CHAPTER 13

Naturally Commutating AC to DC Converters

- Uncontrolled Rectifiers

The rectifier converter circuits considered in this chapter have in common an ac voltage supply input and
a dc load output. The function of the converter circuit is to convert the ac source energy into fix dc load
voltage. Turn-off of converter semiconductor devices is brought about by the ac supply voltage reversal,
a process called line commutation or natural commutation.
Converter circuits employing only diodes are termed uncontrolled (or rectifiers) while the incorporation of
only thyristors results in a (fully) controlled converter. The functional difference is that the diode conducts
when forward-biased whereas the turn-on of the forward-biased thyristor can be controlled from its gate.
An uncontrolled converter provides a fixed output voltage for a given ac supply and load.
Thyristor converters allow an adjustable output voltage by controlling the phase angle at which the
forward biased thyristors are turned on. With diodes, converters can only transfer power from the ac
source to the dc load, termed rectification and can therefore be described as unidirectional converters.
Although rectifiers provide a dc output, they differ in characteristics such as output ripple and mean
voltage as well as efficiency and ac supply current harmonics.
An important rectifier characteristic is that of pulse number, which is defined as the repetition rate in
the direct output voltage during one complete cycle of the input ac supply.
A useful way to judge the quality of the required dc output, is by the contribution of its superimposed
ac harmonics. The harmonic or ripple factor RF is defined by
V ac V 2 V 2 V2 1
RFv   rms 2 dc  rms2  1  FF 2  1  eff  1
Vdc Vdc Vdc
where FF is termed the form factor. RFv is a measure of the voltage harmonics in the output voltage
while if currents are used in the equation, RFi gives a measure of the current harmonics in the output
current. Both FF and RF are applicable to the input and output, and are defined in section 13.7.
The general analysis in this chapter is concerned with single and three phase ac rectifier supplies
feeding inductive and resistive dc loads. Purely resistive load equations generally can be derived by
setting inductance L to zero in the L-R load equations. Just as purely inductive load equations generally
can be derived by setting resistance R to zero in the same L-R load equations.

13.1 Single-phase uncontrolled converter circuits – ac rectifiers

13.1.1 Half-wave circuit with a resistive load, R

The simplest meaningful single-phase half-wave load to analyse is the resistive load. The ac supply V is
impressed across the load every second ac cycle half period, when load current flows.
The load voltage and current shown in figure 13.1a are defined by

 2V sin t 0  t  
v o t   i o R   (13.1)
0
   t  2
The circuit voltage and current equations can be found by substituting L = 0, β = π and φ = 0 in the
generalised equations (13.18) to (13.20) in section 13.1.3. The average dc output current Io and voltage
Vo are given by

1 2
Vo  I o R 
2 
0
2V sin t d t 

V  0.45V (13.2)

The rms voltage across the load Vo rms, and rms load current Io rms, are

BWW
Chapter 13 Naturally Commutating AC to DC Converters- Uncontrolled Rectifiers 448

½
1   1
Vo rms    2V 2 sin2 t d t   I o rms R  V (13.3)
 2 0  2
and the power dissipated in the load, specifically the load resistor, is
V2
Po  I o2rms R  ½ (13.4)
R
The ac current in the load is
½
V  2
I ac  I o2rms  I o2  ½   2  (13.5)
R  
The load voltage harmonics are
2V 2V 2 2V  1 1 1 
v o t    sin t   cos 2t  cos 4t ..  2 cos n t ......... (13.6)
 2  1  3 35 n 1 
for n = 2, 4, 6, …

For a resistive load, the load voltage and current ripple factors are both ½   1 . FF = ½π. PF=0.707
2

The poor output voltage FF can be improved with a capacitor across the output load resistor. η=0.405.

13.1.2 Half-wave circuit with a resistive and back emf R-E load

With an opposing emf E in series with the resistive load, the load current and voltage waveforms are as
shown in figure 13.1b. Load current commences when the source voltage exceeds the load back emf at
E
t    sin1 (13.7)
2V
and ceases when the source voltage falls to the load back emf level at
E
t        sin1 (13.8)
2V
The diode conducts for a period θ = π - 2α, during which energy is delivered to both the load resistor R
and load back emf E.

√2V
load
vo voltage
D io o vo
io o √2V/R
v R vo

ωt
io vo o
o

(a)
ac supply v
voltage o

√2V
load
vo voltage
D io o
vo E
R o
(√2V-E)/R
v vo io
E
ωt
io θ vo o
oα π-α π o

(b)
ac supply v
voltage o

Figure 13.1. Single-phase half-wave rectifiers:

(a) purely resistive load, R and (b) resistive load R with back emf, E.
449 Power Electronics

The load average and rms voltages are

 
  1
Vo   ½   E 
   2 

2V sin t d t
(13.9)
  1
 ½   E  2V cos 
  
½
 2  2   1  
2

Vo rms  E  ½   V  ½   sin 2   (13.10)

     2  
The load average and rms currents are
1  2V     1  2V  
Io   cos   E  ½      sin½  E  (13.11)
R       R   2 
½
1 V 2 2 2  
I o rms  sin   V E sin½  V 2  E 2   (13.12)
R  2  2 
The total power delivered to the R-E load is
Po  PR  PE  I o2rms R  E I o (13.13)

Example 13.1: Half-wave rectifier with resistive and back emf load

A dc motor has series armature resistance of 10Ω and is fed via a half-wave rectifier, from the single-
phase 230V 50Hz ac mains. Calculate

i. rectifier diode peak current

ii. motor average starting current

If at full speed, the motor back emf is 100V dc, calculate

iii. average and rms motor voltages and currents

iv. motor electrical losses
v. power converted to rotational energy
vi. supply power factor and motor efficiency
vii. diode approximate loss if modelled by vD = 0.8 + 0.025× iD.

Solution

Worst case conditions are at standstill when the motor back emf is zero (E = kΦω) and the circuit and
waveforms in figure 13.1a are applicable.

i. The peak supply and peak load voltage is √2×V = √2×230 = 325.3V.
The peak diode and load current is
v 325.3V
iD  io  o   32.5A
R 10

ii. The motor average current, at starting, is given by equation (13.2)

Vo  I o R  0.45  230V=103.5V
Vo 103.5V
Io    10.35A
R 10
With a 100V back emf, the circuit and waveforms in figure 13.1b are applicable.
The current starts conducting when
E 100V
t    sin1  sin1  17.9
2V 2  230V
The current conducts for a period θ = π - 2α = 180° - 2×17.9 = 144.2°, ceasing at ωt = π - α =
162.1°.

iii. The average and rms load currents and voltages are given by equations (13.9) to (13.12).
  1
Vo   ½   E  2V cos 
   
 17.9  1
 ½    100V  2  230V  cos17.9  158.5V
 180  
Chapter 13 Naturally Commutating AC to DC Converters- Uncontrolled Rectifiers 450

1  2V  
Io   sin½  E 
R   2 

1  2  230 V 144.2 
  sin½  144.2  100V    5.85A
10   360 
½
     1  
2

Vo rms  E 2  ½   V 2  ½   sin 2  
     2  
½
  17.9  2  17.9 1  
2

 1002  ½   230 ½   sin 2  17.9    179.2V

  180  
 180 2  
½
1 V 2 2 2  
I o rms   sin   V E sin½  V 2  E 2  
R  2  2 
½
1  2302 2 2 144.2 
  sin144.2   230V  100V  sin½  144.2   230 2  100 2  
10  2  360 
 10.2A

iv. The motor loss is the loss in the 10Ω resistor in the dc motor equivalent circuit
PR  I o2rms R  10.22  10  1041.5W

v. The back emf represents the source of electrical energy converted to mechanical energy
PE  E  I o  100V  5.85A  585W

vi. The supply power factor is defined as the ratio of the supply power delivered, P, to apparent supply
power, S
P P  PE 1041.5W  585W
pf   R   0.69
S V  I o rms 230V  10.2A
The motor efficiency is
PE 585W
   100  40.0%
PR  PE 1041.5W  585W

vii. By assuming the diode voltage drop is insignificant in magnitude compared to the 230V ac
supply, then the currents and voltages previously calculated involve minimal error. The rectifying
diode power loss is
PD  0.8  I o  0.025  I o2rms
 0.8  5.85A  0.025  10.22  7.3W
♣

13.1.3 Single-phase half-wave rectifier circuit with an R-L load

A single-phase half-wave diode rectifying circuit with an R-L load is shown in figure 13.2a, while various
circuit electrical waveforms are shown in figure 13.2b. Load current commences when the supply
voltage goes positive at ωt = 0. It will be seen that load current flows not only during the positive half of
the ac supply voltage, 0 ≤ ωt ≤ π, but also during a portion of the negative supply voltage, π ≤ ωt ≤ β.
The load inductor stored energy maintains the load current and the inductor’s terminal voltage reverses
and is able to overcome the negative supply and keep the diode forward-biased and conducting. This
2
current continues until all the inductor energy, ½Li , is released (i = 0) at the current extinction angle (or
cut-off angle), ωt = β.

During diode conduction the circuit is defined by the Kirchhoff voltage equation
di
v R v L  L  Ri  v = 2 V sin  t (V) (13.14)
dt
where V is the rms ac supply voltage. Solving equation (13.14) yields the load (and diode) current

i (t ) 
2V
Z
sin (t -  )  sin  e -t /tan   (A)
(13.15)
0  t     (rad)
451 Power Electronics

q =1 r =1 s =1
p=qxrxs
p=1 Z=
2 2 2
√R +ω L X=
ωL
Φ
R

vL = 0 = Ldi/dt
 current slope = 0

i

β current extinction
angle

-VR

Figure 13.2. Half-wave rectifier with an R-L load:

(a) circuit diagram and (b) waveforms, illustrating the equal area and zero current slope criteria.

2 2 2
where Z = √(R + ω L ) (ohms)
tan    L / R  Q and R  Z cos 
i (t )  0 (A)
(13.16)
  t  2
(rad)
The current extinction angle β is determined solely by the load impedance Z and can be solved from
equation (13.15) when the current, i = 0 with ωt = β, such that β > π, that is
sin(  -  )  sin  e -  /tan   0 (13.17)
This is a transcendental equation which can be solved by iterative techniques. Figure 13.3a can be used
to determine the extinction angle β, given any load impedance (power factor) angle   tan1 L / R .

The mean value of the rectified current, the output current, I o , is given by integration of equation (13.15)

Io  1
2  0
i (t ) d t (A)
(13.18)
2V
Io  (1  cos  ) (A)
2 R
Chapter 13 Naturally Commutating AC to DC Converters- Uncontrolled Rectifiers 452

while the mean output voltage Vo is given by


2V
Vo  1
2  0
2 V sint d t  Io R  2
(1  cos  ) (V) (13.19)
Since the mean voltage across the load inductance is zero, Vo  I o R (see the equal area criterion to
follow). Figure 13.3b shows the normalised output voltage Vo /V as a function of ωL / R.

The rms output (load) voltage and current are given by

½
V rms   1 2    sin2  t d t 
½
 2
2V  V  12   ½ sin 2 
 0 
½ ½ (13.20)
1
V cos   sin  cos        V  1  sin  cos       
i rms         
R  2  cos    Z  2  cos   
From equations (13.19) and (13.20) the harmonic content in the output voltage is indicated by the
voltage form factor.
½
V    ½ sin 2 
FFv  rms   (13.21)
Vo 1  cos 

For a resistive load, when    , the form factor reduces to a value of 1.57. The ripple factor is therefore
FFv 2  1  1.21. For a purely resistive load the voltage and current form factors are equal.

