixed switching frequency of 10kHz, the on-time duty cycle
is reduced (from 25μs) for I o  9A according to
Rcrit 5⅓ Ω
t T var  t T I o  25μs Io
vo 48V
. .

25
t T var  Io μs

3
.

ix. From equation (19.34) the output ripple voltage with an ideal 1,000μF capacitor is given by
i 
v C 
8C
18A  100μs
=  225mV p - p
8  1000μF
The voltage produced because of the equivalent series 0.5 μH inductance is
V ESL  L i / 
=0.5μH×18A/0.25×100μs = 360mV
V ESL  L i / 1    
= - 0.5μH×18A/(1 - 0.25)×100μs = -120mV
Time domain summation of the capacitor and ESL inductor voltages show that the peak to peak output
voltage swing is determined by the ESL inductor, giving
v o  VESL

 VESL


= 360mV + 120mV = 480mV

The percentage ripple in the output voltage is 480mV/48V = 1%.

x. From equation (19.43) the apparent load resistance is

1 1
R i  2 Ro  2 1  16
 ¼
♣

19.1.6 Underlying operational mechanisms of the forward converter

The inductor current is pivotal to the analysis and understanding of any voltage sourced smps. For
analysis, the smps internal and external electrical conditions are in steady-state on a cycle-by-cycle
basis and the input power is equal to the output power.

The first concept to appreciate is that the net capacitor charge change is zero over each switching cycle.
That is, the average capacitor current is zero:
1 t 
I c   i c t  dt  0
 t
In so being, the output capacitor provides any load current deficit and stores any load current (inductor)
surplus associated with the inductor current within each complete cycle. Thus, the capacitor is a
temporary storage component where the capacitor voltage is fixed on a cycle-by-cycle basis, and
because of its large capacitance does not vary significantly within a cycle.

The second concept involved is that the average inductor voltage is zero. Based on v  L di / dt , the
equal area criteria in chapter 13.1.3i,
Chapter 19 DC to DC Converters – Switched-Mode 806

1 t 
v L t  dt  0 since i t   i t in steady - state
L
i t   i t 
t

Thus the average inductor voltage is zero:

1 t 
V L   v L t  dt  0
 t
The most enlightening way to appreciate the converter operating mechanisms is to consider how the
inductor current varies with load resistance R and inductance L. The figure 19.5 shows the inductor
current associated with the various parts of example 19.1.

For continuous inductor current operation, the two necessary and sufficient equations are Io = vo /R and
equation (19.2). Since the duty cycle and on-time are fixed for a given output voltage requirement,
equation (19.2) can be simplified to show that the ripple current is inversely proportional to inductance,
as follows
vo
i L   (  t  )
L (19.44)
1
i L 
L
Since the average inductor current is equal to the load current, then, at a given output voltage, the
average inductor current is inversely proportional to the load resistance, that is
IL  Io  vo / R
1 (19.45)
IL 
R

IL IL Rload L IL ILp-p
vo/R

L
asing
96A
72A Ω

decre
decreasing R LOAD

36A

48A 200μH 18A

1Ω
vo/R
100μH

37½μH

24A 2Ω

verge of
discontinuous
9A 16/3Ω
inductor current

δ 1-δ δ 1-δ

0 25μs 100μs t 0 25μs 100μs t

(a) (b)
Figure 19.5. Forward converter (buck converter) operational mechanisms showing that:
(a) the average inductor current is inversely proportional to load resistance R (fixed L) and (b) the
inductor ripple current magnitude is inversely proportional to inductance L (fixed load R).

Equation (19.45) predicts that the average inductor current is inversely proportional to the load
resistance, as shown in figure 19.5a. As the load is increased (load resistor decreased), the triangular
807 Power Electronics

inductor current moves vertically up, but importantly, from equation (19.44), the peak-to-peak ripple
current is constant, that is the ripple current is independent of the load. As the load current is
progressively decreased, by increasing R, the peak-to-peak current is unchanged; the inductor minimum
current eventually reduces to zero, and discontinuous inductor current operation occurs.

Equation (19.44) indicates that the inductor ripple current is inversely proportional to inductance, as
shown in figure 19.5b. As the inductance is varied the ripple current varies inversely, but importantly,
from equation (19.45), the average current is constant, and specifically the average current value is not
related to inductance L and is solely determined by the load current, vo /R. As the inductance decreases
the magnitude of the ripple current increases, the average is unchanged, and the minimum inductor
current eventually reaches zero and discontinuous inductor current operation results.

19.1.7 Hysteresis voltage feedback control of the forward converter

The main function of a dc-to-dc converter is to provide a regulated output voltage, independent of input
voltage or load changes, and it must respond quickly to maintain the output voltage due to any input
voltage or load changes. Figure 19.6a shows a hysteresis controller for the buck and forward converters.
The comparator compares the output voltage Vo to a reference voltage Vref. If Vo < Vref, the switch T1 is
turned off. If Vo < Vref, the switch is turned on. This process is repeated continuously such that Vo is
maintained at a value close to Vref.
Undesirable high frequency switching action, chattering, is avoided by creating a dead band around Vref.
The dead band is created by using an upper boundary Vupper and a lower boundary Vlower. The region
between the two boundaries is the dead band. Resistors Rf/b and Rref produce the required dead band
and their values determine the upper and lower boundaries of the dead band.
Vref
vo/p upper boundary
Rf/b Rref
switch off
T1 + switch on
_
vo/p
Vs lower boundary

L C + Io
Rload Vo Vgs
D1
t

(a) (b)
Figure 19.6: The hysteresis controller with a dead band.

The comparator in figure 19.6a is a Schmitt trigger. The input voltage v+ of the positive op-amp input
depends on Vref, vo/p, Rf/b, and Rref. It switches from one boundary of the dead band to the other. During
initial start-up of the buck converter, the op-amp negative input v- is a small positive voltage and is less
than v+. The amplifier saturates such that vo/p attains the op-amp supply, thus the switch is turned on and
v+ is given by:
Rref Rf /b
v  v o /p  V (19.46)
Rref  Rf /b Rref  Rf /b ref
Progressively the output voltage Vo increases. The op-amp output voltage, vo/p, remains unchanged until
Vo is equal to v+. The op-amp then enters its linear region and vo/p decreases, as does v+. This continues
until vo/p reaches zero and the op-amp saturates again. The voltage v+ is now given by:
Rf / b
v  V (19.47)
Rref  Rf /b ref
Equations (19.46) and (19.47) represent the control boundaries of the control circuit where equation
(19.46) defines the upper boundary and equation (19.47) gives the lower boundary of the dead band.
The dead band is derived by subtracting equations (19.47) and (19.46), and is given by equation (19.48)
Rf /b
Dband  v (19.48)
Rref  Rf /b o / p
Rf/b and Rref are chosen to give the required ΔDband / vo/p.

When the output voltage Vo is inside the dead band, the switch is off. Regardless of where the voltage
starts, switching starts as soon as a boundary is traversed. In figure 19.6b the converter start-up process
is illustrated. The switch T 1 turns on initially because the output voltage Vo is below the turn-on
Chapter 19 DC to DC Converters – Switched-Mode 808

boundary, Vlower. The output voltage rises from zero to Vupper at a rate limited by the inductor L, the
capacitor C, and the load. The switch then turns off as the output voltage crosses the upper boundary
Vupper and remains off until the output voltage falls crosses below the lower boundary Vlower where the
switch is turned on. Once the voltage is between the boundaries, within the hysteresis bounds, on-off
switching action attempts to maintain the current within the boundaries under all conditions.
System operation becomes independent of the input, the load, the inductor, and the capacitor values.
The system tracks the desired voltage Vref even if the component values or the load changes drastically.
A drawback is that the controller gives rise to an overvoltage during start-up. This problem can be solved
by the correct selection of the inductance and capacitance values that allow the output voltage to rise
exponentially and settle somewhat close to the desired output voltage, while maintaining the desired
ripple voltage. In power electronics terms, the major limitation is possible broadband EMC generation
due to a widely varying switching frequency. The closer the hysteresis bounds, the higher the upper
frequency, the wider the frequency variation.

Design Procedure
In the steady-state, the converter output voltage depends on the input voltage Vs, the switching
frequency fs, and the on duration of the switching period ton and is given by equation (19.4):
Vo  t on f sV s   V s
The product ton x fs is defined as the duty ratio δ. The output voltage Vo is regulated by changing δ while
fs is kept constant. This pulse width modulation method is widely used in dc-dc converters.
Another approach to regulate Vo is to vary fs, keeping δ constant. However, this is undesirable because
it is difficult to filter the wide bandwidth ripple in the input and output signals of the converter.
Hysteresis control of the buck converter is fixed boundary control. Vo is regulated by the switching action
of the switch T1 as the output Vo crosses the upper or the lower boundary of the hysteresis dead band.
In hysteresis control, fs and δ are not fixed, but change with the converter conditions. For a given set of
converter parameters, both fs and δ are determined by the hysteresis boundaries, thus frequency fs and
the duty ratio δ are not control parameters in the design of hysteresis controllers. No matter what type of
control is used, the basic operating principles of the buck converter do not change. The converter output
voltage ripple depends on the dead band of the controller. As the dead band increases (or decreases),
the output voltage ripple increases (or decreases) in conjunction with the switching frequency
decreasing (or increasing). The voltage ripple specification can be ensured by setting the dead band of
the controller at 50% of the ripple specifications with a suitable inductance value.
A properly designed hysteresis controller has excellent steady-state and dynamic properties. It responds
quickly to step voltage set point changes. Fixed boundary controllers are stable under extreme
disturbance conditions and can be chosen to guarantee ripple specifications or other converter operating
constraints.

Example 19.2: Hysteresis controlled buck converter

A dc-dc buck converter is to be regulated with voltage-based hysteresis control. The output voltage Vo =
5V and the load varies between 1 and 5Ω. The input voltage Vs also varies between 16V and 24V with a
nominal value of 20V. The maximum ripple voltage is to be limited to ±1% and the nominal switching
frequency is fs = 100kHz.
Design to necessary controller and specify the converter L and C values.

Solution

The output voltage ripple is

V o
 2%
Vo
Vo  0.02  5V  0.1V
To fulfil the required voltage ripple specification, the hysteresis band is chosen to be 50% of the output
voltage ripple to account for an increase in the ripple magnitude due to the natural response of the
converter RLC circuit, after the switch is turned off. The hysteresis band is
D band  0.5  0.1V  0.05V
Solving equation (19.48) for Rf/b:
 V 
Rf /b  Rref  o  1 
 D b 
Let Rref = 100Ω and vo = 10V. Then Rf/b is
 10V 
Rf /b  100  - 1   19.9k
 0.05V 
809 Power Electronics

These resistances produce a hysteresis band that fulfils the output ripple requirement. The maximum
and minimum values of the load current are
V 5V
Io  o   5A
Rmin 1
and

V 5V
Io  o   1A
Rmax 5
Let the inductor current and the capacitor voltage swings be 10%. The inductor must limit the current
swing at maximum load. The total current swing is as follows. Since
I L
 10%
Io
I L  0.1  5A  0.5A
The capacitor voltage swing is
Vc
 10%
Vo
Vc  0.1  0.1V  0.01V
Since the waveform of the output ripple voltage is approximately sinusoidal, accounting for the
equivalent series resistance, ESR, of the capacitor C, the output ripple voltage is then
Vo  Vc2  VESR
2

where ΔVESR is the voltage ripple across the capacitor resistance RESR. The ΔVESR is usually much
greater than ΔVc, thus a close approximation of the peak-to-peak output voltage ripple is:
Vo  VESR
(19.49)
 I c RESR   I L - I R  RESR
With the result for ΔIL, the inductor L is
V V Vo  5V  20V  5V 
L o s   75μH
V s f s I L 20V  100kHz  0.5A
The capacitance is
I L 0.5A
C    62.5μF  68μF
8f s Vc 8  100kHz  0.01V

The ESR of the capacitor can be determined from equation (19.49):

Vo 0.1V
RESR    ¼
I L  I R 0.5A  0.1A

Transient overshoot, undershoot, and recovery time to step load and input changes are important
performance parameters in buck converters. Since the current in the inductor cannot change
instantaneously, the transient response is inherently inferior to that of linear regulators. The recovery
time to step changes in the line and the load is controlled by the characteristic of the controller feedback
loop. Transient overshoot and undershoot resulting from step load changes can be analyzed and
calculated as follows. The ac output impedance is
V Vo
Z out  s
I load
Since
di dv
VL  L L and I o  C
dt dt
thus
LI o
Z out 
 s Vo  C
V
As a result, for an increasing load current, from 1A to 5A, the change in the output voltage (transient
undershoot) is:

L I o2
V o  I o Z out 
Vs Vo  C
75μH  5A  1A 
2

  1.231
20V  5V   68μF
Chapter 19 DC to DC Converters – Switched-Mode 810

and for a decreasing load current, from 5A to 1A, the change in the output voltage (transient overshoot)
is
LI 2
V o  o
Vo C
75μH   5A  1A 
2

  3.69V
5V  68μF
♣

19.2 Flyback converters

Flyback converters store energy in an inductor, (‘choke’), before transferring any energy to the load and
output capacitor such that controllable output voltage magnitudes in excess of the input voltage are
attainable. The key characteristic is that whilst energy is being transferred to the inductor, load energy is
provided by the output capacitor. Such converters are also known as ringing choke converters.

Two basic (minimum component count and transformerless) versions of the flyback converter are
possible, both are integral to the same underlying fundamental circuit configuration (see section 19.5):
both exist concurrently in the one circuit.
 The step-up voltage flyback converter, called the boost converter, where the input and
output voltage have the same polarity - non-inversion, and vo ≥ Ei.
 The step-up/step-down voltage flyback converter, called the buck-boost converter,
(technically boost-buck) where output voltage polarity inversion occurs, that is │vo│≥ 0.