√2/π
= 0.45

Figure 13.3. Single-phase half-wave converter characteristics: (a) load impedance angle ø versus
current extinction angle β and (b) variation in normalised mean output voltage Vo / V versus ωL/R.
453 Power Electronics

The power delivered to the load, which is the power delivered to the load resistance R, is
PL  i rms
2
R (13.22)
The supply power factor, using the rms current in equation (13.20), is
power, PL
pf 
apparent power
½ (13.23)
i2 R i R V  1  sin  cos       
 rms  rms  R rms       cos     cos 
i rmsV V V  2  cos   
The characteristics for an R-L-E load can be determined by using α = 0 in the case of the half-wave
controlled converter in section 14.2.1iii.
For a purely inductive load, L, β = 2π is substituted into the appropriate equations. The average output
voltage tends to zero and the current is given by
2V
i (t ) 
L
1  cos t  (A)
which has a mean current value of √2 V/ωL.

13.1.3i – Inductor equal voltage area criterion

The average output voltage Vo, given by equation (13.19), is based on the fact that the average voltage
across the load inductance, in steady state, is zero. The inductor voltage is given by
v L  L di / dt (V)
which for the circuit in figure 13.2a can be expressed as
 / i
 0
v L (t ) dt   L di  L (i   i 0 )
io
(13.24)
If the load current is in steady state then i   i o , which is zero here, and in general
v L dt  0 (Vs) (13.25)
The inductor voltage waveform for the circuit in figure 13.2a is shown in the last plot in figure 13.2b. The
inductor equal voltage area criterion implies that the shaded positive area must equal the shaded
negative area, in order to satisfy equation (13.25). The net inductor energy at the end of the cycle is zero
(specifically, unchanged since i o  i  ), that is, the energy into the inductor equals the energy transferred
from the inductor. This area aspect is a useful aid in predicting and drawing the load current waveform.
It is useful to superimpose the supply voltage v, the load voltage vo, and the resistor voltage vR
waveforms on the same time axis, ωt. The load resistor voltage, vR = Ri, is directly related to the load
current, i. The inductor voltage vL will be the difference between the load voltage and the resistor
voltage, and this bounded net area must be zero. Thus the average output voltage is Vo  I o R . The
equal voltage areas associated with the load inductance are shown shaded in two plots in figure 13.2b.

13.1.3ii - Load current zero slope criterion

The load inductance voltage polarity changes from positive to negative as energy initially transferred into
the inductor, is released. The stored energy in the inductor allows current to continue to flow after the
input ac voltage has reversed. At the instant when the inductor voltage reverses, its terminal voltage is
zero, and
v L  Ldi / dt  0
(13.26)
that is di / dt  0
The current slope changes from positive to negative, whence the voltage across the load resistance
ceases to increase and starts to decrease, as shown in figure 13.2b. That is, the Ri waveform crosses
the supply voltage waveform with zero slope, whence when the inductor voltage is zero, the current
begins to decrease. The fact that the resistor voltage slope is zero when vL = 0, aids prediction and
sketching of the various circuit waveforms in figure 13.2b, and subsequent waveforms in this chapter.

13.1.4 Single-phase half-wave rectifier circuit with an R-L load and a back emf

If α is the angle at which conduction begins and γ is the diode conduction angle, greater than π-2, then
for a back emf E
E
sin   m
2V
The current is given by
Chapter 13 Naturally Commutating AC to DC Converters- Uncontrolled Rectifiers 454

2V   m 
i  sin t       Be Rt /L    t    
Z   cos  
where

R R  m 
cos    B   sin      e  R /L t  
Z R  L
2 2 2
 cos  
Substituting i  0 at t     gives
m  cos  sin      
e  /t 
m  cos  sin    
An iterative solution in terms of m, Φ ,ϒ is shown in figure 13.4

is D L io

RL Vo
+
Vs=√2Vsinωt E
R=0

L=0

Figure 13.4. Single-phase half-wave rectifier:

(a) circuit with a inductive R-L load and back emf E and (b) design curves.

L=0 gives cosΦ=1, the curve Φ=0° in figure 13.4 and equation 13.11.
2V 2V 
Io  cos   m ½      1  m 2  m cos 1 m 
R R  

13.1.5 Half-wave rectifier circuit with an R load and capacitor filter

The output voltage ripple factor of a half-wave rectifier with a resistive load can be improved by adding
decoupling capacitance across the load output, as shown in figure 13.5.
In the period α ≤ ωt ≤ β
v o t   2V s sint
and
dv o v o
i s  iC  io  C 
dt RL
Solving for the source current is
2V s
i s t   R C cos t  sin t 
RL  L
2V s
1  RLC  cos t   
2
 (13.27)
RL
1
where   tan1
RLC

Since is = 0 when ωt = β, β - θ = ½π. That is

1
  ½    ½  tan1
 RLC
455 Power Electronics

θ
Vs √2Vs
Vo
D vo

is iC io ωt
o
Vo π 2π
Vs C RL
α β
iD 

ID

ID ωt
(a) (b)

Figure 13.5. Single-phase half-wave rectifier:

(a) circuit with a capacitively filtered resistive load and (b) waveforms.

For the period β ≤ ωt ≤ 2π + α

is  0
and
dv o v o
C  0 where v o t     2V s cos 
dt RL
Therefore
v o t   2Vs e t    tan cos  (13.28)

Since vo = √2Vs sinα when ωt = 2π + α

sin   e  tan e  2
 3    tan 
cos 
where α can be solved iteratively.

The peak to peak ripple voltage is 2Vs (1 - sinα), which decreases as C increases for which α→½π. The
peak inverse voltage rating of the diode is approximately 2√2Vs. Capacitor peak current is ωC√2Vs sinα.
The full-wave rectified case is considered in section 13.1.9iv, where the period boundary ωt = π+α is
used.

Example 13.2: Half-wave rectifier with source resistance

In the dc supply half-wave rectifier circuit of figure 13.6, the source voltage is 230√2 sin(2π 50t) V with
an internal resistance Ri = 1 Ohm, RL = 10 Ohms, and the filter capacitor C is very large. Calculate

i. the mean value of the load voltage, Vo 

ii. the diode average and peak currents, ID, I D
iii. the capacitor peak charging and discharging currents
iv. the diode reverse blocking voltage, VDR

θ
Vs √2Vs
Ri D Vo

is iC io ωt
o
Vo π 2π
Vs C RL
α β
iD 

ID

(a) (b) ID ωt

Figure 13.6. Single-phase half-wave rectifier: (a) circuit with a resistive load and (b) waveforms.
Chapter 13 Naturally Commutating AC to DC Converters- Uncontrolled Rectifiers 456

Solution

i. Because the load filter capacitor is large, it is assumed that the dc output voltage is ripple free
and constant. The capacitor provides the load current when the ac supply level is less that the
dc output. The load current and peak diode (hence supply) current are therefore
V  2V s Vo
Io  o ID 
RL Ri

The ac supply provides current, through the rectifying diode, during the period
is 
1
Ri

2V s sin t Vo   t   
If the capacitor voltage is to be maintained constant, the charge into the capacitor must equal
the charge delivered by the capacitor when the rectifying diode is not conducting, that is
   2

 i s

 i o  d t  

i o d t

Also
Vo  2V s sin 
   
 
2 2
Manipulation yields
Ri 1
tan½  ½     0.1
RL 10
An iterative solution yields θ = 99.6º, that is, the diode conducts for a period of 5.53ms
(10ms×99.6º/180º), every cycle of the ac supply, 20ms. The capacitor, hence output voltage, is
 
Vo  2V s sin   2V s sin
2
180  99.6
 2  230V  sin  209.95V
2

ii. The average diode current is given by


 
ID 
1 1

2  Ri

2V s sint Vo d t  
1 

2 Ri 
2V s  2  cos
2

Vo   

1  180  99.6 99.6 
 2  230V  2  cos  209.95V     21.0A
2  1  2 180 
Alternatively, as would be expected, the average diode current is the average load current:
V 209.95V
I D  Io  o   21.0A
RL 10
The peak diode current is
 2V s Vo 2  230V  210V
ID    115.3A
Ri 1

iii. The capacitor peak charging current is the difference between the peak diode current and the
load current, viz., 115A - 21A = 94A, while the peak discharging current is the average load
current of 21A.
iv. The diode reverse voltage is the difference between the instantaneous supply voltage and the
output voltage 210V. This is a maximum at the negative peak of the ac supply, when the diode
voltage is √2×230V + 210V = 535.3V. During any period when the load is disrupted, the output
capacitor can charge up to √2×230V, hence the diode can experience, worst case, 2×√2×230V
= 650.5V.
♣

13.1.6 Half-wave circuit with an R-L load and freewheel diode

The circuit in figure 13.2a, which has an R-L load, is characterised by discontinuous current (i = 0) and
high ripple current. Continuous load current can result when a diode Df is added across the load as
shown in figure 13.7a. This freewheel diode prevents the voltage across the load from reversing during
the negative half-cycle of the ac supply voltage. The inductor energy is not returned to the ac supply,
rather is retained in the load circuit. The stored energy in the inductor cannot reduce to zero
457 Power Electronics

instantaneously, so the current is forced to find an alternative path whilst decreasing towards zero.
When the rectifier diode D1 ceases to conduct at zero volts it blocks, and diode Df provides an alternative
load current freewheeling path, as indicated by the waveforms in figure 13.7b.

q =1 r =1 s =1
p=qxrxs
p=1

Figure 13.7. Half-wave rectifier with a load freewheel diode and an R-L load:
(a) circuit diagram and parameters and (b) circuit waveforms.

The output voltage is the positive half of the sinusoidal input voltage. The mean output voltage (thence
mean output current) is
1 
Vo  I o R  2  0
2V sint d t
(13.29)
Vo  2V   0.45 V  I o R (V)
The rms value of the load circuit voltage v0 is given by

 
π 2
Vrms  1
2  0
2V sint d t
(13.30)
 V  0.71 V (V)
2
The output ripple (ac) voltage is defined as
VRi  Vrms
2
Vo2
2 2 (13.31)
 2V 
  2 
  2V 
 
V ½  2
2
 0.545 V
 
hence the load voltage form and ripple factors are defined as
Chapter 13 Naturally Commutating AC to DC Converters- Uncontrolled Rectifiers 458

FFv  Vrms /Vo  ½  1.57

(13.32)
RFv  VRi /Vo   
Vrms 2
Vo
 1  FFv 2  1  ¼ 2  1  1.211

After a large number of ac supply cycles, steady-state load current conditions are established, and from
Kirchhoff’s voltage law, the load current is defined by
di
L  Ri  2V sin t (A) 0  t   (13.33)
dt
and when the freewheel diode conducts
di
L  Ri  0 (A)   t  2 (13.34)
dt
During the period 0 ≤ ωt ≤ π, when the freewheel diode current is given by iDf = 0, the supply current,
which is the load current, are given by

i (t )  i o (t )  2V sin(t   )  (I o 2  2V sin  )e t /tan (A)

Z Z (13.35)
0  t  
for
2V 1  e  /tan 
I o 2  sin  (A)
Z e  /tan  e  /tan 
where Z  R 2  (L )2 (ohms)
tan   L / R
During the period π ≤ ωt ≤ 2π, when the supply current i = 0, the freewheel diode current and hence
load current are given by
i o (t )  i Df (t )  I o 1 e (t  )/tan (A)   t  2 (13.36)
for
I o 1  I o 2e  /tan (A)
For discontinuous load current (the freewheel diode current iDf falls to zero before the rectifying diode D1
recommences conduction), the appropriate integration gives the average diode currents as
V
I D1 
2 R
2  1  e  /tan 
  sin  
2

(13.37)
V
I Df  I o  I D 1 
2 R
1  e  /tan   sin2 
In figure 13.7b it will be seen that although the load current can be continuous, the supply current is
discontinuous and therefore has a high harmonic content.
The output voltage Fourier series (Vo + V1 + Vn = 2, 4, 6..) is (see equation (13.6))
2V 2V 2V 
2
v o t    sin t   n cos n t
. . .

(13.38)
 2  n 2,4,6
2
 1
Dividing each harmonic output voltage component by the corresponding load impedance at that
frequency gives the harmonic output current, whence rms current. That is
Vn Vn Vn
In    (13.39)
Z n R  jn L R  n L 
2 2

and
I rms  I o2   ½I n2
n  1, 2, 4, 6..
(13.40)

Example 13.3: Half-wave rectifier – with load freewheel diode

In the circuit of figure 13.7, the source voltage is 240√2 sin(2π 50t) V, R = 10 ohms, and L = 50 mH.
Calculate

i. the mean and rms values of the load voltage, Vo and Vrms
ii. the mean value of the load current, I o
iii. the current boundary conditions, namely Io1π and Io2π
iv. the average freewheel diode current, hence average rectifier diode current
v. the rms load current, hence load power and supply rms current
vi. the supply power factor
459 Power Electronics

If the freewheel diode is removed from across the load, determine

vii. an expression for the current hence the current extinction angle
viii. the average load voltage hence average load current
ix. the rms load voltage and current
x. the power delivered to the load and supply power factor

From the rms and average output voltages and currents, determine the load form and ripple factors.

Solution

i. From equation (13.29), the mean output voltage is given by

Vo  2V   2  240V   108V
From equation (13.30) the load rms voltage is
V rms V / 2  240V / 2  169.7V

ii. The mean output current, equation (13.29), is

Vo 2V 2×240V
Io   = = 10.8A
R R π×10 

iii. The load impedance is characterised by

Z  R 2  ( L )2
 102  (2  50Hz  0.05)2  18.62 
tan    L / R
 2  50Hz  0.05H / 10  1.57 or   57.5  1rad
From section 13.1.6, equation (13.35)
1  e  /tan 
I o 2  2V sin   /tan
Z e  e  /tan
1  e  /1.57
I o 2  2  240V  sin(tan1 1.57)   /1.57 = 3.41A
18.62  e  e  /1.57
Hence, from equation (13.36)
I o 1  I o 2 e  /tan  3.41  e  /1.57 = 25.22A
Since I o 2  3.41A  0 , continuous load current flows.

iv. Integration of the diode current given in equation (13.36) yields the average freewheel diode current.
 
1 1
I Df 
2 0 i Df (t ) d t  
2 0
I o 1 e t /tan d t

1 25.22A  



2 0
25.22A  e t /1.57rad d t 
2
 1.57rad  1  e 1.57   5.46A
 
The average input current, which is the rectifying diode mean current, is given by
I s  I D 1  I o  I Df  10.8A  5.46A  5.34A

2 2V Z n  R 2  n L 
2
Vn
harmonic Vn  In 
.

n 2  1  Zn ½I n2
n (A)
(V) (Ω)
0 (108.04)* 10.00 10.80 (116.72)
1 (169.71)* 18.62 9.11 41.53
2 72.03 32.97 2.18 2.39
4 14.41 63.62 0.23 0.03
6 6.17 94.78 0.07 0.00
8 3.43 126.06 0.03 0.00
see equation (13.38) for first two terms I o   ½I n 
2 2
160.67
Chapter 13 Naturally Commutating AC to DC Converters- Uncontrolled Rectifiers 460

v. The load voltage harmonics given by equation (13.38) can be used to evaluate the load current at
the load impedance for that frequency harmonic.
2V 2V 
2 2V
v t    sin t   cos n t 
. . .

 2 n  2,4,6  n  1  
2

The preceeding table shows the calculations for each frequency component.

The rms load current is

I rms  I o2   ½I n2 
n 1, 2, 4..
. 160.7  12.68A

The power dissipated in the load resistance is therefore

P10  I rms
2
R  12.68A2  10  1606.7W

The freewheel diode rms current is


1
 
2

2 0
I Df  I o 1 e t /tan
. d t

1
 
2


2 0
25.22A  e t /1.57rad d t  8.83A
 .

Thus the input (and rectifying diode) rms current is given by

I D 1r ms  I sr ms  I rms
2
 I Df2 rms

 12.682  8.832  9.09A

vi. The input ac supply power factor is
Pout 1606.7W
pf    0.74
Vr ms I r ms 240V  9.09A
vii. If the freewheel diode Df is removed, the current is given by equation (13.15), that is
2V
i (t ) 
Z
sin (t -  )  sin  e -t /tan  
2  240 V
=
18.62
sin (t - 1.0)  0.841  e -t /1.57 

= 18.23  sin (t - 1.0)  0.841  e -t /1.57  (A) 0  t   (rad)
The current extinction angle β is found by setting i = 0 and solving iteratively for β. Figure 13.3a
gives an initial estimate of 240° (4.19 rad) when  = 57.5° (1 rad). That is
0 =sin (  - 1.0)  0.841  e-  /1.57
gives β = 4.08 rad or 233.8°, after iteration.

viii. The average load voltage from equation (13.19) is

2V 2 240V
Vo  2
(1  cos  )  2
(1  cos 4.08)  86.0V
The average load current is
I o  Vo / R = 86.0V/10 = 8.60A
ix. The load rms voltage is 169.7V with the freewheel diode and increases without the diode to, as
given by equation (13.20)
½
Vrms V  12   ½sin2 
½
 240V  12 4.08  ½sin2  4.08  181.6V
The rms load current from equation (13.20) is decreased to
½
V 1  sin  cos       
i rms     
Z  2  cos  
½

240V 1 sin 4.08 cos  4.08  1.57  
 
4.08    9.68A
18.62  2
 cos1.57 
Removal of the freewheel diode decreases the rms load current from 12.68A to 9.68A.
461 Power Electronics

x. The load power is reduced without a load freewheel diode, from 1606.7W with a load freewheel
diode, to
P10  i rms
2
R  9.682  10  937W
The supply power factor is also reduced, from 0.74 to
Pout 937W
pf    0.40
V rms I rms 240V  9.68A

circuit with freewheel diode circuit without freewheel diode

Load factor
form factor ripple factor form factor ripple factor
rms 2 rms 2
FF = /ave RF = √FF -1 FF = /ave RF = √FF -1
Voltage factor 169.7V/108V = 1.57 1.21 181.6V/86V = 2.1 1.86
Current factor 12.68A/10.8A = 1.17 0.615 9.68A/8.60A = 1.12 0.517
♣

13.1.7 Single-phase full-wave bridge rectifier circuit with a resistive load, R

The simplest meaningful single-phase full-wave load to analyse is the resistive load. The supply is
impressed across the load every ac cycle half period, when load current flows.
The load voltage and current shown in figure 13.8a are defined by
v o t   i o R  2V sin t 0  t  2 (13.41)
The average dc output current and voltage are double the half-wave case and are given by
1 2 2
Vo  I o R   2V sin t d t  V  0.90V (13.42)
 0 
The rms voltage across the load, and rms load current, are √2 greater than the half-wave case,
specifically
½
1  
Vo rms    2V 2 sin2 t d t   I o rms R  V (13.43)
 0 
and the power dissipated in the load, specifically the load resistor R, is
V2
Po  I o2rms R  (13.44)
R
The ac current in the load is
½
 V8
I ac  I o2rms  I o2 
1   2  (13.45)
 R 
The load voltage harmonics are (twice the half-wave case, without the supply frequency component)
2 2V 4 2 V  1 1 1 
v o t     cos 2t  cos 4t ..  2 cos n t ......... (13.46)
  1  3 35 n 1 
for n = 2, 4, 6, … The output voltage form factor Vo rms / Vo = π/ 2√2=1.11, hence RF = 0.483 and pf = 1/√2.

13.1.8 Single-phase full-wave bridge rectifier circuit with a resistive and back emf load, R-E
With an opposing emf E in the load circuit, the load current and voltage waveforms are as shown in
figure 13.8b. Load current commences when
E
t    sin1 (13.47)
2V
and ceases when
E
t        sin1 (13.48)
2V
Diodes conduct every ac half cycle for a period θ = π - 2α, during which energy is delivered to both the
load resistor R and load back emf E.
The load average and rms voltages are
 1  
  
Vo  2E  2V sin t d t
(13.49)
 2
 2E  2V cos 
 
Chapter 13 Naturally Commutating AC to DC Converters- Uncontrolled Rectifiers 462

½
    1  
2

Vo rms  2 E 2 V 2 1  2  sin 2   (13.50)

      

√2V

vo load
vo voltage
v io o
D1 D3 o
io √2V/R
io
R vo
D4 D2
ωt
D1 D2 D3 D4 D1 D2 D3 D4
o

D1
(a)
ac supply v
o voltage o

√2V load
voltage
vo vo
vo
v io o o
D1 D3 o E
(√2V-E)/R
R vo io io
D4 D2
E ωt
D1 D2 D3 D4 D1 D2 D3 D4
θ o
oα π-α π
D1
(b)
ac supply v
o
voltage o

Figure 13.8. Single-phase full-wave rectifiers:

(a) purely resistive load, R and (b) resistive load R with back emf, E.