19.3 The boost converter

The boost converter transforms a dc voltage input to a dc voltage output that is greater in magnitude but
has the same relative polarity as the input. The basic circuit configuration is shown in figure 19.7a. It will
be seen that when the transistor is off, the output capacitor is charged to the input voltage Ei. Inherently,
the output voltage vo can never be less than the input voltage level.
When the transistor T is turned on, the supply voltage Ei is applied across the inductor L and the
diode D is reverse-biased by the output voltage vo. Energy is transferred from the supply to L and when
the transistor is turned off this energy is transferred to the load and output capacitor through D. While
the inductor is transferring its stored energy to C and the load, energy is also provided from the input
source.
The output current is always discontinuous, but the input current can be either continuous or
discontinuous. For analysis, assume vo > Ei and a constant input and output voltage. Inductor currents
are then linear and vary according to v = L di/dt.

19.3.1 Continuous inductor current (CCM - continuous conduction mode)

The circuit voltage and current waveforms for continuous inductor conduction (CCM) are shown in figure
19.7b. The inductor current excursion, from v = L di/dt, which is the input current excursion, during the
switch on-time tT and switch off-time τ- tT , assuming vo ≥ Ei, is given by
(v - E i ) E
i L  o (  t T )  i t T (19.50)
L L

After rearranging, the voltage and current transfer function is given by

vo I i 1
  (19.51)
Ei I o 1  

where δ = tT /τ, tT is the transistor on-time, and Pin = Pout, that is, Ei Ii = vo Io is assumed.

The maximum inductor current, which is the maximum input current, i L , using equation (19.50) and vo =
IoR, is given by
 E i tT
i L  I L  ½i L  I i  ½
L
(19.52)

Io v
 ½ o 1 -     v o
 1

1 -    
 
1 L  1    R 2L 
811 Power Electronics


while the minimum inductor current, i L is given by
 E i tT
i L  I L  ½i L  I i  ½
L
(19.53)

Io v
 ½ o 1 -     v o
 1

1 -    
 
1 L  1    R 2L 

For continuous conduction i L  0 , that is, from equation (19.53)
Et v (1   ) t T
IL  ½ i T  ½ o (19.54)
L L
The inductor rms ripple current (and input ripple current in this case) is given by
i 1 vo
i Lr  L  1 -    (19.55)
2 3 2 3 L
. .

The harmonic components in the input current are

2 E i  sin n  2 v o sin n 
I in   (19.56)
2 n 1    L
2 2
2 2n 2L
while the inductor total rms current is
2
  ⅓  i  i  i  i 
2 2
½i L
i L rms  I L2  i L2r  I L2  
  L L L L  (19.57)
 3  .

The switch and diode average and rms currents are given by
IT  I i  I o   I i  I L I T rms   i L rms
(19.58)
I D  1    I i  I o I D r ms  1   i L rms

ii = iL

tD tD

Figure 19.7. Non-isolated, step-up, flyback converter (boost converter) where v0 ≥E1:
(a) circuit diagram; (b) continuous input current; and (c) discontinuous input current waveforms.
Chapter 19 DC to DC Converters – Switched-Mode 812

Switch and converter utilisation ratios

The switch utilisation ratio, SUR, is a measure of how fully a switching device’s power handling
capabilities are utilised in any switching application. The ratio is defined as
Pout
SUR  (19.59)
p VT I T
where p is the number of power switches in the circuit; p=1 for the boost converter. The switch
maximum instantaneous voltage and current are V T and I T respectively. As shown in figure 19.7b, the
maximum switch  voltage supported in the off-state is vo, while the maximum current is the maximum
inductor current i L which is given by equation (19.52). If the inductance L is large such that the ripple
current is small, the peak inductor current is approximated by the average inductor current such that
I T  I L  I o / 1   , that is
vo I o
SUR  1 (19.60)
vo  I o
1
which assumes continuous inductor current. This result shows that the lower the duty cycle, that is the
closer the step-up voltage vo is to the input voltage Ei, the better the switch I-V ratings are utilised.
The total converter semiconductor utilisation is represented by the factor Uf:
Prated 
Uf   (19.61)
V max I rms    
∀Si

19.3.2 Discontinuous capacitor charging current in the switch off-state

It is possible that the input current (inductor current) falls below the output (resistor) current during a part
of the cycle when the switch is off and the inductor is transferring energy to the output circuit. Under
such conditions, towards the end of the off period, part of the load current requirement is provided by the
capacitor even though this is the period during which its charge is replenished by inductor energy. The
circuit independent transfer function in equation (19.51) remains

valid. This C discontinuous charging
condition commences when the minimum inductor current i L and the output current Io are equal. That is

I LI o  0
I L  ½ i L  I o  0 (19.62)
Io E i 
½ Io  0
1 L
which yields
2L
 1 (19.63)
R

19.3.3 Discontinuous inductor current (DCM - discontinuous conduction mode)

If the inequality in equation (19.54) is not satisfied, the input current, which is also the inductor current,
reaches zero and discontinuous inductor conduction occurs during the switch off period. Various circuit
voltage and current waveforms for discontinuous inductor conduction are shown in figure 19.7c. 
The onset of discontinuous inductor current operation occurs when the minimum inductor current i L ,
reaches zero. That is, with i L  0 in equation (19.53), the last equality
1

1 -     0
(19.64)
1    R 2L
relates circuit component values (R and L) and operating conditions (f and δ) at the verge of
discontinuous inductor current.

With i L  0 , the output voltage is determined as follows
 Et (v  E i )
iL  i T  o (  t T  t x ) (19.65)
L L
yielding
t
1  x
vo
 (19.66)
Ei t
1  x  
813 Power Electronics

Alternatively, using
 E i tT
iL 
L
and

I L  I o  ½ i L
yields
2 Et
(I  I o )  i T
 L L
Assuming power-in equals power-out and I L  I i
2 v Et
I o ( o  1)  i T
 Ei L
that is
vo E  2 v  2
1 i 1 o (19.67)
Ei 2LI o 2LI i
or
vo 1
 (19.68)
Ei E i  2
1
2LI i

On the verge of discontinuous conduction (when equation (19.51) is valid), these equations can be
rearranged to give
E
I o  i  (1   ) (19.69)
2L

At a low output current or low input voltage, there is a likelihood of discontinuous inductor current
conduction. (See appendix 20.5.) To avoid discontinuous conduction, larger inductance values are
needed, which worsen the transient response. Alternatively, with extremely high on-state duty cycles,
(because of a low input voltage Ei) a voltage-matching step-up transformer can be used to decrease δ.
Figures 19.7b and c show that the output current is always discontinuous, independent of continuous or
discontinuous inductor conduction.

19.3.4 Load conditions for discontinuous inductor current

As the load current decreases, the inductor average current also decreases, but the inductor ripple
current magnitude is unchanged.

If the load resistance is increased sufficiently, the bottom of the
triangular inductor current, i L , eventually reduces to zero. Any further increase in load resistance
causes discontinuous inductor current and the voltage transfer function given by equation (19.51) is no
longer valid and equations (19.66) and (19.67) are applicable. (Certain circuit parameter values - L, R,
and τ - can avoid discontinuous conduction for all δ. See appendix 20.5.) The critical load resistance for
continuous inductor current is specified by
vo
Rcrit  (19.70)
Io
Eliminating the output current by using the fact that power-in equals power-out and I i  I L , yields
vo v2
Rcrit   o (19.71)
Io Ei IL
Using I L  ½i L then substituting with the right hand equality of equation (19.50), halved, gives
vo v2 v 2 2L 2L
Rcrit   o  o2  (19.72)
I o E i I L E i t T  (1   )2
The critical resistance can be expressed in a number of forms. By substituting the switching frequency
( f s  1 /  ) or the fundamental inductor reactance ( X L  2 f s L ) the following forms result.
vo 2L v 2L 2f s L XL
Rcrit    o    () (19.73)
I o  (1   )2
E i  (1   )  (1   )2
 (1   )2
Rearranged this equation gives Lmin. Equation (19.73) is equation (19.64), re-arranged.
If the load resistance increases beyond Rcrit, generally the output voltage can no longer be maintained
with purely duty cycle control according to the voltage transfer function in equation (19.51).
Chapter 19 DC to DC Converters – Switched-Mode 814

19.3.5 Control methods for discontinuous inductor current

Once the load current has reduced to the critical level as specified by equation (19.73), the input energy
is in excess of the load requirement. Open loop load voltage regulation control is lost and the capacitor
C tends to overcharge, thereby increasing vo.
Hardware approaches can be used to solve this problem – by ensuring continuous inductor current
 increase L thereby decreasing the inductor current ripple p-p magnitude
 step-down transformer impedance matching to effectively reduce the apparent load impedance
Two control approaches to maintain output voltage regulation when R > Rcrit are
 vary the switching frequency fs, maintaining the switch on-time tT constant so that ΔiL is fixed or
 reduce the switch on-time tT , but maintain a constant switching frequency fs, thereby reducing ΔiL.
If a fixed switching frequency is desired for all modes of operation, then reduced on-time control, using
output voltage feedback, is preferred. If a fixed on-time mode of control is used, then the output voltage
is control by inversely varying the frequency with output voltage. Alternatively, output voltage feedback
can be used.

19.3.5i - fixed on-time tT, variable switching frequency fvar

The operating frequency fvar is varied while the switch-on time tT is maintained constant such that the
ripple current remains unchanged. Operation is specified by equating the input energy and the output
energy, thus maintaining a constant capacitor charge, hence output voltage. That is, equating energies
v2 1
½i LE i   o (19.74)
R f var
Isolating the variable switching frequency fvar gives
v o2 1 1
f var   fs Rcrit 
½i LE i  R R
1
f var  (19.75)
R
Load resistance R is not a directly or readily measurable parameter for feedback proposes. Alternatively,
since v o  Io R , substitution for R in equation (19.75) gives
R
f var  f s crit  Io
vo (19.76)
f var  Io
That is, for discontinuous inductor current, namely I i  ½i L or Io  v o / Rcrit , if the switch on-state
period tT remains constant and fvar is either varied proportionally with load current or varied inversely with
load resistance, then the required output voltage vo will be maintained.

19.3.5ii - fixed switching frequency fs, variable on-time tTvar

The operating frequency fs remains fixed while the switch-on time tTvar is reduced such that the ripple
current can be reduced. Operation is specified by equating the input energy and the output energy as in
equation (19.74), thus maintaining a constant capacitor charge, hence voltage. That is
v2 1
½i LE i t T var  o (19.77)
R fs
Isolating the variable on-time tTvar gives
v o2 1
t T var 
½ i LE i f s R
Substituting ΔiL from equation (19.50) gives
1
t T var  t T Rcrit 
R
.

(19.78)
1
t T var 
R
.

Again, load resistance R is not a directly or readily measurable parameter for feedback proposes and
substitution of v o / Io for R in equation (19.78) gives
 815 Power Electronics

Rcrit
t T var  t T  Io
vo
.

(19.79)
t T var  Io .

That is, if the switching frequency fs is fixed and switch on-time tT is reduced proportionally to Io or
.

inversely to R , when discontinuous inductor current commences, namely I i  ½i L or Io  v o / Rcrit ,

.

then the required output voltage magnitude vo will be maintained.

19.3.6 Output ripple voltage

The output ripple voltage is the capacitor ripple voltage. The ripple voltage for a capacitor is defined as
1 1
v o  C  i dt  C
Q
Figure 19.7 shows that for continuous inductor current, the constant output current I o is provided solely
from the capacitor during the period tT when the switch is on, thus
1 1
v o  C  i dt  C
tT I o
Substituting for I o  v o / R gives
vo
v o  C1  i dt  C1 tT I o  C1 tT
R
Rearranging gives the percentage voltage ripple (peak to peak) in the output voltage
v o 
 (19.80)
vo RC
The capacitor equivalent series resistance and inductance can be account for, as with the forward
converter, 19.1.4. When the switch conducts, the output current is constant and is provided from the
capacitor. Thus no ESL voltage effects result during this constant capacitor current portion of the cycle.

Example 19.3: Boost (step-up flyback) converter

The boost converter in figure 19.7 is to operate with a 50μs transistor fixed on-time in order to convert
the 50 V input up to 75 V at the output. The inductor is 250μH and the resistive load is 2.5Ω.

i. Calculate the switching frequency, hence transistor off-time, assuming continuous inductor current.
ii. Calculate the mean input and output current.
iii. Draw the inductor current, showing the minimum and maximum values.
iv. Calculate the capacitor rms ripple current.
v. Derive general expressions relating the operating frequency to varying load resistance.
vi. At what load resistance does the instantaneous input current fall below the output current.

Solution

i. From equation (19.51), which assumes continuous inductor current

vo 1 t
 where   T
Ei 1   
that is
75V 1 50μs
 where   ⅓
50V 1   
That is, τ = 150 μs or fs = 1/τ = 6.66 kHz, with a 100μs switch off-time.

ii. The mean output current I o is given by

I o  v o / R  75V/2.5Ω = 30A
From power transfer considerations, the average input current is
I i  I L  v o I o / E i  75V×30A/50V = 45A

iii. From v = L di/dt, the ripple current ΔiL = Ei tT /L = 50V x 50μs /250 μH = 10 A
that is

i L  I L  ½i L  45A + ½×10A = 50A

i L  I L  ½i L  45A - ½×10A = 40A
Chapter 19 DC to DC Converters – Switched-Mode 816

Figure 19.8: Example 19.2a.

iv. The capacitor current is derived by using Kirchhoff’s current law such that at any instant in time, the
diode current, plus the capacitor current, plus the 30A constant load current into R, all sum to zero.
1  tT  tT i  
i C rms     I o 2dt   ( L t  i L  I o )2 dt 
  t
.