The load average and rms currents are

1  2 2V 
Io   sin½  E  (13.51)
R    
which is double the half-wave case and
½
1 V 2 4 2 
I o rms   sin   V E sin½  V 2  E 2   (13.52)
R     
which is √2 greater than the half-wave case.
The total power delivered to the load is (double the half-wave case):
Po  PR  PE  I o2rms R  E I o (13.53)

Example 13.4: Full-wave rectifier with resistive and back emf load

A dc motor, with series armature resistance of 10Ω and a back emf of 100V dc, is fed via a full-wave
rectifier from the single-phase 230V 50Hz ac mains. Calculate

i. The average and rms motor voltages and currents, and diode maximum reverse voltage
ii. The supply power factor and motor efficiency
Solution
With a 100V back emf, the circuit and waveforms in figure 13.8b are applicable.
The current starts conducting when
E 100V
t    sin1  sin1  17.9
2V 2  230V
The current conducts for a period θ = π - 2α = 180° - 2×17.9 = 144.2°, ceasing at ωt = π - α = 162.1°.
463 Power Electronics

i. The average and rms load currents and voltages are given by equations (13.49) to (13.52).
 2
Vo  2E  2V cos 
 
17.9 2
 2  100V  2  230V  cos17.9  216.9V
180 
1  2 2V 
Io   sin½  E 
R    
1  2 2  230 V 144.2 
  sin½  144.2  100V    11.7A
10   180 
½
    1  
2

Vo rms  2 E 2 V 2 1  2  sin 2  
      
½
 17.9  17.9 1  
2

 2  1002  2302 1  2   sin 2  17.9    231.4V

 180  180   
½
1 V 2 4 2 
I o rms   sin   V E sin½  V 2  E 2  
R     
½
1  2302 4 2 144.2 
  sin144.2   230V  100V  sin½  144.2   230 2  100 2  
10    180 
 14.43A
The diode maximum reverse voltage is √2×230+100=425.3V.
ii. The motor loss is the loss in the 10Ω resistance in the dc motor equivalent circuit
PR  I o2rms R  14.432  10  2082.2W
The back emf represents the source of electrical energy converted to mechanical energy
PE  E  I o  100V  11.7A  1170W
The supply power factor is defined as the ratio: supply power delivered to apparent supply
power
P P  PE 2082.2W  1170W
pf   R   0.98
S V  I o rms 230V  14.43A
The motor efficiency is
PE 1170W
   100  36.0%
PR  PE 2082.2W  1170W
♣

13.1.9 Single-phase, full-wave bridge rectifier circuit with an R-L load

Single-phase full-wave diode bridge circuits are shown in figures 13.9a and 13.9b. Both circuits appear
identical as far as the load and supply are concerned. It will be seen in part b that two fewer diodes can
be employed but this circuit requires a centre-tapped secondary transformer where each secondary has
only a 50% copper utilisation factor. For the same output voltage, each of the secondary windings in
figure 13.9b must have the same rms voltage rating as the single secondary winding of the transformer
in figure 13.9a. The rectifying diodes in figure 13.9b experience twice the reverse voltage, (2√2 V), as
that experienced by each of the four diodes in the circuit of figure 13.9a, (√2 V).
Figure 13.9c shows bridge circuit voltage and current waveforms. Assuming a 1:1(:1) transformer turns
ratio, and with an inductive passive load, (no back emf) continuous load current flows, which is given by
2V  2 sin  
i o t    sin t      e t /tan   0  t   (13.54)
Z  1e  /tan 

Appropriate integration of the load current squared, gives the rms load (and ac supply) current:
V
1  4 sin2  tan   1  e  /tan    I s
½
I rms    (13.55)
Z
The load experiences the transformer secondary rectified voltage which has a mean voltage (thence
mean load current) of
Vo  1  2V sin t d t  I o R  2 2V

 0.90V (V) (13.56)
 0 
Since the average inductor voltage is zero, the average resistor voltage equals the average R-L voltage.
Chapter 13 Naturally Commutating AC to DC Converters- Uncontrolled Rectifiers 464

The rms value of the load circuit voltage v0 is

  
2π 2
V rms  1 2V sin t d  t  V (V) (13.57)
2 0

From the load voltage definitions in section 13.5, the load voltage form factor is constant:
Vrms V 
FFv     1.11 (13.58)
Vo 2 2V 2 2


For RL and L=0

q =2 r =1 s =1 RF=0.48 RF=1
p=qxrxs
p=2

Figure 13.9. Single-phase full-wave rectifier bridge: (a) circuit with four rectifying diodes;
(b) circuit with two (Graetz) rectifying diodes; and (c) circuit waveforms.

The load ripple voltage is

VRI  Vrms
2
Vo2
(13.59)
= V 2  2 V
2
2

2
=V 1  8
2
= 0.435V (V)
hence the load voltage ripple factor is
RFv  V RI /Vo  FFv 2  1
(13.60)
RFv  1   2  /2
2
2 2  2  1  0.483 FFv   / 2 2  1.11   8 /  2  0.81
 8

which is significantly less (better) than the half-wave rectified value of 1.211 from equation (13.32).
The output voltages and currents (rms and average) can be derived from the voltage Fourier expansion
in equation (13.46):
465 Power Electronics

2 2V 2 2V 
2
v o t     cos n t (13.61)
  n 2,4,6 n  1

2

The first term is the average output voltage, as given by equation (13.56). Note the harmonic
2 2 2 2
magnitudes decrease rapidly with increased order, namely 3 : 15 : 35 : 63 : ... . The output voltage is
therefore dominated by the dc component and the harmonic at 2ω.

The output current can be derived by dividing each voltage component by the appropriate load
impedance at that frequency. That is
Vo 2 2V
Io  
R R
2 (13.62)
V 2 2V n2 1
In  n   for n  2, 4, 6..
Zn  R 2  n L 
2

The load rms current whence load power, critical load inductance, and power factor, are given by

I rms  I o2   ½  I n2 PL  I rms
2
R
n  2,4,
(13.63)
P I R R
pf  L  rms Lcritical  (see equation 11.67)
V I rms V 3
Each diode rms current is I rms / 2 . For the circuit in figure 13.9a, the transformer secondary winding
rms current is Irms, while for the centre-tapped transformer, for the same load voltage, each winding has
an rms current rating of Irms / √2 (implying a poorer transformer utilisation factor 0.813:0.671). The
primary current rating is the same for both transformers and is related to the secondary rms current
rating by the turns ratio. Power factor is independent of turns ratio.

13.1.9i - Single-phase full-wave bridge rectifier circuit with an output L-C filter
A – with an output L-C filter and continuous inductor current
Table 13.1 shows three typical single-phase, full-wave rectifier output stages, where part c is a typical
output filtering stage used to obtain a near constant dc output voltage.
If it is assumed that the load inductance is large and the load resistance small such that continuous load
current flows, then the bridge average output voltage V o is the same as the average voltage across the
load resistor since the average voltage across the filter inductor is zero. From equation (13.61), the
dominant load voltage harmonic is due to the second harmonic therefore the ac current is predominately
the second harmonic current, I o , ac  I o , 2 . By neglecting the higher order harmonics, the various circuit
currents and voltages can be readily obtained as shown in Table 13.1. From equation (13.61) the output
voltage is given by
v o t   V o  Vo , 2 cos 2t
2 2V 2 2V 2
   cos n t for n  2
  n2 1
(13.64)
2 2V 2 2 2V
   cos 2t
  3
 0.90V  0.60V  cos 2t
With the filter capacitor across the load resistor, the average inductor current is equal to the average
resistor current, since the average capacitor current is zero.
With continuous inductor current, the inductor current is
i o t   Io  I o , 2 cos 2t
Vo 2 Vo 0.90V 0.60V (13.65)
  cos 2t    cos 2t
R 3 Z2 R R   2L 
2 2

From equation (13.65) for continuous inductor current, the average current must be larger than the peak
second harmonic current magnitude, that is
I o  I o ,2
Vo 2 Vo (13.66)

R 3 Z2
Chapter 13 Naturally Commutating AC to DC Converters- Uncontrolled Rectifiers 466

Since the load resistance must be low enough to ensure continuous inductor current, then 2L  R such
that Z 2  R 2   2L 2  2L . Equation (13.66) therefore gives the following load identity for continuous
inductor current
1 2 1 1  
  that is L  1 generally  L  1 
m m  1  
(13.67)
R 3 Z 2 3L R 3  R 2

The load and supply (peak) ac currents are I o , ac  I s , ac  I o , 2 . The output and supply rms currents are
2 2
I o , rms  I s , rms  I o  ½I o2, ac  I o  ½I o2, 2 (13.68)
and the power delivered to resistance R in the load is
PR  I o2, rms R (13.69)

B – with an output L-C filter and discontinuous inductor current

If the inductor current reduces to zero, at angle β, all the load current is provided by the capacitor. Its
voltage falls to Vo (<√2 V) and inductor current recommences when
v L  2V sin t Vo (13.70)
at an angle
Vo
  sin1 (13.71)
2V
By integrating v = L di/dt for i, the inductor current is of the form
i L t  
1
L
 2V  cos   cos t  V o t     (13.72)

where α ≤ ωt ≤ β. The voltage Vo is found from equation (13.72) by iterative techniques.

13.1.9ii Single-phase, full-wave bridge rectifier circuit with an R-L-E load

An R-L load incorporating a back emf E, is shown in Table 13.1.

For continuous output current

When continuous load current flows, the rectified supply is continuously impressed across the series L-
R-E load, therefore the average and rms output voltages respectively are
1  2 2
V o   2V s sin t d t  V
 o  s
(13.73)
1 
 
2
V 
o  2Vs sin t d t  Vs
 o

Hence the output voltage form and ripple factors are

Vo 
FFv  
Vo 2 2
(13.74)
2
RFv  VFF  1  2
1
8

If the input current is approximated by its fundamental, 4I o /  , the following input characteristics are
realised:
input displacement factor  DPF  cos i  cos 0  1
Ii1 2 2
distortion factor  DF i 1  
Io 
2 2
power factor  pf  DPF  DF i 1 

1  DF 2
2
THDi 1  i1
 100   1  100
DF i 12 8
The output current is found by solving
di o
2V s sin t  Ri o  L E (13.75)
dt
which in steady state yields
467 Power Electronics

t
 sin  
i o t   I o e  2V s sin t    

tan 

 cos  
(13.76)
L E
where tan   ; Z  R  L ; 2 2 2
sin  
R 2V s
and the boundary conditions give
2V s 2 sin 
Io 
Z 
1  e tan 

For continuous conduction, io (ωt = θ) ≥ 0 in equation (13.76) gives the condition

2 sin  tan 
sin 

e   sin      (13.77)
cos 
1  e tan 

Table 11.1: Single-phase full-wave uncontrolled rectifier circuits – continuous inductor current
nd
2 harmonic average output
Full-wave rectifier circuit output power
current current
Io,2 Io PR+PE
Load circuit (A) (A) (W)

(a)
Io L
R-L Vo
Is Vo ,2 R
see Vs Vo R I o2, rms R
R   2L 
2 2
section s

13.1.9i 2 2V

and R
12.2.3
α=0

(b)
Io L

R-L-E Vo  E
R
Is Vo ,2 R
see Vs I o2, rms R  I o E
R   2L 
Vo E+ 2 2
section
13.1.9ii 1  2 2V 
  E 
and R   
12.2.4
α=0

Io L
(c) Io,dc
Vo
Io,ac
L-R//C
Is R
V o ,2 2
Vs Vo I o2, rms R  I o R
C Ra 2L
see b 2 2V

section R
13.1.9i

If the left hand side is less than the right hand side, discontinuous current flows in the load, and if the
current extinction angle is β, then the average output voltage is given by
1   
V o    2V s sin t d t   E d t 
    
2V
Vo  cos   cos         sin   (13.78)
 
Chapter 13 Naturally Commutating AC to DC Converters- Uncontrolled Rectifiers 468

In the general solution to the circuit differential equation in equation (13.76), for discontinuous output
current, (zero current boundary conditions), Io for equation (13.76) becomes (during conduction)
2V s  sin  
Io  sin     
Z  cos  
The conduction period β is found by iteratively solving
  
 sin   
sin       1  e tan    e tan   sin     (13.79)
  cos 

Example 13.5: Full-wave diode rectifier with an L-C filter and continuous load current
A single-phase, full-wave, diode rectifier is supplied from a 230V ac, 50Hz voltage source and uses an
L-C output filter with a resistor load, as shown in the last circuit in Table 13.1. The average inductor
current is 10A with a 4A rms ripple current dominated by the 100Hz component. Ignoring diode voltage
drops and initially assuming the output voltage is ripple free, determine
i. dc output voltage, hence load resistance and power
ii. dc filter inductance and its average voltage, whilst neglecting any capacitor voltage ripple
iii. dc filter capacitance if its peak-to-peak ripple voltage is 5% the average voltage
iv. diode average, rms, and peak current
v. supply power factor
Solution

Since 2 I o rms , 2  I o  
2  4A  10A , the output current is continuous.
i. The dc output voltage is V o = 0.9×230V = 207V. Assuming the 207V is ripple free, that is, Vrms =
Vdc, then the load resistance and power dissipated are
Vo 207V
R   20.7
Io 10A
PR  V o  I o  207V  10A = 2070W

ii. The 100Hz voltage component in the output voltage is given by equation (13.64), that is
2 2V 2
Vo , 2   2 cos n t
 n 1
2 2 2V
 cos 2t 
3 
 0.60  230V  cos 2t  138  cos 2t
which has an rms value of 138/√2 = 97.6V. The 100Hz rms current I o , 2 / 2 produced by this
voltage is 4A thus
Io, 2 Vo , 2
from 
2 2L
Vo , 2 97.6V
L   38.8mH
2I o , 2 2  2 50Hz  4A
The average inductor voltage is zero.

iii. From part i, the dc output voltage is 207V. The peak-to-peak ripple voltage is 5% of 207V, that is
10.35V. This gives an rms value of 10.35V /2√2 = 3.66V. From
Io, 2
Vo , 2 Io, 2 2
  X c , 100Hz 
2 2 2C
Io, 2 4A
C    1.7mF
2 Vo , 2 2  2 50Hz  3.66V
iv. The diode currents are
2
I D , rms  I o , rms / 2  I o  ½I o2, 2 / 2  10A 2  4A 2 / 2  10.8A / 2  7.64A
2
I D , rms  I o , rms / 2  I o  ½I o2, 2 I D  I o  I o , 2  10A  2  4A  15.7A
v. The input and output rms current is
2
I s  I o , rms  I o  ½I o2, 2  10A2  4A 2  10.8A
469 Power Electronics

Assuming the input power equals the output power, then from part i, Po = Pi = 2070W. The
supply power factor is
P P 2070W
pf  i  i   0.83
S V s I s 230V  10.8A
♣

13.1.9iii - Single-phase full-wave bridge rectifier with highly inductive load– constant load current
With a highly inductive load, which is the usual practical case, virtually constant load current flows, as
shown dashed in figure 13.9c. The bridge diode currents are then square wave 180º blocks of current of
magnitude I o . The diode current ratings can now be specified and depend on the pulse number p. For
this full-wave single-phase application each input cycle comprises two 180º output current pulses, hence
p = 2.
The mean current in each diode is
I D  1p I o  ½I o (A) (13.80)
and the rms current in each diode is
ID  1 p Io Io / 2 (A) (13.81)

whence the diode current form factor is

RF ID  I D / I D  p  2 (13.82)
Since the load current is approximately constant, power delivered to the load is
Po  V o I o  8 2  V 2R (W) (13.83)


The supply power factor is pf =Vo /V = 2√2/π = 0.90, since I o  I rms .

13.1.9iv - Single-phase full-wave bridge rectifier circuit with a C-filter and resistive load
The capacitor smoothed single-phase full-wave diode rectifier circuit shown in figure 13.10a is a
common power rectifier circuit used to obtain unregulated dc voltages. The circuit is simple and cheap
but the input current has high peak and rms values, high harmonics, and a poor power factor. The full-
wave rectified case is an extension of the half-wave case considered in section 13.1.5.
The capacitor reduces the ripple voltage, so large voltage-polarised capacitance is used to produce an
almost constant dc output voltage. Isolation and voltage matching (step-up or step down) are obtained
by using a transformer before the diode rectification stage as shown in figures 13.9a and b. The resistor
R across the filter capacitor represents a resistive dissipative load.

As the ac supply voltage rises to its extremes each half cycle, as shown in figure 13.10b, a pair of
rectifier diodes D1-D2 or D3-D4, alternately become forward biased at time ωt = α. The ac supply
provides load resistor current and simultaneously charges the capacitor, its voltage having drooped
whilst providing the load current during the previous diode non-conduction period. The capacitor
charging current period θc around the ac supply extremes is short, giving a high peak to rms ratio of
diode and supply current. When all the rectifier diodes are reverse biased at ωt = β because the
capacitor voltage is greater than the instantaneous supply ac voltage, the capacitor supplies the load
current and its voltage decreases with an R-C time constant until ωt = π+α. The output voltage and
diode voltages, plus load current vo /R, and capacitor current C dvo /dt are defined in Table 13.2.

The start of diode conduction, α, the diode current extinction angle, β, hence diode conduction period,
θc, are specified by the following equations.

From ic + iR = 0 at ωt = β :
2V 2V
cos   sin   0
X R (13.84)
  tan1  RC     tan1 RC  ½    
By equating the two expression for output voltage at the boundary ωt = π+α gives
2V sin      2V sin   e
      /tan 
(13.85)
and a transcendental expression for α results:
sin   sin   e 
      /RC
0 (13.86)
Chapter 13 Naturally Commutating AC to DC Converters- Uncontrolled Rectifiers 470

iD The output average voltage is

D4 D1
2V  cos   cos 
ic iR

Vo  I oR   
 
is
 RC sin  1  e 
     /tan
  
Vs vo 
C R

D2 D3
The output rms voltage is
½

1 ½     -¼  cos 2  cos 2  
v o  2V   
(a)




 RC sin2  1  ½e  
2     /tan
 


D1 D2 D1 D2 conducting
D3 D4 D3 D4 diodes

vo θc θc
√2 V
Δvo
 vo
 vo

½π π 2π ωt
o α β π+α
Vs

ICap

iD

α β π+α iR ωt

(b)
Figure 13.10. Single-phase full-wave rectifier bridge:
(a) circuit with C-filter capacitor and (b) circuit waveforms.

Table 13.2: Single-phase, full-wave rectifier voltages and currents

Diodes conducting Diodes non-conducting

vs(ωt) = √2Vsinωt
α ≤ ωt ≤ β β ≤ ωt ≤ π + α
 t    /tan 
Output voltage vo(ωt) 2V sin t 2V sin   e
 t    /tan 
Diode voltage vD(ωt) 0 and - 2V sin t  2V sin   e  2V sin t
2V 2V  t    /tan 
Capacitor current ic(ωt) cos t e
X Z
2V 2V
 i c t 
 t    /tan 
Resistor current iR(ωt) sin t e
R Z
ID(ωt)= 2V
 sin t   
Diode bridge
0
current ic(ωt)+ iR(ωt) R cos 

The diode current conduction period θc is given by

c     (13.87)

When the diodes conduct, R and C are in parallel and tan   C R .

When the diodes are not conducting, the output circuit current flows in a series R-C circuit with a
fundamental impedance of:
Z  R 2  X 2 and X  1
C
471 Power Electronics

The resistor average voltage and current are

2V 1  cos c 
VR   IR R (13.88)
  cos 

The maximum output voltage occurs at ωt = ½π when vo =Vo  Vs =√2V, while the minimum output
voltage occurs at the end of the capacitor discharge period when ωt = α and vo =V o =√2Vsinα. The
output peak-to-peak ripple voltage is therefore the difference:

V  V V  2V  2V sin   2V 1  sin  
o o o (13.89)
By assuming α ≈ ½π, β ≈ ½π, and a series expansion for the exponent
2V  V
Vo   (13.90)
RC 2f RC

The ac source current is the sum of the diode currents, that is

i s  i D 1,2  i D 3,4  i R  i c (13.91)
when   t   . Otherwise is = 0.

Since the capacitor voltage is in steady-state, the average capacitor current is zero, thus for full-wave
rectification, the average diode current is half the average load current.
The peak capacitor current occurs at ωt = α, when the diodes first conduct. From the capacitor current
equation in Table 13.2:
I  2V  C cos 
c (13.92)

From Table 13.2, the peak diode current occurs at the same time as the peak capacitor current, ωt = α:
I  i      i    
D c R
(13.93)
2V 2V 2V 2V Z
 2V C cos   sin   cos   sin   sin    
R X R R X

Similar expressions can be derived for the half-wave rectifier case. For the non-conduction period,
β=2π+α. The output ripple voltage is about twice that given by equation (13.90) and the average resistor
voltage in equation (13.88) (after modification), is reduced. The diode PIV rating is 2√2V in both cases.

Example 13.6: Single-phase full-wave bridge rectifier circuit with C-filter and resistive load

A single-phase, full-wave, diode rectifier is supplied from a 230V ac, 50Hz voltage source and uses a
capacitor output filter, 1000μF, with a resistor 100Ω load, as shown in Figure 13.10a. Ignoring diode
voltage drops, determine
i. expressions for the output voltage
ii. output voltage ripple Δvo and the % error in using the approximation equation (13.90)
iii. expressions for the capacitor current
iv. diode peak current
v. average load voltage and current
Assuming the output ripple voltage is triangular, estimate
vi. average output voltage and rms output ripple voltage
vii. capacitance C for Δvo = 2% of the maximum output voltage

Solution

The supply voltage is vs = √2×230 sin2π 50t, which has a peak value of Vs = 325.3V.
RC  2 50Hz  100  1000μF = 31.416 rad
Thus X = 1/ωC = 3.1831Ω and Z = 100.0507Ω.
(5 figure accuracy is used because of the sensitivity of the applicable equations around α = 90°.)
From equation (13.84) the diode current extinction angle β is
    tan1 RC     tan1 31.416rad  1.6026 rad  91.8
The diode current turn-on angle α is solve iteratively from equation (13.86), that is
      /RC
sin   sin   e 0
   1.603 /31.416
sin   sin1.603  e 0
gives α = 1.16095 rad or 66.5°. The diode conduction period is θc = β - α =1.6026 -1.16095 = 0.44167rad
or 25.3°.
Chapter 13 Naturally Commutating AC to DC Converters- Uncontrolled Rectifiers 472

i. From Table 13.2, the output voltage, which is the capacitor voltage, is given by
v o (t )  2V sin t  325.27V  sin t 66.5  t  91.8

v o (t )  2  230V  sin1.6026rad  e

 
 t 1.6026rad /31.416rad
 325.13  e
 
 t 1.6026rad /31.416rad

91.8  t  246.5

ii. The output voltage ripple Δvo is given by equation (13.89), that is
Vo  2V 1  sin    2 230V  1  sin1.16026   26.94V p-p
From equation (13.90)
V 230V
Vo    32.5V
2 f RC . 2  50Hz  100  1000μF
.

The approximation predicts a higher ripple: a +21% over-estimate.

iii. From Table 13.2, the capacitor current is
i c (t )  2V C cos t  2 230V  2 50Hz  1000μF  cos t  102.2  cos t
66.5  t  91.8
2V sin   t    /RC 2230V  sin1.16  t 1.16  /31.4  t 1.16  /31.4
i c (t )  e  e  3.0  e
R 100
91.8  t  246.5

iv. The peak diode current is given by equation (13.93):

2V
I D  2V C cos   sin 
R
2 230V
 2 230V  2 50Hz  1000μF  cos1.16026   sin1.16026
100
 40.7A  3A  43.7A
The peak diode current is dominated by the capacitor initial charging current of 40.7A
v. The average load voltage and current are given by equation (13.88)
2V 1  cos c 
VR 
  cos 


2 230V

1  cos 0.4417   312.3V
  cos1.603
V R 312.3V
IR    3.12A
R 100
vi. If the ripple voltage is assumed triangular then
(a) The average output voltage is the peak output voltage minus half the ripple voltage, that is
V - ½Δv = √2×230V - ½×26.9V = 311.8V
s o

which is less than that given by the accurate equation (13.89), 312.3V.
(b) If the 26.9V p-p ripple voltage is assumed triangular then its rms value is ½×26.9/√3 =7.8V
rms.

vii. Re-arrangement of equation (13.90), which under-estimates the capacitance requirement for
2% ripple, gives
V Vs 1
C   
2 f R  Vo 2f R  2% of Vs
.
2f R  2%
1
  5, 000μF
2  50Hz  100  0.02
♣
473 Power Electronics

115V/230V D1
C + ac C1 +
Np:1:1 +
V input
230V

Vo
Vs 0V Vs
115V

C + C2 +
-
V
D2

(a) (b)
Figure 13.11. Bridge rectifiers: (a) split rail dc supplies and (b) voltage doubler.