0 0
 T 
1  50 μs 100 μs 10A 
150μs   0
 30A 2dt   ( t  20A)2 dt  = 21.3A
100μs
.

0

ic

equal areas
(charges)
1.5mC

Figure 19.9: Example 19.2b.

v. The critical load resistance, Rcrit, produces an input current with ΔiL = 10 A ripple. Since the energy
input equals the energy output
½i  E i    v o  v o / Rcrit  
that is
2v o2 2×75V 2
Rcrit   = 22½Ω
E i i 50V×10A
Alternatively, equation (19.73) or equation (19.54) can be rearranged to give Rcrit.

For a load resistance of less than 22½ Ω, continuous inductor current flows and the operating frequency
is fixed at 6.66 kHz with δ = ⅓, that is

fs = 6.66 kHz for all R ≤ 22½ Ω

For load resistance greater than 22½ Ω, (< vo /Rcrit = 3⅓A), the energy input occurs in 150 μs burst
whence from equation (19.74)
v2 1
½i LE i  150μs  o
R f var
that is
Rcrit 1 22½Ω 1
f var  
 R 150μs R
150
f var  kHz for R  22½
R

vi. The ±5A inductor ripple current is independent of the load, provided the critical load resistance is
not exceeded. When the average inductor current (input current) is less than 5A more than the output
current, the capacitor must provide load current not only when the switch is on but also when the switch
is off. The transition is given by equation (19.63), that is
817 Power Electronics

2L
 1
R
2×250μH
⅓ 1 -
150μs  R
This yields R ≥ 7½Ω and a load current of 10A. The average inductor current is 15A, with a minimum
value of 10A, the same as the load current. That is, for R < 7½Ω all the load requirement is provided
from the input inductor when the switch is off, with excess energy charging (replenishing) the output
capacitor. For R > 7½Ω insufficient energy is available from the inductor to provide the load energy
throughout the whole of the period when the switch is off. The capacitor supplements the load
requirement towards the end of the off period. When R > 22½Ω (the critical resistance), discontinuous
inductor current occurs, and the duty cycle dependent transfer function is no longer valid.
♣

Example 19.4: Alternative boost (step-up flyback) converter

The alternative boost converters (producing a dc supply either above Ei (left) or below 0V (right) – see
figure 19.15b) shown in the following figure are to operate under the same conditions as the boost
converter in example 19.3, namely, with a 50μs transistor fixed on-time in order to convert the 50V input
up to 75V at the output. The energy transfer inductor is 250μH and the resistive load is 2.5Ω.
i. Derive the voltage transfer ratio and critical resistance expression for the alternative boost converter,
hence showing the control performance is identical to the boost converter shown in figure 19.7.
ii. By considering circuit voltage and current waveforms, identify how the two boost converters differ
from the conventional boost circuit in figure 19.7. Use example 19.3 for a comparison basis.

io io
vC = vo /R = vo /R

R
L

vC
Figure 19.10:
Example 19.3
- circuits

Solution

i. Assuming non-zero, continuous inductor current, the inductor current excursion, from v = Ldi/dt, which
for this boost converter is not the input current excursion, during the switch on-time tT and switch off-time
τ - tT, is given by
L i L  E i t T  v C (  t T )
but v C  v o  E i , thus substitution for vC gives
E i t T  (v o  E i )(  t T )
and after rearranging
vo I i 1   
  1 : that is v o  E i alternately E i  v o  v o 
E i I o 1    1 
where δ = tT /τ and tT is the transistor on-time. This is the same voltage transfer function as for the
conventional boost converter, equation (19.51). This result would be expected since both converters
have the same ac equivalent circuit. Similarly, the critical resistance would be expected to be the same
for each boost converter variation.
Examination of the switch on and off states shows that during the switch on-state, energy is transfer to
the load from the input supply, independent of switching action. This mechanism is analogous to ac
auto-transformer action where the output current is due to both transformer action and the input current
being directed to the load.
The critical load resistance for continuous inductor current is specified by Rcrit  v o / I o .
 Chapter 19 DC to DC Converters – Switched-Mode 818

By equating the capacitor net charge flow, the inductor current is related to the output current by
I L  I o / (1   ) . At minimum inductor current, I L  ½i L and substituting with i L  E i t T / L , gives
v vo vo vo 2L
Rcrit  o    
I o (1   )I L (1   )½i L (1   )½E i tT / L  (1   )2
Thus for a given energy throughput, some energy is provided from the supply to the load when providing
the inductor energy, hence the discontinuous inductor current threshold occurs at the same load level for
each boost converter, including the basic converter in figure 19.7.

ii. Since the boost circuits have the same ac equivalent circuit, the inductor and capacitor, currents and
voltages would be expected to be basically the same for each circuit, as shown by the waveforms in
example 19.3. Consequently, the switch and diode voltages and currents are also the same for each
boost converter. (Technically the switch on and off states are those of the buck-boost converter.)
The two principal differences are the supply current and the capacitor voltage rating. The capacitor
voltage rating for the alternative boost converter is lower, vo - Ei, as opposed to vo for the conventional
converter. The supply current for the alternative converter is discontinuous (although always non-zero),
as shown in the waveforms. This will negate the desirable continuous current feature exploited in boost
converters that are controlled so as to produce sinusoidal input current or draw continuous input power.
An isolated version, with the input supply isolated from the load, is not possible. But the couple inductor
version shown in the example figure can be useful in avoiding very short (or long) switch duty cycles and
help control (both avoiding or ensuring) continuous inductor current conduction conditions. Since the
throughput energy is based on stored energy, the process is core volume dependant (E=½BHxVolume).

iC

vC io
= vo /R
Ls

Lp

Isupply
(A)
80
70

Iload
30

t (μs)

Figure 19.11: Example 19.3 – waveforms and coupled circuit version.

19.4 The buck-boost converter

The basic buck-boost flyback converter circuit is shown in figure 19.12a. When transistor T is on, energy
is transferred to the inductor and the load current is provided solely from the output capacitor. When the
transistor turns off, inductor current is forced through the diode. Energy stored in L is transferred to C
and the load R. This transfer action results in an output voltage of opposite polarity to that of the input.
Neither the input nor the output current is continuous, although the inductor current may be continuous
or discontinuous.

19.4.1 Continuous choke (inductor) current (CCM - continuous conduction mode)

Various circuit voltage and current waveforms for the buck-boost flyback converter operating in a
continuous inductor conduction mode (CCM) are shown in figure 19.12b.
Assuming a constant input and output voltage, from v = Ldi/dt, the change in inductor current is given by
E v
i L  i t T  o (  t T ) (19.81)
L L
Thus assuming Pin = Pout, that is v o I o  E i I i
819 Power Electronics

vo I i 
  (19.82)
Ei I o 1
where δ = tT /τ. For δ < ½ the output magnitude is less than the input voltage magnitude, while for δ > ½
the output voltage is greater in magnitude (but as for δ < ½, opposite in polarity) than the input voltage.

The maximum and minimum inductor current is given by

 I v
i L  o  ½ o 1 -     v o 
 1

1 -    
 (19.83)
1 L  1    R 2L 
and

I v
i L  o  ½ o 1 -     v o 
 1

1 -    
 (19.84)
1 L  1    R 2L 
The inductor rms ripple current is given by
i 1 vo
iLr  L  1 -    (19.85)
2 3 2 3 L
. .

while the inductor total rms current is

2
  ⅓  i  i  i  i 
2 2
½i L
i L rms  I L2  i L2r  I L2  
  L L L L  (19.86)
 3  .

The switch and diode average and rms currents are given by
IT  I i  I L I D  1    I L  I o I Trms   i L rms I Drms  1   i L rms (19.87)

tD tD

Figure 19.12. Non-isolated, step up/down flyback converter (buck-boost converter) where vo ≤ 0:
(a) circuit diagram; (b) waveforms for continuous inductor current; and (c) discontinuous inductor current.
Chapter 19 DC to DC Converters – Switched-Mode 820

Switch and converter utilisation ratios

The switch utilisation ratio, SUR, is a measure of how fully a switching device’s power handling
capabilities are utilised in any switching application. The ratio is defined as
Pout
SUR  (19.88)
p VT I T
where p is the number of power switches in the circuit; p=1 for the buck-boost converter. The switch
maximum instantaneous voltage and current are VT and I T respectively. As shown in figure 19.12b, the
maximum switch voltage supported in the off-state is Ei + vo, while the maximum current is the maximum
inductor current i L which is given by equation (19.83). If the inductance L is large such that the ripple
current is small, the peak inductor current is approximated by the average inductor current which yields
I T  I L  I o / 1   , that is
vo I o
SUR    1    (19.89)
 i o  I o /1  
E  v
which assumes continuous inductor current. This result shows that the closer the output voltage vo is in
magnitude to the input voltage Ei, that is δ = ½, the better the switch I-V ratings are utilised.
The total converter semiconductor utilisation is represented by the factor Uf:
Prated  
Uf   (19.90)
 max rms    
∀Si
V I

19.4.2 Discontinuous capacitor charging current in the switch off-state

It is possible that the inductor current falls below the output (resistor) current during a part of the cycle
when the switch is off and the inductor is transferring (replenishing) energy to the output circuit. Under
such conditions, towards the end of the off period, some of the load current requirement is provided by
the capacitor even though this is the period during which its charge is replenished by inductor energy.
The circuit independent transfer function in equation (19.82) remains valid. This discontinuous capacitor
charging condition occurs when the minimum inductor current and the output current are equal. That is

I LI o  0
I L  ½i L  I o  0 (19.91)
Io I oR
L 
½ 1 -    I o  0
1
which yields
2
L  L 
 1  1  1 (19.92)
R   R 

19.4.3 Discontinuous choke current (DCM - discontinuous conduction mode)


The onset of discontinuous

inductor operation occurs when the minimum inductor current i L , reaches
zero. That is, with i L  0 in equation (19.84), the last equality
1

1 -     0
(19.93)
1    R 2L
relates circuit component values (R and L) and operating conditions (f and δ) at the verge of
discontinuous inductor current.
The change from continuous to discontinuous inductor current conduction occurs when

I L  ½ i L  ½ i L (19.94)

where from equation (19.81) i L  v o (  t T ) / L

The circuit waveforms for discontinuous conduction are shown in figure 19.12c. The output voltage for
discontinuous conduction is evaluated from
 E v
i L  i t   o (  t T  t x ) (19.95)
L L
which yields
vo 
 (19.96)
Ei t
1  x

Alternatively, using equation (19.95) and
821 Power Electronics


I i  ½ i L (19.97)
yields
E i  2
Ii  (19.98)
2L
The inductor current is neither the input current nor the output current, but is comprised of separate
displaced components (in time) of each of these currents. Examination of figure 19.12b, reveals that
these currents are a proportion of the inductor current dependant on the duty cycle, and that on the
verge of discontinuous conduction:
   
I i  ½ i L and I o  ½off i L  ½ 1 -   i L where i L  i L
Thus using power in equals power out, that is E i I i  v o I o , equation (19.98) becomes
v o E i  2 v o 2 R
   (19.99)
Ei 2LI o 2LI i 2L
On the verge of discontinuous conduction, these equations can be rearranged to give
E v
I o  i  (1   )  o  (1   )2 (19.100)
2L 2L

At a low output current or low input voltage there is a likelihood of discontinuous conduction. To avoid
this condition, a larger inductance value is needed, which degardes the transient response. Alternatively,
with extremely low on-state duty cycles, a voltage-matching transformer can be used to increase δ.
Once a transformer is employed, any smps technique can be used to achieve the desired output
voltage. Figures 19.12b and c show that both the input and output currents are always discontinuous.

19.4.4 Load conditions for discontinuous inductor current

As the load current decreases, the inductor average current also decreases, but the inductor ripple
current magnitude is unchanged.

If the load resistance is increased sufficiently, the bottom of the
triangular inductor current, i L , eventually reduces to zero. Any further increase in load resistance
causes discontinuous inductor current and the voltage transfer function given by equation (19.82) is no
longer valid and equations (19.95) and (19.99) are applicable. The critical load resistance for
continuous inductor current is specified by
vo
Rcrit  (19.101)
Io

Substituting for, the average input current in terms of i L and vo in terms of ΔiL from equation (19.81),
yields
v 2L
Rcrit  o  (19.102)
I o  (1   )2
By substituting the switching frequency ( f s  1 /  ) or the fundamental inductor reactance ( X L  2 f s L )
the following critical resistance forms result.
v 2L v 2L 2f s L XL
Rcrit  o   o    () (19.103)
I o  (1   )2 E i  (1   ) (1   )2  (1   )2
Rearranged this equation gives Lmin. Equation (19.103) is equation (19.93), re-arranged.

If the load resistance increases beyond Rcrit, the output voltage can no longer be maintained with duty
cycle control according to the voltage transfer function in equation (19.82).

19.4.5 Control methods for discontinuous inductor current

Once the load current has reduced to the critical level as specified by equation (19.103), the input
energy is in excess of the load requirement. Open loop load voltage regulation control is lost and the
capacitor C tends to overcharge.