13.1.9v - Other single-phase bridge rectifier circuit configurations

Figure 13.11a shows a transformer used to create a two-phase supply (each phase is 180° apart), which
+ -
upon rectification produce equal split-rail dc output voltages, V and V . The electrical characteristics
can be analysed as in the case of the single-phase full-wave bridge rectifier circuit with a capacitive C-
filter and resistive load, in section 13.1.9iv. In the split rail case, the rectifiers conduct every 180°,
alternately feeding each output voltage rail capacitor. Thus the diode average and rms currents are
increased by 2 and √2 respectively, above those of a conventional single phase rectifier.
The voltage doubler in figure 13.11b can be used in equipment that must be able to operate from both
115Vac and 230V ac voltage supplies, without the aid of a voltage-matching transformer. With the
switch in the 115V position, the output is twice the peak of the input ac supply. The capacitor C1 charges
through diode D1, and when the supply reverses, capacitor C2 charges through D2. Since C1 and C2 are
in series, the output voltage is the sum VC1+VC2, where each capacitor is alternately charged (half-wave
rectified) from the ac source Vs. The other, unused, two diodes remain reverse biased, and are only
necessary if the dual input voltage function is required.
With the switch in the 230V ac position (open circuit), standard rectification occurs, with the two series
capacitors charging simultaneously every half cycle. In dual frequency applications (110V ac, 60Hz and
230V ac, 50Hz), the capacitance requirements are based on the supply with the lower frequency, 50Hz.

13.2 Three-phase uncontrolled rectifier converter circuits

Single-phase supply circuits are adequate below a few kilowatts. At higher power levels, restrictions on
unbalanced loading, line harmonics, current surge voltage dips, and filtering require the use of three-
phase (or higher - polyphase) converter circuits. Generally it will be assumed that the output current is
both continuous and smooth. This assumption is based on the dc load being highly inductive.
The characteristics of three-phase rectifiers with a purely resistive load are summarised in Table 13.8.

13.2.1 Three-phase half-wave rectifier circuit with an inductive R-L load

Figure 13.12 shows a half-wave (single way), three-phase diode rectifier circuit along with various circuit
voltage and current waveforms. A transformer having a star connected secondary is required for neutral
access, N.
The diode with the highest potential with respect to the neutral conducts a rectangular current pulse. As
the potential of another diode becomes the highest, load current is transferred to that device, and the
previously conducting device is reverse-biased and naturally (line) commutated. Note that the load
voltage, hence current never reaches zero, when the load is passive (no opposing back emf).
In general terms, the mean output voltage for an n-phase p-pulse system is given by (see example 13.8)
1  /p

2 / p   / p
Vo  2V cos t d t (V)
(13.94)
sin( / p )
= 2V (V)
 /p

For a three-phase, half-wave circuit (p = 3) the mean output voltage, (thence average current) is
5 /6
V I R  1
o o 2 
2 V sin t d t
3  /6
(13.95)
½ 3
 2V  1.17 V (V)
 /3
Chapter 13 Naturally Commutating AC to DC Converters- Uncontrolled Rectifiers 474

The rms load voltage is

 sin 2 
  p
2
1
 /p

Vrms   2V cos t d t  2V ½ 1 
2
2
p - / p  2 
 p  (13.96)
½
 3  3 
 2V      1.19 V
 2 3 4  

q =3 r =1 s =1
p=qxrxs
p=3

c
ωt
2
2 3 a
3N
2
3

π

π

π

Figure 13.12. Three-phase half-wave diode rectifier:

(a) circuit diagram and (b) circuit voltage and current waveforms.

The load voltage form factor is

 sin 2 
p
½ 1 
 2 
V rms  p 
FFv    1.19V / 1.17V  1.016 for p  3 (13.97)
V sin 
p

p

V V 
ac voltage across the load 2
RFv = ripple factor =  rms  1  0.185 (13.98)
dc voltage across the load
475 Power Electronics

The diode conduction angle is 2π/n, namely ⅔π. The peak diode reverse voltage is given by the
maximum voltage between any two phases, √3√2 V = √6 V.

From equations (13.80), (13.81), and (13.82), for a constant output current, I o  I o rms , the mean diode
current is
I D  1n I o  1 3 I o (A) (13.99)
and the rms diode current is
ID  1 1 1
n Io rms  nIo  3 Io (A) (13.100)

The diode current form factor is

FF ID  I D / I D  3 (13.101)
The input displacement factor cosΦ is unity and the input power factor (and displacement factor),
assuming diode square currents, is
3 6
Vo I o Vs I o 3
pf   2   0.675 (13.102)
3V s I irms Io 2 
3V s
3
The load average and rms voltage, current and FF, RF, and power factor are the same for an RL load as
for the resistive load case.

mmf  N  i a  i c  i R 
iR

mmf  N  i b  i a  iY  R-L
iY

mmf  N  i c  i b  i B 
iB

i R  iY  i B  0  mmf 1:N:N

q =3 r =1 s =1
p=qxrxs
p=3

Figure 13.13. Three-phase zig-zag interconnected star winding, with three windings per limb, 1:N:N:
(a) transformer connection showing zero dc mmf in each limb (phase) and
(b) phasor diagram of transformer primary and secondary voltages.

If neutral is available, a transformer is not necessary. Then the full load current is returned via the
neutral supply. This neutral current is generally not acceptable other than at low power levels. The
simple delta-star connection of the supply in figure 13.12a is not appropriate since the unidirectional
current in each phase is transferred from the supply to the transformer. This may result in increased
magnetising current and iron losses if dc magnetisation occurs. As discussed in section 13.3.5, this
problem is avoided in most cases by the special interconnected star winding, called zig-zag, shown in
figure 13.13a and discussed in section 13.3.7. Each transformer limb has two equal voltage secondaries
which are connected such that the magnetising forces balance. The resultant phasor diagram is shown
in figure 13.13b. 15% more turns are needed than with a star connection. This transformer mmf problem
resulting from half-wave rectification is considered in section 13.3 and chapter 22.
As the number of phases increases, the windings become less utilised per cycle since the diode
conduction angle decreases, from π for a single-phase circuit, to ⅔π for the three-phase case.
Chapter 13 Naturally Commutating AC to DC Converters- Uncontrolled Rectifiers 476

13.2.2 Three-phase full-wave rectifier circuit with an inductive R-L load

Figure 13.14a shows a three-phase full-wave rectifier circuit where no neutral is necessary and it will be
seen that two series diodes (not in the same bridge leg) are always conducting. One diode (one of D 1,
D3, or D5, at the highest potential) can be considered as being in the feed circuit, while the other (one of
D2, D4, or D6, at the lowest potential) is in the return circuit. As such, the line-to-line voltage is impressed
across the load. Given no two series connected bridge leg diodes conduct simultaneously, there are six
possible diode pair combinations. The rectifier circuit waveforms in figure 13.14b show that the load
ripple frequency is six times the supply. Each diode conducts for ⅔π and experiences a reverse voltage
of the peak line voltage, √2 VL.

a b c

q =3 r =1 s =2
p=qxrxs
p=6

source
voltages

ab ac bc ba ca ca

6,1 1,2 2,3 3,4 4,5 5,6

output
voltage

i a = iD1 - i D4
i b = iD3 - i D6
i c = iD5 - i D2

Figure 13.14. Three-phase full-wave bridge rectifier:

(a) circuit connection and (b) voltage and current waveforms.
477 Power Electronics

The mean load voltage is given by twice equation (13.95), that is

2 /3
Vo  I o R  1   2 VL sin t d t (V)
3  /3
(13.103)
3 3
 2V  2VL  1.35VL  2.34V
 /3 
where VL is the line-to-line rms voltage (VL =√3V).
Generally the peak-to-peak ripple voltage for n-phases is 2V  2V cos  . (see Table 13.4)
n
The critical load inductance (see figure 12.12) for continuous load current, is Lcritical  R
  p  p 2  1
3
.
2

The output harmonics of a p-pulse voltage output are

2V 2
sin 
n
Van  1 p 
 p 2
p n  1
(13.104)
n 2
 1 p Vo 
n 2  1
where n = mp and m = 1, 2, 3, … and Vo is the mean output voltage given by equation (13.94).
The output voltage harmonics for p = 6 are given by
6 VL
Vo n  (13.105)
 n 2  1
for n = 6, 12, 18, ..
The rms output voltage is given by
½
 1 2 /3 
Vrms   
 2 / 6  /3
2VL sin2 t d t 

(13.106)
3 3
 VL 1  1.352VL
.

2

Generally, for a p-pulse rectifier output, the rms output voltage is

p
Vrms  VL 1  sin 2 (13.107)
2 p
2
The load voltage form factor = 1.352/1.35 = 1.00091, the ripple factor = √(form factor -1) = 0.042, power
factor = 0.956, and the efficiency is 0.998.

13.2.2i Three-phase full-wave bridge rectifier circuit with continuous load current
If it is assumed that the load inductance is large, then (even with a load back emf), continuous load
current flows and the dominate load current harmonic is due to the sixth harmonic current, that is
let I o , ac  I o ,6 . By neglecting the higher order harmonics, the various circuit currents and voltages can
be readily obtained as shown in Table 13.3. From equations (13.103) and (13.105) the output voltage is
given by
v o t   V o  Vo , 6 cos 6t
3 3 2
 2V L  2V L cos n t for n  6
  n  1
2
(13.108)
3 2 3
  2VL   2V L  cos 2t
35
 1.35V L  0.077V L cos 2t

The fundamental voltage, hence current, Vo /R, is therefore much larger than the sixth harmonic current,
Vo,6 / Z6, that is I o  I o , 6 . The load and supply ac currents are I o , ac  I s , ac  I o , 6 . The output and
supply rms currents are
2 2
I o , rms  I s , rms  I o  I o2, ac  I o  I o2, 6 (13.109)
and the power delivered to resistance R in the load is
PR  I o2, rms R (13.110)
Chapter 13 Naturally Commutating AC to DC Converters- Uncontrolled Rectifiers 478

13.2.2ii Three-phase full-wave bridge circuit with highly inductive load – constant load current

For a highly inductive load, that is a constant load current the average output voltage and current are
given by equation (13.103), the rms output voltage by equation (13.106), and:
 the mean diode current is
I D  1n I o  1 3 I o (A) (13.111)
 and the rms diode current is
I D rms  1 n I o rms  1 n I o  1 3 I o (A) (13.112)
 and the power factor for a constant load current is
3
p f   0.955 (13.113)

The rms input line currents are
2
I L rms  I o rms (13.114)
3
The diode current form factor is
FFID  I D rms / I D  3 (13.115)
The diode current ripple factor is
RFID  FF ID2  1  2 (13.116)
A phase voltage and current are given by
v a  2V sin t (13.117)
2 3  sin  n  1 t
sin  n  1 t 
ia  I o sin t   n  6, 12, 18, ..
 (13.118)
  n 1 n 1 
with phases b and c shifted by ⅔π. That is substitute ωt in equations (13.117) and (13.118) with ωt±⅔π.
Each load current harmonic n produces harmonics n+1 and n-1 on the input current.
The total load instantaneous power is given by
 cos n t 
p t   3  2V I o   ½  2 (13.119)
 n  1 
The supply apparent power is
S  3VL I s rms (13.120)

while the ac power, in terms of apparent ac resistance, is

V2
Pac  3  (13.121)
Rac
Using the output voltage from equation (13.103), the output power is
2
 3 
Pdc   2V  / (13.122)

  / 3  Rdc
 9 
Since Pac = Pdc , then Rdc  2  2  Rac  2Rac .
 