Hardware approaches can solve this problem – by ensuring continuous inductor current
 increase L thereby decreasing the inductor current ripple p-p magnitude
 step-down transformer impedance matching to effectively reduce the apparent load impedance

Two control approaches to maintain output voltage regulation when R > Rcrit are
 vary the switching frequency fs, maintaining the switch on-time tT constant so that ΔiL is fixed or
 reduce the switch on-time tT , but maintain a constant switching frequency fs, thereby reducing ΔiL.
Chapter 19 DC to DC Converters – Switched-Mode 822

If a fixed switching frequency is desired for all modes of operation, then reduced on-time control, using
output voltage feedback, is preferred. If a fixed on-time mode of control is used, then the output voltage
is control by inversely varying the frequency with output voltage. Alternatively, output voltage feedback
can be used.
19.4.5i - fixed on-time tT, variable switching frequency fvar

The operating frequency fvar is varied while the switch-on time tT is maintained constant such that the
ripple current remains unchanged. Operation is specified by equating the input energy and the output
energy, thus maintaining a constant capacitor charge, hence output voltage. That is, equating energies
v2 1
½ i LE i t T  o (19.104)
R f var
Isolating the variable switching frequency fvar gives
v o2 1 1
f var   fs Rcrit 
½i LE i t T R R
1
f var  (19.105)
R
Load resistance R is not a directly or readily measurable parameter for feedback proposes. Alternatively,
since v o  Io R , substitution for R in equation (19.105) gives
R
f var  f s crit  Io
vo (19.106)
f var  Io
That is, for discontinuous inductor current, namely I L  ½i L or Io  v o / Rcrit , if the switch on-state
period tT remains constant and fvar is either varied proportionally with load current or varied inversely with
load resistance, then the required output voltage vo will be maintained.

19.4.5ii - fixed switching frequency fs, variable on-time tTvar

The operating frequency fs remains fixed while the switch-on time tTvar is reduced such that the ripple
current can be reduced. Operation is specified by equating the input energy and the output energy as in
equation (19.104), thus maintaining a constant capacitor charge, hence voltage. That is
v2 1
½i LE i t T var  o (19.107)
R fs
Isolating the variable on-time tTvar gives
v o2 1
t T var 
½ i LE i f s R
Substituting ΔiL from equation (19.81) gives
1
t T var  t T Rcrit 
R .

(19.108)
1
t T var 
R
.

Again, load resistance R is not a directly or readily measurable parameter for feedback proposes and
substitution of v o / Io for R in equation (19.78) gives
Rcrit
t T var  t T  Io
vo
.

(19.109)
t T var  Io .

That is, if the switching frequency fs is fixed and switch on-time tT is reduced proportionally to Io or .

inversely to R , when discontinuous inductor current commences, namely I L  ½i L or Io  v o / Rcrit ,

.

then the required output voltage magnitude vo will be maintained.

Alternatively the output voltage is related to the duty cycle by v o   E i R / 2L . See table 19.2.

19.4.6 Output ripple voltage

The output ripple voltage is the capacitor ripple voltage. Ripple voltage for a capacitor is defined as
1
v o  C  i dt
823 Power Electronics

Figure 19.12 shows that the constant output current I o is provided solely from the capacitor during the
on period tT when the switch conducting, thus
1 1
v o  C  i dt  C
tT I o
Substituting for I o  v o / R gives
vo
v o  C1  i dt  C1 tT I o  C1 tT
R
Rearranging gives the percentage peak-to-peak voltage ripple in the output voltage
v o
 1 tT    (19.110)
vo RC RC
The capacitor equivalent series resistance and inductance can be account for, as with the forward
converter, 19.1.5. When the switch conducts, the output current is constant and is provided solely from
the capacitor. Thus no ESL voltage effects result during this constant capacitor current portion of the
switching cycle.

19.4.7 Buck-boost, flyback converter design procedure

The output voltage of the buck-boost converter can be regulated by operating at a fixed frequency and
varying the transistor on-time tT. However, the output voltage diminishes while the transistor is on and
increases when the transistor is off. This characteristic makes the converter difficult to control on a fixed
frequency basis.
A simple approach to control the flyback regulator in the discontinuous mode is to fix the peak inductor
current, which specifies a fixed diode conduction time, tD. Frequency then varies directly with output
current and transistor on-time varies inversely with input voltage.
With discontinuous inductor conduction, the worst-case condition exists when the input voltage is low
while the output current is at a maximum. Then the frequency is a maximum and the dead time tx is zero
because the transistor turns on as soon as the diode stops conducting.
Given Worst case
E i (min) Io (max) E i  E i (min) tx = 0
Vo f (max) eo Io  Io(max)

Assuming a fixed peak inductor current i i and output voltage vo, the following equations are valid

E i (min)t T  v ot D  i i  L (19.111)
 (min)  1 / f (max) (19.112)
Equation (19.111) yields
1
tD  (19.113)
v
f (max) ( o  1)
E i (min)

Where the diode conduction time tD is constant since in equation (19.111), v0, i i , and L are all
constants. The average output capacitor current is given by

Io  ½ i i (1   )
and substituting equation (19.113) yields
 1
Io (max) = ½ i i  f (max) 
v
f (max) ( o  1)
E i (min)
therefore
 vo
i i  2  Io (max)  (  1)
E i (min)
and upon substitution into equation (19.111)
t Dv o
L (19.114)
v
2 Io (max) ( o  1)
E i (min)
The minimum capacitance is specified by the maximum allowable ripple voltage, that is


Q i t
C   i D
eo 2eo
that is
Chapter 19 DC to DC Converters – Switched-Mode 824

 Io (max)t D
C  (19.115)
v
e o ( o  1)
E i (min)

For large output capacitance, the ripple voltage is dropped across the capacitor equivalent series
resistance, which is given by
e
ESR(max)   o (19.116)
ii
The frequency varies as a function of load current. Equation (19.112) gives
Io  I
 ½ i i t T  o (max)
f f (max)
therefore
I
f  f (max)  o (19.117)
Io (max)
and
I
f (min)  f (max)  o (min) (19.118)
Io (max)

Example 19.5: Buck-boost flyback converter

The 10kHz flyback converter in figure 19.12 is to operate from a 50V input and produces an inverted
non-isolated 75V output. The inductor is 300μH and the resistive load is 2.5Ω.
i. Calculate the duty cycle, hence transistor off-time, assuming continuous inductor current.
ii. Calculate the mean input and output current.
iii. Draw the inductor current, showing the minimum and maximum values.
iv. Calculate the capacitor rms ripple current and output p-p ripple voltage if C = 10,000μF.
v. Determine
 the critical load resistance.
 the minimum inductance for continuous inductor conduction with 2.5Ω load.
vi. At what load resistance does the instantaneous inductor current fall below the output current?
vii. What is the output voltage if the load resistance is increased to four times the critical resistance?

Solution

i. From equation (19.96), which assumes continuous inductor current

vo 
 where   tT / 
Ei 1
that is
75V 
 thus   35
50V 1  
That is, τ = 1/ fs = 100 μs with a 60μs switch on-time.

ii. The mean output current I o is given by

I o  v o / R  75V/2.5Ω = 30A
From power transfer considerations
I i  v o I o / E i  75V×30A/50V = 45A
iii. The average inductor current can be derived from
I i   I L or I o (1 -  )I L
That is
I L  I i /  I o / (1 -  )
= 45A/ 3 5 = 30A/ 2 5 = 75A
From v = L di/dt, the ripple current ΔiL = Ei tT /L = 50V x 60μs /300 μH = 10 A, that is

i L  I L  ½i L  75A + ½×10A = 80A

i L  I L  ½i L  75A - ½×10A = 70A

Since i L  70A  0A, the inductor current is continuous, thus the analysis in parts i, ii, and iii, is valid.
825 Power Electronics

iL
(A)
80
75 10A
IL=75A
70

IT ID IT ID
60μs

0 50 100 150 t (μs)

iC
(A)
30 Io=30A

1.8mC

0
0 50 100 150 t (μs)

1.8mC

40

50
Figure 19.13: Example 19.4.

iv. The capacitor current is derived by using Kirchhoff’s current law such that at any instant in time, the
diode current, plus the capacitor current, plus the 30A constant load current into R, all sum to zero.
1  tT  tT i L  
i C rms     I o 2dt   ( t  i L  I o )2 dt 
  tT
.

0 0
 
1  60 μs 40 μs 10A 
100μs   0
 30A 2dt   ( t  50A)2 dt  = 36.8A
40μs
.

0

The output ripple voltage is given by equation (19.110), that is
v o  3  100μs
  5
 0.24%
vo CR 10, 000μF  2½
The output ripple voltage is therefore
v o  0.24  102  75V  180mV

v. The critical load resistance, Rcrit, produces an inductor current with ΔiL = 10 A ripple. From equation
(19.103)
2L 2×300μH
Rcrit   = 37½Ω
 (1   )2
100μs  (1- 35 )2

The minimum inductance for continuous inductor current operation, with a 2½Ω load, can be found by
rearranging the critical resistance formula, as follows:
Lcrit  ½R (1   )2=½×2.5Ω×100μs×(1- 35 )2 = 20μH

vi. The ± 5A inductor ripple current is independent of the load, provided the critical resistance of 37½Ω
is not exceeded. When the average inductor current is less than 5A more than the output current, the
capacitor must provide load current not only when the switch is on but also for a portion of the time when
the switch is off. The transition is given by equation (19.92), that is
2
L  L 
 1  1  1
R   R 
Alternately, when
I L  I o  5A
Io
 I o  5A
1
For δ = 3 5 , I o = 3⅓A. whence
 Chapter 19 DC to DC Converters – Switched-Mode 826

v o 75V
R   22½
I o 10 3 A

The average inductor current is 8⅓A, with a minimum value of 3⅓A, the same as the load current. That
is, for R < 22½Ω all the load requirement is provided from the inductor when the switch is off, with
excess energy charging the output capacitor. For R > 22½Ω insufficient energy is available from the
inductor to provide the load energy throughout the whole of the period when the switch is off. The
capacitor supplements the load requirement towards the end of the off period. When R > 37½Ω (the
critical resistance), discontinuous inductor current occurs, and the purely duty cycle dependent transfer
function (circuit parameter independent) is no longer valid.

vii. When the load resistance is increased to 150Ω, four times the critical resistance, the output
voltage is given by equation (19.99):
R 100μs  150
vo  Ei   50V  3 5   150V
2L 2  300μH
♣

19.5 Flyback converters – a conceptual assessment

In section 19.2, the boost and buck-boost converters were both introduced as flyback or ringing choke
converters. This is not the traditional approach adopted to the classification of these two converters.
This text has classified both as flyback converters since they are in fact the same converter. A converter
is considered a two port network – an input Ei and an output vo – that are related by a transfer function
which (assuming continuous inductor current) is expressed in terms of the switch on-state duty cycle δ.
vo
 f  
Ei
A second output v1 exists between the input Ei and the output vo, as shown in figure 19.14. By
Kirchhoff’s voltage law, this auxiliary output is
v 1  E i v o
v1 v
 1  o  1  f  
Ei Ei buck-boost output
v
-
v1 v1  Ei 
-
1- +
Ei I1 1  f   I1
1 Io
δ Ii v1
-1 ½ 1 + vo Ismps +
f(δ) 1
vo Ei Ei vo  Ei 
1- (a)
boost output

1 Ei
+ v 1  E i  1   
vo = δEi I1 1  f   I1
Io
Ii v1
+ vo Ismps +
Ei Ei f(δ) vo  Ei  (b)
v1= (1-δ)Ei
buck output

0 δ
½ 1

Figure 19.14. Basic converters shown as a three-port block diagrams for:

(a) the flyback converter and (b) the forward converter.

The flyback converter – figure 19.14a

If f(δ) represents a boost converter, with a voltage transfer function 1 / 1- δ, then at the other port 1 - f(δ) =
- δ /1- δ, which is the buck-boost converter transfer function (assuming CCM). The converse is also true.
Thus if a boost converter output exists, a buck-boost output is inherently available, independent of the
connection position of the output capacitor Co. In terms of dc circuit theory, the output capacitor can be
827 Power Electronics

connected across vo (as in figure 19.2), v1 (as in example 19.3), or apportioned between both outputs.
This concept is also the mechanism behind the converters in example 19.4. The circuit permutations in
figure 19.15 show how the boost converter, using ac and dc circuit theory, can be systematically
translated to the buck-boost converter, and vice versa. The schematic of an auto-transformer (variac) is
interposed since it too can provide the equivalent two ac output possibilities. Whether a dc converter or
an ac variac, power can be drawn from either output separately or from both outputs simultaneously.
The output ports of both converters, when an extra switch and diode are added, are bidirectional
reversible as considered in section 19.8.2, and operation is always CCM.

The forward converter – figure 19.14b

Just as the boost and buck-boost outputs are complementary, the buck converter has a complementary
output possibility. If the output vo is defined by the buck converter transfer function δ then the
supplementary output v1 is defined by 1 - δ. The output 1 - δ cannot exist independently of the output δ
(unless the converter is reversible – with an extra diode and switch, as in section 19.8.2). In order to
maintain output voltage transfer function integrity according to the duty cycle dependant transfer
functions, the current sourced from port vo (the buck output) must exceed the current sunk by port v1.
That is, if the outputs vo and v1 are resistively loaded, in figure 19.14a
I smps  0
Io  I1
vo v1

Ro R1
or
1
R1  Ro

Notice in figure 19.14a, in the flyback converter case, Ismps is always positive. Therefore no load
resistance restrictions exist for the two outputs, save the inductor current is continuous.

Thus only two fundamental single-switch, single-inductor converters (flyback and forward) exist, each
offering two output voltage transfer function possibilities. One of the four output possibilities, 1- δ, cannot
uniquely exist, unless the converter is reversible (which involves two switches and two diodes).

Converter mechanism classification

The three traditional dc to dc converters can be classified according to the operational current paths of
the inductor, and whether the input Ei and/or output vo are involved during each switch state (ON or
OFF). With reference to the states of the buck-boost converter in the following table, when the:
 switch is ON, the inductor current loop is as for the boost converter
 switch is OFF, the inductor current loop is as for the buck converter

Switch State
converter
ON current loop OFF current loop
buck Ei - T - L - v o D - L - vo
boost Ei - L - T Ei - L - D - vo
buck-boost Ei - T - L D - L - vo

Technically, it is more meaningful if the so called buck-boost converter were termed boost-buck. More
global examples of lack of technical correctness are the classification of the so called magnetic pole in
the artic region as the ‘north pole’ or having celebrated the millennium new-year’s eve 1999/2000.
Chapter 19 DC to DC Converters – Switched-Mode 828

Figure 19.15. Basic: (a) boost to (e) buck-boost converter systematic translations (flipping).
829 Power Electronics

19.6 The output reversible converter

The basic reversible converter, sometimes called an asymmetrical half bridge converter (see chapter
16.5), shown in figure 19.16a allows two-quadrant output voltage operation. Operation is characterised
by both switches operating simultaneously, being either both on or both off.
The input voltage Ei is chopped by switches T 1 and T2, and because the input voltage is greater than
the load voltage vo, energy is transferred from the dc supply Ei to L, C, and the load R. When the
switches are turned off, energy stored in L is transferred via the diodes D1 and D2 to C and the load R
but in a path involving energy being returned to the supply, Ei. This connection feature allows energy to
be transferred from the load back into Ei when used with an appropriate load and the correct duty cycle.
Parts b and c respectively of figure 19.16 illustrate reversible converter circuit current and voltage
waveforms for continuous and discontinuous conduction of L, in a forward converter mode, when δ > ½.

T1

D1 +
D2

T2

(a)

ON
T D T D
switch tx
tT tD tT tD
period τ io τ
iL
Io

iL

t t
iL ii

iL


t t
-iL

iD
iL

iL

t t
Ei vD

t t
(b) (c)

Figure 19.16. Basic reversible converter with δ>½: (a) circuit diagram;
(b) waveforms for continuous inductor current; and (c) discontinuous inductor current.

For analysis it is assumed that components are lossless and the output voltage vo is maintained
constant because of the large capacitance magnitude of the capacitor C across the output. The input
voltage Ei is also assumed constant, such that Ei ≥ vo > 0, as shown in figure 19.16a.

19.6.1 Continuous inductor current (CCM - continuous conduction mode)

When the switches are turned on for period tT, the difference between the supply voltage Ei and the
output voltage v0 is impressed across L. From V = Ldi/dt, the rising current change through the inductor
will be
  E v o
i L  i L  i L  i  t (19.119)
L
Chapter 19 DC to DC Converters – Switched-Mode 830

When the two switches are turned off for the remainder of the switching period, τ - tT, the two freewheel
diodes conduct in series and Ei + vo is impressed across L. Thus, assuming continuous inductor
conduction the inductor current fall is given by
E v o
i L  i  (  t  ) (19.120)
L

Equating equations (19.119) and (19.120) yields

vo I i 2t  
  T  2  1 0 1 (19.121)
Ei I o 
The voltage transfer function is independent of circuit inductance L and capacitance C.

Equation (19.121) shows that for a given input voltage, the output voltage is determined by the transistor
conduction duty cycle δ and the output voltage |vo| is always less than the input voltage. This confirms
and validates the original analysis assumption that Ei ≥ |vo|. The linear transfer function varies between -
1 and 1 for 0 ≤ δ ≤ 1, that is, the output can be varied between vo = - Ei, and vo = Ei. The significance of
the change in transfer function polarity at δ = ½ is that
 for δ > ½ the converter acts as a forward converter, but
 for δ < ½, if the output is a negative source, the converter acts as a boost converter with energy
transferred to the supply Ei, from the negative output source.

Thus the transfer function can be expressed as follows

vo I i
  2  1  2 (  ½) ½  1 (19.122)
Ei I o
and
Ei I o 1 1
   0  ½ (19.123)
v o I i 2  1 2 (  ½)
where equation (19.123) is in the boost converter transfer function form.

19.6.2 Discontinuous inductor current (DCM - discontinuous conduction mode)

In the forward converter mode, δ ≥ ½, the onset of discontinuous inductor current operation occurs when
the minimum inductor current i L , reaches zero. That is,
I L  ½i L  I o (19.124)

If the transistor on-time tT is reduced or the load resistance increases, the discontinuous condition

dead
time tx appears as indicated in figure 19.16c. From equations (19.119) and (19.120), with i L  0 , the
following output voltage transfer function can be derived
 E v o E v o
i L  i L  0  i  t  i  (  t   t x ) (19.125)
L L
which after rearranging yields
tx
v o 2  1  
 0 1 (19.126)
Ei t
1  x

19.6.3 Load conditions for discontinuous inductor current

In the forward converter mode, δ ≥ ½, as the load current decreases, the inductor average current also
decreases, but the inductor ripple current magnitude is unchanged.

If the load resistance is increased
sufficiently, the trough of the triangular inductor current, i L , eventual reduces to zero. Any further
increase in load resistance causes discontinuous inductor current and the linear voltage transfer function
given by equation (19.121) is no longer valid. Equation (19.126) is applicable. The critical load
resistance for continuous inductor current is specified by
vo
Rcrit  (19.127)
Io
Substituting I o  I L and using equations (19.119) and (19.124), yields
vo v 2v o L
Rcrit   o  (19.128)
I o ½ i L (E i  v o )t 
831 Power Electronics

Dividing throughout by Ei and substituting   t T /  yields

v o (2  1)L
 Rcrit  (19.129)
Io (1   )
By substituting the switching frequency ( f s  1/  ) or the fundamental inductor reactance ( X L  2 f s L ),
critical resistance can be expressed in the following forms.
v 2(  ½)L 2(  ½)fs L (  ½)XL
Rcrit  o    () (19.130)
Io (1   ) (1   )  (1   )
If the load resistance increases beyond Rcrit, the output voltage can no longer be maintained with duty
cycle control according to the voltage transfer function in equation (19.121).

19.6.4 Control methods for discontinuous inductor current

Once the load current has reduced to the critical level as specified by equation (19.125) the input energy
is in excess of the load requirement. Open loop load voltage regulation control is lost and the capacitor
C tends to overcharge.
As with the other converters considered, hardware and control approaches can mitigate this
overcharging problem. The specific control solutions for the forward converter in section 19.3.4, are
applicable to the reversible converter. The two time domain control approaches offer the following
operational modes.

19.6.4i - fixed on-time tT, variable switching frequency fvar

The operating frequency fvar is varied while the switch-on time tT is maintained constant such that the
magnitude of the ripple current remains unchanged. Operation is specified by equating the input energy
and the output energy, thus maintaining a constant capacitor charge, hence output voltage. That is,
equating energies
v2 1
½ i LE i t T  o (19.131)
R f var
Isolating the variable switching frequency fvar and using v o  Io R to eliminate R yields
1 Rcrit
f var  fs Rcrit   fs  Io
R vo
(19.132)
1
f var  or f var  Io
R
That is, once discontinuous inductor current occurs at I o  ½i L or Io  v o / Rcrit , a constant output
voltage vo can be maintained if the switch on-state period tT remains constant and the switching
frequency is varied
 proportionally with load current, I o
 inversely with the load resistance, Rcrit
 inversely with the output voltage, vo.

19.6.4ii - fixed switching frequency fs, variable on-time tTvar

The operating frequency fs remains fixed while the switch-on time tTvar is reduced, resulting in the ripple
current magnitude being reduced. Equating input energy and output energy as in equation (19.28), thus
maintaining a constant capacitor charge, hence voltage, gives
v2 1
½i LE i t T var  o (19.133)
R fs
Isolating the variable on-time tTvar, substituting for ΔiL, and using v o  Io R to eliminate R, gives
1 Rcrit
t T var  t T Rcrit   tT  Io
vo
.

R
.

(19.134)
1
t T var  or t T var  . Io
R.

That is, once discontinuous inductor current commences, if the switching frequency fs remains constant,
regulation of the output voltage vo can be maintained if the switch on-state period tT is varied
 proportionally with the square root of the load current, Io .

 inversely with the square root of the load resistance, √Rcrit

 inversely with the square root of the output voltage, √vo.
Chapter 19 DC to DC Converters – Switched-Mode 832

Example 19.6: Reversible output, forward converter

The step-down reversible converter in figure 19.16a operates at a switching frequency of 10 kHz. The
output voltage is to be fixed at 48 V dc across a 1 Ω resistive load. If the input voltage Ei = 192 V and
the choke L = 200μH:
[Link] the switch T on-time duty cycle δ and switch on-time tT
[Link] the average load current I o , hence average input current I i
[Link] accurate waveforms for
 the voltage across, and the current through L; vL and iL
 the capacitor current, ic
 the switch and diode voltage and current; vT, vD, iT, iD
iv. calculate
 the maximum load resistance Rcrit before discontinuous inductor current with L=200μH
and
 the value to which the inductance L can be reduced before discontinuous inductor
current, if the maximum load resistance is 1Ω.
Solution

i. The switch on-state duty cycle δ can be calculate from equation (19.121), that is
v 48V
2  1  o  = ¼    58
E i 192V
Also, from equation (19.121), for a 10kHz switching frequency, the switching period τ is 100μs
and the transistor on-time tT is given by
tT t
  T = 58
 100μs
whence the transistor on-time is 62½μs and the diodes conduct for 37½μs.

v o 48V
ii. The average load current is I o   = 48A = I L
R 1Ω
From power-in equals power-out, the average input current is
I i  v o I o / E i  48V×48A/192V =12A

iii. The average output current is the average inductor current, 48A. The ripple current is given by
equation (19.121), that is
  E v o
i L  i L  i L  i  t
L
192V - 48V
=  62.5μs = 45A p - p
200μH

iv. Critical load resistance is given by equation (19.130), namely

v (2  1)L
Rcrit  o 
Io  (1   )
(2  5 8 -1)×200μH
 = 32/15
100μs  5 8  (1- 5 8 )
= 2 2 15 Ω when I o  ½i L  22½ A

Alternatively, the critical load current is 22½A (½ΔiL), thus the load resistance must not be greater
than v o / I o = 48V/22.5A = 32/15Ω, if the inductor current is to be continuous.
The critical resistance formula given in equation (19.130) is valid for finding critical inductance when
inductance is made the subject of the equation, that is, rearranging equation (19.130) gives
Lcrit = R  (1   )     / (2  1) (H)
= 1Ω×(1- 5 8 )× 5 8 ×100μs/(2× 5 8 -1)
= 93¾μH
That is, the inductance can be decreased from 200μH to 93¾μH when the load is 1Ω and continuous
inductor current will flow.
833 Power Electronics

9mV.s

-
22½A

Figure 19.17: Example 19.5.

19.6.5 Comparison of the reversible converter with alternative converters

The reversible converter provides the full functional output range of the forward converter when δ > ½
and provides part of the voltage function of the buck-boost converter when δ < ½ but with energy
transferring in the opposite direction.
Comparison of example 19.1 and 19.5 shows that although the same output voltage range can be
achieved, the inductor ripple current is much larger for a given inductance L. A similar result occurs
when compared with the buck-boost converter. Thus in each case, the reversible converter has a
narrower output resistance range before discontinuous inductor conduction occurs. It is therefore
concluded that the reversible converter should only be used if two-quadrant operation is needed.
The ripple current I f given by equation (19.2) for the forward converter and equation (19.119) for the
reversible converter when vo > 0, yield the following current ripple relationship.
I f  (2  1 /  r )  I r
(19.135)
where 2 r  1   f for 0   f  1 and ½   r  1
This equation shows that the ripple current of the forward converter I f is never greater than the ripple
current I r for the reversible converter, for the same output voltage.
In the voltage inverting mode, from equations (19.81) and (19.119), the relationship between the two
corresponding ripple currents is given by
2( r  1)
I fly   Ir
2 r  1
(19.136)
2( r  1)
where   fly for 0   fly  ½ and 0   r  ½
2 r  1
Again the reversible converter always has the higher inductor ripple current. Essentially the higher
ripple current results in each mode because the inductor energy release phase involving the diodes,
occurs back into the supply, which is effectively in cumulative series with the output capacitor voltage.
Chapter 19 DC to DC Converters – Switched-Mode 834

The reversible converter offers some functional flexibility, since it can operate as a conventional
forward converter, when only one of the two switches is turned off. (In fact, in this mode, switch turn-off
is alternated between T1 and T2 so as to balance switch and diode losses.)

19.7 The boost-buck (Ćuk) converter

The boost-buck or Ćuk converter in figure 19.18 performs an inverting boost converter function with
inductance in the input and the output. As a result, both the input and output currents can be continuous.
Both the input inductor L1 and the capacitor C1 ac couple (transfer) energy from the input to the output.
Both reactive elements produce the same buck-boost voltage transfer function. It is difficult to stabilise
and L1 and C1 tend to resonant. An alternative to the generic origin of this topology is presented in 20.2.

19.7.1 Continuous inductor current (CCM - continuous conduction mode)

When the switch T is on and the diode D is reversed biased
i C 1(on )  I L 2  I o (19.137)
When the switch is turned off, inductor currents iL1 and iL2 are divert through the diode and
i C 1(off)  I i (19.138)

L1 C1 L2

vo

C2
+

Figure 19.18. Basic Ćuk converter.