At the ac input, for a constant load current:
The rms value of the fundamental line current
2 3 6
I L1,rms  I  I  0.78I o
 o / 2  o
The input distortion, DF, is
I 6
I 3
DF  o ,1   o   0.955 (13.123)
Io 2 I
3 o


The input power factor, with unity displacement power factor, is therefore
3
pf  DF  DPF   0.955 (13.124)

The input total harmonic distortion is
I L2  I L2,1 2
3 I o2  6
2
I o2
THD    0.3108 (13.125)
I Ls ,1 6
 Io
479 Power Electronics

Table 13.3: Three-phase full-wave uncontrolled rectifier circuits

th
Full-wave rectifier circuit 6 harmonic average output
output power
current current
Io, 6 Io PR+PE
load circuit (A) (A) (W)

Io L
(a)

Vo , 6
R-L Vs
Is Vo R Vo I o2, rms R
R   6L 
2 2
R
s

see
section
13.2.2i

Io L

(b) R
Vo , 6
13.2.2iii
Vs
Is
Vo E I o2, rms R  I o E
R 2   6L 
Vo E+ 2
s
R
R-L-E

Io L
Io,dc

(c) Io,ac
Vs Vo , 6 Vo 2
Is Vo I o2, rms R  I o R
s
C R 6L R
R-L-C

Io
Io,dc
(d) Io,ac

13.2.2iv
Vs
Is Vo -
Vo I o2, rms R
R
s
C R
R-C

13.2.2iii Three-phase full-wave bridge circuit with highly inductive load with an EMF source

With continuous load current, the output voltage and input characteristics are unaffected by a load back
emf, with the average and rms output voltages given by equations (13.103) and (13.106) respectively.
The input power factor and distortion factor are 3/π, as per equation (13.125).
The output, that is, load current, is found from
di o
L  Ri o  E  2V s sin t 1
3   t  2
3 
dt
t  1 3
 2Vs  sin  
i o t   I oe tan 
 sin t     (13.126)
Z  cos  
L E 2V s sin 
where tan   ; Z  R 2   2L2 ; sin   ; and Io 
R 2V s Z  3

1  e tan 
Chapter 13 Naturally Commutating AC to DC Converters- Uncontrolled Rectifiers 480

13.2.2iv Three-phase full-wave bridge circuit with capacitively filtered load resistance
Part d in Table 13.1 shows a three-phase full-wave rectifier circuit with a parallel R-C load.

Interval α ≤ ωt ≤ β
In the interval α ≤ ωt ≤ β, two diodes are conducting connecting the supply voltage across the load. The
input current provides both the resistive load and the output filter capacitor across the load.
vo dv o
i s  i o  iC  C where v o  Vs  2V s sin t Vs is the line-to-line voltage 
R dt
That is
is  io  iC
2V s sin t
i s t    2V s C cos t
R
(13.127)
2V s 2V s
 1   C R cos t    
2 2 2
cos t   
R R cos 
1
where tan   and   ½  
RC
Interval β ≤ ωt ≤ α + ⅓π
In the interval β ≤ ωt ≤ α + ⅓π, the bridge diodes are all reverse biased, isolating the source from the
load (discontinuous input current), and the load current is provided from the output capacitor.
vo dv o
i s  i o  iC  0  C
R dt
In satisfying a boundary condition yields
vo t   vC t   v R t  
 t     t   
 RC R cos 
 2V s e  RC
 2V s e  RC
(13.128)
1   2 R 2C 2 XC
 io R

Equating the two output voltage expressions, equations (13.127) and (13.128), at the boundary ωt = α +
⅓π yields an equation for determining α iteratively.

   1 6  tan1 1 
 RC RC
sin   e RC

1   2R 2C 2

is is

o ωt o ωt

io io

o ωt o ωt
ωCR=√3 ωCR<√3
(a) (b)

Figure 13.15. Three-phase full-wave bridge rectifier a capacitive output filter:

(a) verge of discontinuous conduction and (b) continuous current conduction.

Example 13.7: Three-phase full-wave rectifier

The full-wave three-phase dc rectifier in figure 13.14a has a three-phase 415V 50Hz source (240V
phase), and a 10Ω, 50mH, series load. During the problem solution, verify that the only harmonic that
need be considered is the sixth.
481 Power Electronics

Determine
i. average output voltage and current
ii. rms load voltage and the ac output voltage
iii. rms load current hence power dissipated and supply power factor
iv. load power percentage error in assuming a constant load current
v. diode average and rms current requirements
Solution
i. From equation (13.103) the average output voltage and current are
Vo  I o R  1.35VL  1.35  415V  560.45V
Vo 560.45V
Io    56.045A
R 10
ii. The rms load voltage is given by equation (13.106)
Vrms  1.352VL  1.352  415V = 560.94V
The ac component across the load is
Vac  Vrms
2
Vo2
 560.94V 2  560.447V 2  23.52V

iii. The rms load current is calculated from the harmonic currents, which are calculated from the
harmonic voltages given by equation (13.105).

harmonic 6 VL Vn
Vn  Z n  R 2  n L  In 
2

n  n 2  1 Zn ½I n2
0 (560.45) 10.00 56.04 (3141.01)
6 32.03 94.78 0.34 0.06
12 7.84 188.76 0.04 0.00
th
Note the 12 harmonic current is not significant I o   ½I n 
2 2
3141.07

The rms load current is

I rms  I o2   ½I n2
 3141.07  56.05A
.

The power absorbed by the 10Ω load resistor is

PL  I rms
2
R  56.05A2  10  31410.7W
The supply power factor is
PL PL 31410.7W
pf     0.955
Vrms I rms 3VL I L 2
3  415V   56.05A
3
This power factor of 0.955 is as predicted by equation (13.113), 3  , for a constant current load.

iv. The percentage output power error in assuming the load current is constant is given by
P I 2R 56.045A 2  10 31410.1W
1  L  1  2o 1 1  0 oo
PL I rms R 56.05A  10
2
31410.7W

v. The diode average and rms currents are given by equations (13.111) and (13.112)
I D  1 3 I o  1 3  56.045  18.7A
I D rms  1 1
3Io rms  3  56.05  23.4A

Example 13.8: Rectifier average load voltage

Derive a general expression for the average load voltage of a p-pulse rectifier.
Solution
Figure 13.16 defines the general output voltage waveform where p is the output pulse number per cycle
of the ac supply. From the output voltage waveform
Chapter 13 Naturally Commutating AC to DC Converters- Uncontrolled Rectifiers 482

1  /n
Vo 
2 / p   / n
2V cos t d t

2V 2V
  sin( / p )  sin( / p )   2 sin( / p )
2 / p 2 / p
2V
Vo  sin( / p ) (V)
 /p
where
for p = 2 for the single-phase (n = 1) full-wave rectifier in figure 13.9.
for p = 3 for the three-phase (n = 3) half-wave rectifier in figure 13.12.
for p = 6 for the three-phase (n = 3) full-wave rectifier in figure 13.14.
♣
V1 V2 V3

vo

 p  p
0
Io
i1 ωt

Io
ωt
I2

Io
I3
ωt
2
p
Figure 13.16. A half-wave n-phase uncontrolled rectifier: output voltage and current waveforms.

The output waveform smoothness, termed harmonic or ripple factor RF is defined by

effective values of acV Vac
Ripple factor  RFv  
average value of V Vdc
Vrms
2
Vdc2 Vrms
2

   1  FF 2  1
Vdc2 Vdc2
½
 
where Vac    12 v an2  v bn2   
 n 1 
where FF is termed the form factor. RFv is a measure of the voltage harmonics in the output voltage.
Ripple factors for constant output current rectifiers with different number of pulses, n

n 2 3 6 12 ∞
% 48.2 18.27 4.18 0.994 0

13.3 Uncontrolled rectifier input current harmonics and power factor compensation

As rectifier phase and pulse number increase, input power factor and input current THD decrease.
Three phase rectifiers, without input filtering, generally cannot comply with current harmonic standards,
such as IEEE Std. 519-1992, Table 13.4. Independent of the short circuit ratio, SCR, the lower order
th th
harmonics, 5 and 7 , present the most difficulty (although limits increase as SCR increases). Passive
filtering may not be viable because of large LC component sizes, tolerances, ageing, noise, and costs.
An active front end, based on boost converters as in chapter 15.8 and chapter 26.3.1 present an
alternative that offer high quality sinusoidal input currents at unity power factor. In such active
topologies, as in figure 13.17, the input converter (three-phase inverter bridge) is rated at the link power
rating, and the input inductors Ls are rated at the input phase current level. For a given THD, the input
inductance is inversely related to inverter switching frequency.
483 Power Electronics

Figure 13.17. Active front end, reversible three-phase ac to dc converter.

The shunt compensator is a FACTs device and offers an active front end alternative in three phase
415V ac to dc conversion stages found in many grid connected power electronics applications. Such a
configuration, as in figure 13.18 offers distinct advantages: the current ratings of the shunt inverter and
inductors are less than one third the ac line current, since the shunt only processes the harmonics and
VAr for power factor compensation. The dc link capacitor voltage must exceed the peak of the line
voltage, although triplen injection reduces the necessary voltage overhead.

VA
VB a b c

VC

IDC VSI

XSC I
a
Ib
C VDC Ic

VSC

Figure 13.18. Shunt compensation (for VAr and harmonics) of an uncontrolled rectifier.