Over one steady-state cycle the average capacitor charge is zero, that is
i C 1(on)  i C 1(off) (1   )  0 (19.139)
which gives
i C 1(on)  I
  i (19.140)
i C 1(off) 1   I o
From power-in equals power-out
v o I i I L1
  (19.141)
E i I o I L2
Thus equation (19.140) becomes
v o I i I L1 
   (19.142)
E i I o I L2 1
19.7.2 Discontinuous inductor current (DCM - discontinuous conduction mode)

The current rise in L1 occurs when the switch is on, that is

 E i
i L1  (19.143)
L1
For continuous current in the input inductor L1,
I i  I L1  ½i L1 (19.144)
which yields a maximum allowable load resistance, for continuous inductor current, of
v 2 L1 2f s L1  X L1
Rcrit  o    (19.145)
I o  (1   ) 2
(1   ) 2
 (1   )2
835 Power Electronics

This is the same expression as that obtained for the boost converter, equation (19.73), which can be re-
arranged to give the minimum inductance for continuous input inductor current, namely
1   
2
 R
L1  (19.146)
2
The current rise in L2 occurs when the switch is on and the inductor voltage is Ei, that is
 E i
i L 2  (19.147)
L2
For continuous current in the output inductor L2,
I o  I L 2  ½i L 2 (19.148)
which yields
v 2L2 2f L XL2
Rcrit  o   s 2  (19.149)
I o  (1   ) 1    (1   )
This is the same expression as that obtained for the forward converter, equation (19.27) which can be
re-arranged to give the minimum inductance for continuous output inductor current, namely

L 2  ½ 1    R  (19.150)

19.7.3 Optimal inductance relationship

Optimal inductor conditions are that both inductors should both simultaneous reach the verge of
discontinuous conduction. The relationship between inductance and ripple current is given by equations
(19.143) and (19.147).
 E i  E i
i L1  and i L 2 
L1 L2
After dividing these two equations
L2 i L1
 (19.151)
L1 i L 2
Critical inductance is given by equations (19.146) and (19.150), that is
1   
2
  R
L 2  ½ 1    R and L1 
2
After dividing

L2 
 (19.152)
L1

1
At the verge of simultaneous discontinuous inductor conduction

L2  i L 1 v o
   (19.153)

L1 1 i L 2 Ei
That is, the voltage transfer ratio uniquely specifies the ratio of the minimum inductances and their ripple
current.

19.7.4 Output voltage ripple

The output stage (L2, C2, and R) is the forward converter output stage; hence the per unit output voltage
ripple on C2 is given by equation (19.36), that is
v C 2 v o 1 (1   ) 2
  8 (19.154)
vo vo L2C 2
If the ripple current in L1 is assumed constant, the per unit voltage ripple on the ac coupling capacitor C1
is approximated by
v C 1 
 (19.155)
vo R C1

The capacitor C1 should be large, such that it does not discharge during the switch on period.

The total converter semiconductor utilisation is represented by the factor Uf:

Chapter 19 DC to DC Converters – Switched-Mode 836

Converter utilisation ratio

The total converter semiconductor utilisation (for all buck-boost converters) is the factor Uf:
Prated 
Uf   (19.156)
 max rms    
V I
∀Si

Example 19.7: Ćuk converter

The Ćuk converter in figure 19.18 is to operate at 10kHz from a 50V battery input and produces an
inverted non-isolated 75V output. The load power is 1.8kW.

i. Calculate the duty cycle hence switch on and off times, assuming continuous current in
both inductors.
ii. Calculate the mean input and output, hence inductor, currents.
iii. At the 1.8kW load level, calculate the inductances L1 and L2 such that the ripple current is
1A p-p in each.
iv. Specify the capacitance for C1 and C2 if the ripple voltage is to be a maximum of 1% of
the output voltage.
v. Determine the critical load resistance for which the purely duty cycle dependant voltage
transfer function becomes invalid.
vi. At the critical load resistance value, determine the inductance value to which the non-
critically operating inductor can be reduced.
vii. Determine the necessary conditions to ensure that both inductors operate simultaneously
on the verge of discontinuous conduction, and the relative ripple currents for that
condition.

Solution

i. The voltage transfer function is given by equation (19.142), that is

vo  75V
   1½
Ei (1   ) 50V
from which   3 5 . For a 10kHz switching frequency the period is 100μs, thus the switch on-time is 60μs
and the off-time is 40μs.

ii. The mean output current is determined by the load and the mean input current is related to the
output current by assuming 100% efficiency, that is
I o  I L 2  Po / v o  1800W / 75V  24A
I i  I L1  Po / E i  1800W / 50V  36A
The load resistance is therefore R = vo /Io = 75V/24A = 3⅛Ω.

iii. The inductor ripple current for each inductor is given by the same expression, that is equations
(19.143) and (19.147). Thus for the same ripple current of 1A pp
 E i  E i
i L1   i L 2 
L1 L2
which gives
 E i 3
5  100μs  50V
L1  L2    3mH
i 1A

iv. The capacitor ripple voltages are given by equations (19.155) and (19.154), which after re-
arranging gives
v   100 35  100μs
C1  o     1.92mF
v C 1 R 1 25 
8

vo (1   ) 2 100 1 (1  35)  100μs2

C2   18    8  16.6μF
v C 2 L2 1 3mH

v. The critical load resistance for each inductor is given by equations (19.145) and (19.149). When
both inductors are 3mH:
837 Power Electronics

2 L1 2  35  3mH
Rcrit    225
 (1   ) 2
100μs  (1  35 )2
2L2 2  3mH
Rcrit    150
 (1   ) 100μs  (1  35)
The limiting critical load resistance is 150Ω or for Io = vo /R = 75V/150Ω = ½A, when a lower output
current results in the current in L2 becoming discontinuous although the current in L1 is still continuous.

vi. From equation (19.145), rearranged

 R (1   )2 100μs  100  (1  35)2
L1crit    2mH
2 2  35
That is, if L1 is reduced from 3mH to 2mH, then both L1 and L2 enter discontinuous conduction at the
same load condition, 75V, ½A, and 150Ω.
vii. For both converter inductors to be simultaneously on the verge of discontinuous conduction,
equation (19.153) gives

L2  i L 1 v o
  

L1 1 i L 2 Ei
3mH 3 1A 75V 3
 5   
2mH 1  5
3 2
3A 50V 2
♣

19.8 Comparison of basic converters

The converters considered employ an inductor to transfer energy from one dc voltage level to another dc
voltage level. The basic converters comprise a switch, diode, inductor, and a capacitor. The reversible
converter is a two-quadrant converter with two switches and two diodes, while the Ćuk converter uses
two inductors and two capacitors.
Table 19.1 summarises the main electrical features and characteristics of each basic converter.
Figure 19.19 shows a plot of the voltage transformation ratios and the switch utilisation ratios of the
converters considered. With reference to figure 19.19, it should be noted that the flyback step-up/step-
down converter and the Ćuk converter both invert the input polarity.
Every converter can operate in any one of three inductor current modes:

 discontinuous
 continuous
 both continuous and discontinuous
The main converter operational features of continuous conduction compared with discontinuous inductor
conduction are
 The voltage transformation ratio (transfer function) is independent of the load.
 Larger inductance but lower core hysteresis losses and saturation less likely.
 Higher converter costs with increased volume and weight.
 Worse transient response (L /R).
 Power delivered is inversely proportional to load resistance, P Vo 2 / R . In the
discontinuous conduction mode, power delivery is inversely dependent on inductance.

19.8.1 Critical load current (CCM – DCM boundary)

Examination of Table 19.1 shows no obvious commonality between the various converters and their
performance factors and parameters. One common feature is the relationship between critical average
output current I o and the input voltage Ei at the boundary of continuous and discontinuous conduction.
Equations (19.15), (19.69), and (19.100) are identical, (for all smps), that is
E
I ocritical  i  (1   ) (A) (19.157)
2L
Expressing the input voltage in terms of the output voltage and transfer function, leads to the critical load
resistance, v o / I 0critical . This quadratic expression in δ shows that the critical mean output current
reduces to zero as the on-state duty cycle δ tends to zero or unity. The maximum critical load current
condition, for a given input voltage Ei, is when δ = ½ and

I oc  E i  / 8L (19.158)
Chapter 19 DC to DC Converters – Switched-Mode 838

Since power-in equals power-out, then from equation (19.157) the input average current and output
voltage at the boundary of continuous conduction for all smps are related by
v 
I icritical  o  (1   ) (A) (19.159)
2L
The maximum output current at the boundary (at δ = ½), for a given output voltage, vo, is

I ic  v o / 8L (19.160)
vo 2L
The smps commonality factor reduces to Rcrit   .
E i   1   
The reversible converter, using the critical resistance equation (19.130) derived in section 19.6.3, yields
twice the critical average output current given by equation (19.157). This is because its duty cycle range
is restricted to half that of the other converters considered. Converter normalised equations for
discontinuous conduction are shown in table 19.2.
A detailed analysis summary of discontinuous inductor current operation is given in Appendix 20.5.

1 step-down
step-up 3
1

¾
buck-boost
Po / P T /Cuk
2 reversible
& ½ 4
Cuk

full
¼ bridge

0 ¼ ½ ¾ 1

δ = tT/τ

Figure 19.19. Transformation voltage ratios and switch utilisation ratios for five converters when
operated in the continuous inductor conduction mode.
839 Power Electronics

Table 19.1: Converter characteristics comparison with continuous inductor current

converter
Forward Flyback Flyback
Reversible
Step-down Step-up Step-up/down
Output voltage 1 
vo /Ei   2  1
continuous I 1  1
Output voltage 2 LI i E  2t Ei  2
vo /Ei 1 1 i T
discontinuous I Ei 2 2L I o 2 LI o
Output polarity with
Non-inverted Non-inverted inverted any
respect to input
Current sampled
discontinuous continuous discontinuous bi-directional
from the supply
Load current continuous discontinuous discontinuous continuous
Maximum transistor
V V Ei vo Ei + v o Ei
voltage
Maximum diode
V V Ei vo Ei + v o Ei
voltage
Ripple current Δi A Ei (1   ) / L Ei / L Ei / L 2 Ei (1   ) / L
Maximum transistor iˆT vo (1   ) Ei Ei ( Ei  vo )
A Io  Ii  IL  Io 
current 2L 2L 2L 2L
switch utilisation
SUR δ 1-δ δ (1-δ) ½δ
ratio
Transistor rms
low high high low
current
Critical load 2L 2L 2L 2(  ½ ) L
Rcrit Ω
resistance  (1   )  (1   ) 2  (1   ) 2  (1   )
½ R (1   )
Critical inductance Lcrit H ½ R (1   ) ½ R (1   ) 2 ½ R (1   ) 2
(  ½ )
o/p ripple voltage  2 1      
p-p
Δvo V vo vo vo vo
8 LC RC RC RC
1 1   
2
1
Apparent load
Ω Ro Ro 1   
2
Ro  Ro
Ri 
 2  1
2
resistance 2   
V2 V2 Vo2
Power Vo I o  o EiIi  o Ei Ii 
Rcrit Rcrit Rcrit
Pcont Pin=Pout W 2
tT  t D t D 2  tT  t D 2 tT   tT  
Pdiscont V Ei E i2  
  o 2L   2L    2L

Table 19.2: Comparison of characteristics when the inductor current is discontinuous,   critical

R tT converter
k  ;   Forward Flyback Flyback
L  step-down step-up step-up/down
2 27 2 2
critical k   then  1    
2
 1 k   1
k 2 k k
vo I R  8 
k ,    o ¼k  2  1  1   ½ 1  1  2k  2   ½k
Ei Ei k  2   

tD  vo  vo v o  vo
D  k ,     1  /
Ei  Ei
 /  1 /
  Ei  Ei
tx vo  
x  k ,   1 /
vo
/vo 1
vo
 / vo
 1 
Ei 1   1  
Ei Ei  Ei  Ei
 1    D

R  vo 
IL k ,   k   1   k k
Ei  Ei 
Chapter 19 DC to DC Converters – Switched-Mode 840

Ii L Io

Io Ton Ii
Ei vo
+ δ + R

C
1-δ
Toff

Ii L Io

Io Ton Ii
Ei Toff vo
+ + R
1-δ
δ C

Ii Io

Io Ton Ii
Toff
Ei vo
+ δ C R
1-δ
L +

Figure 19.20. The three basic bidirectional current converter configurations:

(a) the forward converter; (b) step-up flyback converter; and (c) step up/down flyback converter.

19.8.2 Bidirectional converters

Discontinuous inductor current, DCM, can be avoided if the smps diode is parallel connected with a
shunt switch as shown in figure 19.20. If each switch has bipolar conduction properties, as with the
MOSFET, then three functions can be performed
 Synchronised rectification: If the shunting switch conducts when the diode conducts, during
period δD, then the diode is bypassed and losses are reduced to those of the MOSFET,
which can be less than those of a Schottky diode. Reverse recovery can be circumvented.
 Guaranteed continuous inductor current conduction: If the shunting switch conducts for the
period 1- δD, (complement to the main smps switch) then if the inductor current falls to
zero, that current can reverse with energy taken from the output capacitor. Seamless,
continuous inductor current results and importantly, the voltage transfer function is then
that for continuous inductor current, independent of the load resistance.
 Bidirectional energy transfer: If the output diode has a shunting switch and an inverse parallel
diode is added across the converter main switch (or both switches have bidirectional
conduction properties, as with the MOSFET) then power can be efficiently and seamlessly
transferred in either direction, between Ei and vo. The voltage polarities are unchanged – it
is the current direction that reverses. The buck and boost converters interchange transfer
functions when operating in the reverse direction, while the buck/boost converter has the
same transfer function in both current directions of operation.

19.8.3 Isolation

In each converter, the output is not electrically isolated from the input and a transformer can be used to
provide isolation. Figure 19.21 shows isolated versions of the three basic converters. The transformer
turns ratio provides electrical isolation as well as matching to obtain the required output voltage range.
841 Power Electronics

 Figure 19.21a illustrates an isolated version of the forward converter shown in figure 19.2. When the
transistor is turned on, diode D1 conducts and L in the transformer secondary stores energy. When
the transistor turns off, the diode D3 provides a current path for the release of the energy stored in L.
However when the transistor turns off and D1 ceases to conduct, the stored transformer magnetising
energy must be released. The winding incorporating D 2 provides a path to reset the core flux. A
maximum possible duty cycle exists, depending on the turns ratio of the primary winding and
freewheel winding. If a 1:1 ratio (as shown) is employed, a 50 per cent duty cycle limit will ensure
the required volts-second for core reset.
 The step-up flyback isolated converter in part b of figure 19.21 is little used. The two transistors
must be driven by complementary signals. Core leakage and reset functions (and no-load operation)
are facilitated by a third winding and blocking diode D2.

vC (1   ) 2

vo 8 LC

vC 

vo RC

vC 

vo RC

Figure 19.21. Isolated output versions of the three basic converter configurations:
(a) the forward converter; (b) step-up flyback converter; and (c) step up/down flyback converter.

 The magnetic core in the buck-boost converter of part c of figure 19.21 performs a bifilar inductor
function. When the transistor is turned on, energy is stored in the core. When the transistor is turned
off, the core energy is released via the secondary winding into the capacitor. A core air gap is
necessary to prevent magnetic saturation and an optional clamping winding can be employed, which
operates at zero load.
The converters in parts a and c of figure 19.21 provide an opportunity to compare the main features
and attributes of forward and flyback isolated converters. In the comparison it is assumed that the
transformer turns ratio is 1:1:1.

19.8.3i - The isolated output, forward converter – figure 19.21a:

 v o  nT  E i or I i  nT  I o
 The magnetic element acts as a transformer, that is, because of the relative voltage polarities of
the windings, energy is transferred from the input to the output, and not stored in the core,
when the switch is on. A small amount of magnetising energy, due to the magnetising current
to flux the core, is built up in the core.
 The magnetising flux is reset by the current through the catch (feedback) winding and D 3, when
the switch is off. The magnetising energy is recovered and returned to the supply Ei.
 The necessary transformer Vμs balance requirement (core energy-in equals core energy-out)
means the maximum duty cycle is limited to 0    1 /  1  nf /b   1 for 1:nf/b:nsec turns ratio.
For example, the duty cycle is limited to 50%, 0 ≤ δ ≤ ½, with a 1:1:1 turns ratio.
Chapter 19 DC to DC Converters – Switched-Mode 842

 Because of the demagnetising winding, the off-state switch supporting voltage is Ei + vo.
 The blocking voltage requirement of diode D3 is Ei, vo for D1, and 2Ei for D2.
 The critical load resistance for continuous inductor current is independent of the transformer:
4L
Rcrit  (19.161)
 1  2 
19.8.3ii - The isolated output, flyback converter – figure 19.21c:
 v o  nT E i  / (1   ) or I i  nT I o  / (1   )
 The magnetic element acts as a magnetic energy storage inductor. Because of the relative
voltage polarities of the windings (dot convention), when the switch is on, energy is stored in
the core and no current flows in the secondary.
 The stored energy, which is due to the core magnetising flux is released (reset) as current into
the load and capacitor C when the switch is off. (Unlike the forward converter, where
magnetising energy is returned to Ei, not the output, vo.) Therefore there is no flyback
converter duty cycle restriction, 0 ≤ δ ≤ 1.
 The third winding turns ratio is configured such that energy is only returned to the supply Ei
under no load conditions.
 The switch supporting off-state voltage is Ei + vo.
 The diode blocking voltage requirements are Ei + vo for D1 and 2Ei for D2.
 The critical load resistance for continuous inductor current is independent of the transformer
turns ratio when the magnetising inductance is referenced to the secondary:
4 Lm sec 4 T2 Lm prim
Rcrit   (19.162)
 1  2   1  2 
2 2

The operational characteristics of each converter change considerably when the flexibility offered by
tailoring the turns ratio is exploited. A multi-winding magnetic element design procedure is outlined in
section 10.1.1, where the transformer turns ratio (np :ns) is not necessarily 1:1.

The basic approach to any transformer (coupled circuit) problem is to transfer, or refer, all components
and variables to either the transformer primary or secondary circuit, whilst maintaining power and time
invariance. Thus, maintaining power-in equals power-out, and assuming a secondary to primary turns
ratio of nT is to one (nT:1), gives
2
v s ns i p ns Z s  ns 
  nT   nT     nT2 (19.163)
v p np i s np Z p  n p 

Time, that is switching frequency, power, and per unit values (δ, Δvo /vo), are invariant. The circuit is then
analysed without a transformer. Subsequently, the appropriate parameters are referred back to their
original side of the magnetically coupled circuit.
If the coupled circuit is used as a transformer, magnetising current (flux) builds, which must be reset to
zero each cycle. Consider the transformer coupled forward converter

in figure 19.21a. From Faraday’s
equation, v  N d  / dt , and for maximum on-time duty cycle  the conduction V-μs of the primary must
equal the conduction V-μs of the feedback winding which is returning the magnetising energy to the
supply Ei.
E
E i t on  n i t off and t on  t off   (19.164)
f /b

That is
E
E i   n i  1   
 

f /b  
 1
  (19.165)
1  n f /b
1
0 
1  n f /b
From Faraday’s Law, the magnetizing current starts from zero and increases linearly to

I M  E i t on / LM (19.166)
where LM is the magnetizing inductance referred to the primary. During the switch off period, this current
falls linearly, as energy is returned to Ei. The current must reach zero before the switch is turned on
again, whence the energy taken from Ei and stored as magnetic fluxing energy in the core, has been
returned to the supply.
843 Power Electronics

Two examples illustrate the features of magnetically coupled circuit converters. Example 19.8 illustrates
how the coupled circuit in the flyback converter acts as an inductor, storing energy from the primary
source, and subsequently releasing that energy in the secondary circuit. In example 19.9, the forward
converter coupled circuit acts as a transformer where energy is transferred through the core under
transformer action, but in so doing, self-inductance (magnetising) energy is built up in the core, which
must be periodically released if saturation is to be avoided. Relative orientation of the windings,
according to the flux dot convention shown in figure 19.21, is thus important, not only the primary
relative to the secondary, but also relative to the feedback winding.
'
I = Io=
o
Ii = 45A
10A
10A
=50V

Ei =50V Cs vo = 225V
300μH
Rs = 22½Ω

1:3

' '
Io = Io =
Ii = 45A 30A 30A
=50V

Ei = 50V 9Cs v o' = 75V

300μH
Rp = 2½Ω

Figure 19.22. Isolated output step up/down flyback converter

and its equivalent circuit when the secondary output is referred to the primary.

Example 19.8: Transformer coupled flyback converter

The 10kHz flyback converter in figure 19.21c operates from a 50V input and produces a 225V dc output
from a 1:1:3 (1:nf/b:nsec) step-up transformer loaded with a 22½Ω resistor. The transformer magnetising
inductance is 300μH, referred to the primary (or 300uH×32 = 2.7mH referred to the secondary):
i. Calculate the switch duty cycle, hence transistor off-time, assuming continuous inductor current.
ii. Calculate the mean input and output current.
iii. Draw the transformer currents, showing the minimum and maximum values.
iv. Calculate the capacitor rms ripple current and p-p voltage ripple if C = 1100μF.
v. Determine
 the critical load resistance
 the minimum inductance for continuous inductor conduction for a 22½ Ω load.

Solution

The feedback winding does not conduct during normal continuous inductor current operation. This
winding can therefore be ignored for analysis during normal operation.
Figure 19.22 shows secondary parameters referred to the primary, specifically
v o  225V v o'  v o / nT  225V/3 = 75V
Rs  225 Rp  Rs / nT2  225 / 32  22½
Note that the output capacitance is transferred by a factor of nine, nT2 , since capacitive reactance is
inversely proportion to capacitance (X = 1/ωC).

It will be noticed that the equivalent circuit parameter values to be analysed, when referred to the
primary, are the same as in example 19.5. The circuit is analysed as in example 19.5 and the essential
results from example 19.5 are summarised in Table 19.3 and transferred to the secondary where
appropriate. The waveform answers to part iii are shown in figure 19.23.
Chapter 19 DC to DC Converters – Switched-Mode 844

Table 19.3: Transformer coupled flyback converter analysis

value transfer factor value

parameter for nT = 3 for
primary analysis → secondary analysis
Ei V 50 3 150
vo V 75 3 225
RL Ω 2½ 32 22½
Co μF 10,000 3-2 1100
LM μH 300 3-2 2700
Io(ave) A 30 ⅓ 10
Po W 2250 invariant 2250
Ii(ave) A 45 ⅓ 15

δ p.u. 3/5 invariant 3/5

τ μs 100 invariant 100

ton μs 60 invariant 60
tD μs 40 invariant 40
fs kHz 10 invariant 10
ΔiL A 10 ⅓ 10/3

IL A 75 ⅓ 25

IL A 80 ⅓ 80/3

IL A 70 ⅓ 70/3
iCrms A rms 36.8 ⅓ 13.3
Rcrit Ω 37½ 32 337½
Lcrit μH 20 32 180
VDr V 125 3 375
Δvo mV 180 3 540
Δvo /vo p.u. 0.24% invariant 0.24%

Note the invariance of power, Po; normalised parameters δ, and Δvo/vo; and time ton, tD, τ, and 1/f.

I
transformer
80A

70A 70A

I primary I primary

80/3A

70/3A 70/3A
Io =
I secondary I secondary
10A Io

0μs 60 μs 100 μs t

Figure 19.23. Currents for the transformer windings in example 19.8.

♣
845 Power Electronics

Example 19.9: Transformer coupled forward converter

The 10kHz forward converter in figure 19.21a operates from a 192V dc input and a 1:3:2 (1:nf/b:nsec)
step-up transformer loaded with a 4Ω resistor. The transformer magnetising inductance is 1.2mH,
referred to the primary. The secondary smps inductance is 800μH.

i. Calculate the maximum switch duty cycle, hence transistor off-time, assuming continuous
inductor current.
At the maximum duty cycle:
ii. Calculate the mean input and output current.
iii. Draw the transformer currents, showing the minimum and maximum values.
iv. Determine
 the critical load resistance
 the minimum inductance for continuous inductor conduction for a 4 Ω load

Solution

i. The maximum duty cycle is determined solely by the transformer turns ratio between the primary
and the feedback winding which resets the core flux. From equation (19.165)
 1
 
1  n f /b
1
 ¼
13
The maximum conduction time is 25% of the 100μs period, namely 25μs. The secondary output voltage
is therefore
v sec   nT E i
= ¼×2×192 = 96V
The load current is therefore 96V/4Ω = 24A, as shown in figure 19.24a.
Figure 19.24b shows secondary parameters referred to the primary, specifically
Rs  4 R p  Rs / nT2  4 / 22  1
v o  96V v o'  v o / nT  96V/2 = 48V
Lo =800μH Lo'  Lo / nT2  800μH/22  200μH
Note that the output capacitance is transferred by a factor of four, nT2 , since capacitive reactance is
inversely proportion to capacitance, X = 1/ωC.

Inspection of example 19.1 will show that the equivalent circuit in figure 19.24b is the same as the circuit
in example 19.1, except that a magnetising branch has been added. The various operating conditions
and values in example 19.1 are valid for example 19.9.

ii. The mean output current is the same for both circuits (example 19.1), 48A, or 24 A when referred to
the secondary circuit. The mean input current from Ei remains 12A, but the switch mean current is not
12A. Magnetising current is provided from the supply Ei through the switch, but returned to the supply Ei
through diode D2, which bypasses the switch. The net magnetising energy flow is zero. The magnetising
current maximum value is given by equation (19.166)

I M  E i t on / LM
 192V×25μs/1.2mH = 4A

This current increases the switch mean current from 12A to

I T = 12A  ½    4A  12½ A
Figure 19.24c show the equivalent circuit when the switch is off. The output circuit functions
independently of the input circuit, which is returning stored core energy to the supply Ei via the feedback
winding and diode D2. Parameters have been referred to the feedback winding which has three times
the turns of the primary, nf/b =3. The 192V input voltage remains the circuit reference. Equation (19.166)
, Faraday’s law, referred to the feedback winding, must be satisfied during the switch off period, that is

IM Et
 2i off
nf /b nf /b LM
4 192V×75μs
= 2
3 3  1.2mH
Chapter 19 DC to DC Converters – Switched-Mode 846

The diode D2 voltage rating is (nf/b+1)×Ei, 768V and its mean current is
I 4A
I D 2  ½ 1    M  ½  1 - 0.25   = ½A
n f /b 3

800μH 24A

RL = 4Ω

Ei=192V
vo = 96V

1:3:2
(a)

48A IM/3 24A

200μH 800μH

RL=1Ω RL=4Ω
10.8mH
Ei=192V LM 4C
vo=48V Ei=192V vo=96V
1.2mH 9LM
IM

(b) (c)

Figure 19.24. Isolated output forward converter

and its equivalent circuits when the output is referred to the primary.

iii. The three winding currents for the transformer are shown in figure 19.25.

iv. The critical resistance and inductance, referred to the primary, from example 19.1 are 5⅓Ω and
37½μH. Transforming into secondary quantities, by multiplying by 2 2, give critical values of RL = 21⅓Ω
and L = 150μH.

256V
switch voltage
192V

I 0V
transformer
61A
IM =4A
57A

39A

I primary
I primary

57/2A

I secondary 39/2A
I sec
IM
4A
4/3A

0μs 25 μs 100 μs t

Figure 19.25. Currents for the three transformer windings in example 19.9.
♣
847 Power Electronics

19.9 Multiple-switch, balanced, isolated converters

The basic single-switch converters considered have the limitation of using their magnetic components
(whether as an inductor or transformer) only in a unipolar flux mode. Since only one quadrant of the B-H
characteristic is employed, these converters are generally restricted to lower powers because of the
limited flux swing, which is reduced by the core remanence flux.
The high-power forward converter circuits shown in figure 19.26 operate the magnetic transformer
component in the bipolar or push-pull flux mode and require two or four switches. Because the
transformers are fully utilised magnetically, they tend to be almost half the size of the equivalent single
transistor isolated converter at power levels above 100 W. Also core saturation due to the magnetising
current (flux) not being fully reset to zero each cycle, is not a major issue, since with balanced
bidirectional fluxing, the average magnetising current (flux) is zero.
In each case, the transformer can be simplified to an auto-transformer, if isolation is not a requirement.

v C (1  2 )  2

vo 32 LC

Autotransformer
variation

v C (1  2 )  2

vo 16 LC

v C (1  2 )  2

vo 32 LC

Figure 19.26. Multiple-switch, isolated output, pulse-width modulated converters:

(a) push-pull plus autotransformer option; (b) half-bridge; and (c) full-bridge.
Chapter 19 DC to DC Converters – Switched-Mode 848

19.9.1 The push-pull converter

Figure 19.26a illustrates a push-pull forward converter circuit which employs two switches and a centre-
tapped transformer. Each switch must have the same duty cycle in order to prevent unidirectional core
saturation. Because of transformer coupling action, the off switch supports twice the input voltage, 2Ei,
plus any voltage associated with leakage inductance stored energy. Advantageously, no floating gate
drives are required and importantly, no switch shoot through (simultaneous conduction) can occur.
The voltage transfer function, for continuous inductor current conduction, is based on the equivalent
secondary output circuit show in figure 19.27. Because of transformer action, the input voltage is N×Ei
where N is the transformer turns ratio. When a primary switch is on, current flows in the outer loop
shown in figure 19.27. That is
  N  E i v o
i L  i L  i L   t (19.167)
L
When the primary switches are off, the secondary voltage falls to zero and current continues to flow
through the secondary winding due to the energy stored in L. Efficiency is increased if the diode Df is
used to bypass the transformer winding, as shown in figure 19.27. The secondary winding i2R losses
are decreased and minimal voltage is coupled from the secondary back into the primary circuit. The
current in the inner off loop shown in figure 19.27 is given by
v
i L  o  (  t  ) (19.168)
L
Equating equations (19.167) and (19.168) gives the following voltage and current transfer function
vo I i t
  2N T  2N  0  ½ (19.169)
Ei I o 

The output voltage ripple is similar to that of the forward converter

v C v o (1  2 )  2
  (19.170)
vo vo 32 LC
L

1 N
Df off
+ +
Vo
on
Ei N×Ei

Figure 19.27. Equivalent circuit for transformer bridge converters based on a forward converter in the secondary.

Converter semiconductor utilisation ratio

The total converter semiconductor utilisation is represented by the factor Uf:

Prated 
Uf   (19.171)
 max rms
V
∀Si
I 2   1  2

19.9.2 Bridge converters

Figures 19.26b and c show half and full-bridge isolated forward converters respectively.

i. Half-bridge

In the half-bridge the transistors are switched alternately and must have the same conduction period.
This ensures the core volts-second balance requirement to prevent saturation due to bias in one flux
direction.
Using similar analysis as for the push-pull converter in 19.9.1, the voltage transfer function of the
half bridge with a forward converter output stage, for continuous inductor conduction, is given by
vo I i t
  N T  N 0  ½ (19.172)
Ei I o

849 Power Electronics

A floating base drive is required. Although the maximum winding voltage is ½Ei, the switches must
support Ei in the off-state, when the complementary switch conducts.
The output ripple voltage is given by
v C v o (1  2 )  2
  (19.173)
vo vo 16 LC

Converter semiconductor utilisation ratio

The total converter semiconductor utilisation is represented by the factor Uf:

Prated  
Uf   (19.174)
V max I rms    
∀Si

ii. Full-bridge

The full bridge in figure 19.26c replaces the capacitor supplies of the half-bridge converter with switching
devices. In the off-state each switch must support the rail voltage Ei and two floating gate drive circuits
are required. This bridge converter is usually reserved for high-power applications.
Using similar analysis as for the push-pull converter in 19.9.1, the voltage transfer function of the full
bridge with a forward converter output stage, with continuous inductor conduction is given by
vo I i t
  2N T  2N  0  ½ (19.175)
Ei I o 
Any volts-second imbalance (magnetising flux build-up) can be minimised by using dc blocking
capacitance Cc, as shown in figures 19.26b and c.

The output ripple voltage is given by

v C v o (1  2 )  2
  (19.176)
vo vo 32 LC

Converter semiconductor utilisation ratio

The total converter semiconductor utilisation is represented by the factor Uf:

Prated 2
Uf   (19.177)

V max I rms 2 2       2
∀Si

Output stage variations

In each forward converter in figure 19.26, a single secondary transformer winding and full-wave rectifier
can be used. Better copper utilisation results. If the output diode shown dashed in figure 19.26c is used,
the off state loop voltage is decreased from two diode voltage drops to one. The core magnetising
current conducts through the secondary winding into the load circuit.
The three converters in figure 19.26 all employ the same forward converter output stage, so the critical
load resistance for continuous inductor current is the same for each case, viz.,
4L
Rcrit  (19.178)
 1  2 
Re-arrangement of this equation gives an expression for minimum inductance in terms of the load
resistance.
If the output inductor is not used, conventional unregulated transformer square-wave voltage ratio action
occurs for each transformer based smps, where, independent of δ:
vo I i n
  s N (19.179)
E i I o no

Zero voltage switching (ZVS) of the H-bridge semiconductors

The H-bridge load circuit in figure 19.26 parts b and c, is a transformer, and all transformers have
leakage inductance. This leakage inductance can be utilised as a turn-on snubber, producing H-bridge
zero voltage switching ZVS conditions, which eliminate both switch turn-on losses and diode reverse
recovery current injection problems. A consequence of ZVS is purely capacitive snubbers (no snubber
diode or reset resistor) also become lossless.
Chapter 19 DC to DC Converters – Switched-Mode 850

T2 off T 1 D1 D3 T3
then T3 on when D3 conducts
L?

Tx
T 1 D1 D3 T3 D3 T3

L? L?

Both T1 and T2 off

Tx then T3 on when D3 conducts
and T4 on when D4 conducts
Tx
T4 D4 D2 T2 T 4 D4
L? Tx
(b)

T1 off
then T4 on when D4 conducts (a) (d)
T4 D4 D2 T2
(c)

Figure 19.28. H-bridge current conduction paths:

(a) switches T1 and T2 conducting; (b) switch T2 off and then T3 on;
(c) switch T1 off and then T4 on; and (d) switches T1 and T2 off, then T3 and T4 on.

The sequence of circuit diagrams in figure 19.28 illustrate how the transformer leakage inductance is
used to achieve ZVS.

When any switch that is conducting current is turned off, current associated with the leakage inductance
diverts to a diode, as shown in the off-loops in figures 19.28 parts b, c, and d. The switch in anti-parallel
with that conducting diode in figure 19.28 can be turned on, while the diode conducts, without any switch
turn-on losses, ZVS. The magnetising current circulates in a zero volt loop created in the secondary, as
shown in figure 19.28. The zero volt loops, figures 19.28 b and c, are alternated on a cycle-by-cycle
basis. At a maximum duty cycle, the negative voltage sequence in figure 19.28d is used, where the
leakage inductance current falls rapidly to zero.

An inherent consequence of ZVS is that lossless capacitive turn-off snubbers can be employed across
the bridge switches, as highlighted in chapter 21.1.1ii and figure 18.6a. The snubber capacitance can be
optimally designed if the converter is operated in a constant current mode.

Effect of transformer leakage inductance on H bridge performance

Consideration of transformer leakage inductance means the dc output inductor can be dispensed with,
provided the modified transfer characteristics are acceptable, as shown in figure 19.29. The incentive for
eliminating the dc output inductor is related to the output diode bridge adverse reverse voltage recovery
performance. With a dc output inductor, transformer leakage energy produces a high reverse recovery
voltage across the rectifier when the diodes commutate. Without the dc inductor, the output diodes are
clamped by the output capacitor Cout in figure 19.29.

When accounting for leakage inductance, the voltage transfer ratio is given by
vo
  4  1 N  ½ (19.180)
Ei
The input and output current ripple are
v Cin C in  I in   2
i L1I out  (19.181)
v Cout C out 
1  2
The converter semiconductor utilisation ratio is, for N=1:
2 3  4  1
Uf  (19.182)

8 2 2   4  1 
851 Power Electronics

Section 10.9 considers diode bridge voltage clamping when an output dc inductor is employed in
transformer coupled circuits.

1:N
Ein

Figure 19.29. H-bridge with transformer leakage but without a dc output inductor.

Reading list

Fisher, M. J., Power Electronics,

PWS-Kent Publishing, 1991.

Hart, D.W., Introduction to Power Electronics,

Prentice-Hall, Inc, 1994.

Hnatek, E. R., Design of Switch Mode Power Supplies,

Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1981.

Mohan, N., Power Electronics, 3rd Edition,

Wiley International, 2003.
Thorborg, K., Power Electronics – in theory and practice,
Chartwell-Bratt, 1993.

[Link]

Problems

19.1. An smps is used to provide a 5V rail at 2.5A. If 100 mV p-p output ripple is allowed and the input
voltage is 12V with 25 per cent tolerance, design a flyback buck-boost converter which has a
maximum switching frequency of 50 kHz.

19.2. Derive the following design equations for a flyback boost converter, which operates in the
discontinuous mode.
 v 1
i i  2  Io (max)  o  constant tD 
E i (min) vo
f (max)
E i (min)
v o  E i (min) 1 Io vo  Ei
L  t T (min) f   f (max) 

ii  Io (max) v o  E i (min)


Q i i t T (min) e o
C   ESR(max) 
e o 2 e o ii


19.3. Derive design equations for the forward non-isolated converter, operating in the continuous
conduction mode.

19.4. Prove that the output rms ripple current for the forward converter in figure 19.2 is given by
i o / 2 3 .
Chapter 19 DC to DC Converters – Switched-Mode 852

19.5. If the smps inductor has series resistance r, show that the voltage transfer function of the boost
converter, with continuous inductor current, is given by
vo 1 1
 
Ei 1   1  r
R 1   
2

where R is the load resistance. Hence show that the power transfer efficiency is
1

r
1
R 1   
2

19.6. Show that the output voltage of a forward converter is decreased by δvsw+(1-δ)vD when the
switch voltage drop is vsw and the diode forward voltage drop is vD.

19.7. In the forward converter example 19.1, the load resistance is varied between 1Ω and 16Ω, over
which range the inductor current becomes discontinuous. With the aid of table 19.2, plot the
output voltage as a function of load resistance over the range 1Ω to 16Ω.

19.8. In the step-up converter example 19.3, the load resistance is varied between 2½Ω and 22½Ω,
and the inductor current becomes discontinuous at 22½Ω. With the aid of table 19.2, plot the
output voltage as a function of load resistance over the range 2.5Ω to 45Ω.

19.9. In the step-up converter example 19.4, the load resistance is varied between 2½Ω and 37½Ω,
and the inductor current becomes discontinuous at 37½Ω. With the aid of table 19.2, plot the
output voltage as a function of load resistance over the range 2½Ω to 75Ω.

19.10. The forward converter in example 19.1 dissipates 9.216kW. Specify the necessary inductance
change so that the minimum inductor current is 25% of the average inductor current.

19.11. A boost converter has a 12V input voltage and dissipates into a load 960W when the output is
48V. If the inductor ripple current is 50% of the average inductor current, determine the duty
cycle and inductance when the switching frequency is 20kHz. If the output voltage ripple is
restricted to a maximum of 1%, determine the minimum output capacitance.

19.12. A buck-boost converter has a 12V input voltage and dissipates into a load 960W when the
output is -48V. If the inductor ripple current is 50% of the average inductor current, determine
the duty cycle and inductance when the switching frequency is 20kHz. If the output voltage
ripple is restricted to a maximum of 1%, determine the minimum output capacitance.

19.13. The isolated flyback converter in figure 19.21c has an input voltage of 50V, an output of 25V, an
on-state duty cycle ratio of 0.4, and a 20kHz switching frequency. If the load is a 5Ω resistor,
determine
i. the transformer turns ratio
ii. the core self-inductance such that the ripple current is half its average current.

19.14. The isolated forward converter in figure 19.21a has the following specification: Ei = 96V,
N1:N2:N3 = 1 with 4mH self-inductance, filter inductance 250μH, load resistance 24Ω, onstate
duty cycle = 0.4 and a 40kHz switching frequency. Determine
i. the output voltage and output ripple voltage if C=220μF
ii. average and p-p current in the 250μH output inductor
iii. the peak magnetising current in the model self inductance
iv. peak switching current.

19.15. The push-pull converter in figure 19.7a has the following specification: Ei = 96V, Np:Np:Ns = 1:1:2
with 500μH of output inductance with respect to the primary, 12Ω load resistance, and a 25kHz
switching frequency. For an on-state duty cycle of  determine
i. the output voltage
ii. the average and p-p output-inductance current
iii. the output voltage ripple across a 470μF output capacitor.
Sketch the switch, diode, source, and capacitors currents, using the inductor current as
reference.
853 Power Electronics

19.16. Repeat problem 19.15 if the core magnetising inductance (self-inductance) is 2.5mH with
respect to the primaries. Having determined the peak magnetising current, add the
magnetising inductance current waveform to the other sketched waveforms.

19.17 A forward converter operates at 50kHz with a 60% duty cycle from a 15V dc supply and delivers
27W into a resistive load. Determine the output voltage and inductor rms current. Sketch the
capacitor and inductor current and voltage waveforms. What output capacitance will result in 1%
output voltage ripple? What inductance will ensure continuous conduction at 3W output?
Chapter 19 DC to DC Converters – Switched-Mode 854

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