Table 13.4: Current Harmonic Limits

Maximum Harmonic Current Distortion in % of IL

Individual Harmonic Order (Odd Harmonics)
ISC / IL <11 11  h<17 17  h<23 23  h<35 35  h TDD
<20* 4.0 2.0 1.5 0.6 0.3 5.0
20<50 7.0 3.5 2.5 1.0 0.5 8.0
50<100 10.0 4.5 4.0 1.5 0.7 12.0
100<1000 12.0 5.5 5.0 2.0 1.0 15.0
>1000 15.0 7.0 6.0 2.5 1.4 20.0
Even harmonics are limited to 25% of the harmonic limits, TDD refers to Total Demand Distortion
and is based the average maximum demand current at the fundamental frequency, taken at PCC.
*All power generation equipment is limited to these values of current distortion regardless of ISC, IL.
ISC = maximum short current at the PCC
IL = maximum demand load current (fundamental) at the PCC
h = harmonic number
 Chapter 13 Naturally Commutating AC to DC Converters- Uncontrolled Rectifiers 484

13.4 DC MMFs in converter transformers

Half-wave rectification – whether controlled, semi-controlled or uncontrolled, is notorious for producing a
dc mmf in transformers and triplen harmonics in the ac supply neutral of three-phase circuits. Generally,
a transformer based solution can minimise the problem. In order to simplify the underlying concepts, a
constant dc load current Io is assumed, that is, the load inductance is assumed infinite. The transformer
is assumed linear, no-load excitation is ignored, and the ac supply is assumed sinusoidal.
Independent of the transformer and its winding connection, the average output voltage from a rectifier,
when the rectifier bridge input rms voltage is VB and there are q pulses in the output, is given by

 /q
VB 
sin  / q
Vo 
2 / q 
 /q
cos t d t  V B
 /q
(13.129)

The rectifier bridge rms voltage output is dominated by the dc component and is given by


q
q q 2
Vo rms   2V
2
B cos 2 t  d t  VB 1  sin (13.130)
2  2 q

q

The Fourier expression for the output voltage, which is also dominated by the dc component, is
2  1
k 1

v o t   Vo Vo  cos kn t (13.131)
k 1 k 2n 2  1
Table 13.5: Rectifier characteristics with q phases (see section 13.8)
q Parallel connected secondary windings Series connected secondary windings
phases Star, thus neutral always exists Polygon, hence no neutral
v 1  2V sin t 
 2 
v 2  2V sin t 
 q 
.
 2 
v q  2V sin t  q  1
 q 
Half-wave Full-wave
q  q  q
Vo 2V sin 2 2V sin 2V
 q  q 
Load n=q q even n=q q even
n=q
harmonics n=2q q odd n=2q q odd
2V
Vo 
 2 2V cos
 2V cos 2q
Vo q
2V
q even

2V q even 2 2V q even sin
q
VDR  
2V cos q odd 2 2V cos q odd 2V
2q 2q q odd

2 sin
2q
o
N of diodes q diodes 2q diodes 2q diodes
Io Io
ID I D rms ID  I D rms 
q q
I s  ½I o q even
1 2
Is Is  Io Is  Io q2 1
q q I s  ½I o q odd
q
Po = VoIo 2 2
q even
S = qVsIs 2q  2 q  
P sin sin q
pf load  o  q  q 2 2
S  q2 1 q odd

485 Power Electronics

The core flux effects of dc currents in 50/60Hz transformers are considered in Chapter 22.
Table 13.5 summarizes the various rectifier characteristics that are independent of the transformer
winding configuration.
The transformer for a single-phase two-pulse half-wave rectifier has three windings, a primary and two
secondary windings as shown in Chapter 22. Two possible transformer core and winding configurations
are shown, namely shell and core. In each case the winding turns ratios are identical, as is the load
voltage and current, but the physical transformer limb arrangements are different. The reason for the
two possibilities is related to the fact that the circular core can use a single strip of wound cold-rolled
grain-orientated silicon steel as lamination material. Such steels offer better magnetic properties than
the non-oriented steel that must be used for E core laminations. Single-phase toroidal core transformers
are attractive because of the reduced size and weight but manufacturers do not highlight their inherent
limitation and susceptibility to dc flux biasing, particularly in half-wave type applications. Although the
solution is simple, the advantageous features of the toroidal transformer are lost, as will be shown. For
power electronics aspects of 50/60Hz single and 3 phase transformers see Chapter 22.

13.5 Transformer rectifier combinations

Three-phase transformer-rectifier combinations vary depending on the transformer output phase

number, their phase shift, and the neutral connection.

13.5.1 Six-phase half wave rectified converters

13.5.1i Six-phase with neutral connection

Figure 13.19 shows two six-phase half-wave rectifiers, which can employ either a star or delta primary.
With an RL load, each diode conducts for 60°, and integration over that period gives the average output
voltage:
⅔
1 3 2Va
Vo   2V sint dt 
⅓ ⅓

 1.35Va

where the various factors are FF=1.00088, RF=0.042, and PF=0.552.

OR

OR

Vo Vo

Figure 13.19. Six-phase, half-wave rectifiers, with either a star or delta transformer primary.

13.5.1ii Three-phase double wye with a centre tapped inter-phase transformer.

Figure 13.20 shows a three-phase double wye rectifier with a centre tapped inter-phase transformer,
which can employ either a star or delta primary. With an RL load, each diode conducts for 120°, and
integration over that period gives the average output voltage:
5 /6
1 3 3 2Va
Vo  
⅓  /6
2V sint dt 
2
 1.17Va

where the various factors are FF=1.01615, RF=0.18, and PF=0.686.

Chapter 13 Naturally Commutating AC to DC Converters- Uncontrolled Rectifiers 486

OR

Vo

Figure 13.20. Three-phase, double wye rectifier with either a star or delta transformer primary.

13.5.2 Three-phase full-wave rectified converters

Full-wave rectifiers employ six diodes as shown in figure 13.21, each of which conducts for an
overlapping 120° period. With an RL load, the average output voltage is
5 /6
2 3 3 2Va
Vo 
⅔  2V sint dt 
 /6 
 2.34Va

where the various factors are FF=1.00088, RF=0.042, and PF=0.956. Circuit current and voltage
waveforms are shown in figure 13.14.

OR

OR

Vo Vo

Figure 13.21. Three-phase, full-wave rectifier

with either a star or delta transformer primary and secondary.

13.5.3 Multi-phase full-wave rectified converters

The dc output form and ripple factors can be improved by using 12 and higher phase supplies, created
by multiple transformer and transformer winding connections, as shown in figure 13.22.
487 Power Electronics

OR

Vo Vo

(a) (b)

Vo

(c)

Vo

(d)

Figure 13.22. Multi-phase, full-wave rectifiers:

(a) six phase, (b) series bridges, (c) two transformer cascaded bridges, and (d) three transformer,
cascaded bridges.
Chapter 13 Naturally Commutating AC to DC Converters- Uncontrolled Rectifiers 488

Figure 13.22a shows a six phase, hexagon connect transformer secondary, where each diode conducts
for 60°. The transformer primary can be star or delta connected. The secondary windings can better
utilised as two separate windings, as shown in figure 13.22b, where diode conduction increases to 120°
and the average output voltage is increased and ripple and form factors are improved.

The average output voltage and ripple and form factor can be improved by using two transformers as in
figure 13.22c and three transformers as in figure 13.22d. Ripple cancellation is achieved by phase
shifting the transformers, specifically 15° in former 24 pulse case and ±10° in the latter, 36 pulse case.
The shift is 360°/pulse number, but the supply power factor is constant and remains high, 0.956 lagging.

Table 13.6. Transformer feed rectifier characteristics

Full- Number Number of Number Diode Form Factor

conduction Average output
wave of three phase of Ripple Factor
period voltage
rectifier transformers bridges diodes Power Factor
⅔
2
⅓ 
⅓
2V sint dt 1.000888

13.22a 1 2 12 60° 6 2Va 0.042



0.956
 2.7Va
5 /6
4
⅔  /6
 2V sint d t 1.0000567

13.22b 1 2 12 120° 6 3 2Va 0.0106



0.956
 4.678Va
5 /6
8
⅔  /6
 2V sint d t 1.0000036

13.22c 2 4 24 120° 12 3 2Va 0.00267



0.956
 9.356Va
5 /6
12
⅔  /6
 2V sint d t 1.0000007

13.22d 3 6 36 120° 18 3 2Va 0.00119



0.956
 14.035Va
5 /6
2
⅔ 
 /6
2V sint dt 1.00088
13.14
13.21
1 1 6 120° 3 3 2V a 0.042


0.956
 2.34Va
5 /6
1
2
3

 /6
2 V sin t d t 1.016

13.12 1 ½ 3 120° ½ 3 0.18

 2V
 /3
0.686
 1.17 V
489 Power Electronics

13.6 Voltage multipliers

Voltage multipliers are ac to dc power conversion circuits, comprised of diodes and capacitors that are
interconnected so as to produce a high potential dc voltage from a lower voltage ac source. As in figure
13.23a, multipliers are comprised of cascaded stages each comprised of a diode and a capacitor.
Voltage multipliers are a simple way to generate high voltages at relatively low currents. By using only
capacitors and diodes, the voltage multipliers can step up relatively low voltages to extremely high
values, while at the same time being far lighter and cheaper than transformers. The advantage of the
circuit is that the voltage across each cascaded stage is only equal to twice the peak input voltage, so it
requires relatively low cost components and is easy to insulate. An output can also be tapped from any
stage, like a multi-tapped transformer.
The voltage multiplier has poor voltage regulation, that is, the voltage drops rapidly as a function the
output current, as in figure 13.23b. The output I-V characteristic is approximately hyperbolic, so it is
suitable for charging capacitor banks to high voltages at near constant charging power. Furthermore, the
ripple on the output, particularly at high loads, is high. The output voltage is not isolated from the input
voltage source, although transformer coupling provides general isolation.

The most commonly used multiplier circuit is the half-wave series multiplier. Other multiplier circuits can
be derived from its operating principles.

ID3

ID2 C1 C3

+ +
D2 D4
Vac
ID1 D1 D3 Vout
+ + Io

0V + hv dc
C2 C4

(a)
ID4
V
V

C1 = C2 = Cn
output ripple voltage
output voltage

2X μF

X μF

2X μF

X μF (b)
Vp-p
Vo

Io output current A

Figure 13.23. Charging sequence of a half-wave series positive output voltage multiplier
and output characteristics dependence on output current and stage capacitance.

The following description for a two-stage series voltage multiplier assumes no losses and represents
sequential reversals of polarity of the source transformer T s in the figure 13.23a. The number of stages
is equal to the number of smoothing capacitors between ground and Vout, which in this case is two,
capacitors C2 and C4.
 Chapter 13 Naturally Commutating AC to DC Converters- Uncontrolled Rectifiers 490

 Vac = Negative Peak: C1 charges through D1 to Vpk by current ID1

 Vac = Positive Peak: Vpk of Ts adds arithmetically to existing potential C1, thus C2 charges
to 2 Vpk thru D2 by current ID2
 Vac = Negative Peak: C3 is charged to 2Vpk through D3 by current ID3
 Vac = Positive Peak: C4 is charged to 2Vpk by current ID4 through D4 then Vpk.

For N stages (series capacitors) the output voltage is N×Vpk.

13.6.1 Half-wave series multipliers

The capacitors are in series, so effectively capacitance is as for series connected capacitors, C/N, but
voltage rating is the cumulative sum of the series capacitors between the output terminals. This
multiplier is the most common, and is versatile, being used in high-voltage, low-current applications. The
basic charging sequence in figure 13.24 is as for the circuit shown in figure 13.23a, where the diodes
conduct in the order D1 to D4, for both output polarity versions.

Half-wave series voltage multiplier features include:

 a wide range of multiplication stages
 low cost
 uniform stress per stage on diodes and capacitors, 2Vpk and Vpk

Any one capacitor can be eliminated from the capacitor filter bank if the load is capacitive. Whether full
wave or half-wave, the series diodes prevent the output voltage from swinging negative. At high
discharges, part of the output current is also drawn via a diode, hampering rapid high current discharge.

Io Vout Io Vout
+ hv dc - hv dc
+ D4 -
D4
C4 C4

+ -
D3 D3
C3 C3

+ -
D2 D2

+ C2 C2
-
C1 C1
D1 D1

Vac 0V Vac 0V

(a) (c) (b)

Vac

C1 C3 C5 C6

+ + + +

-Vout +Vout
+ + 0V + +

Io C2 C4 C6 C8 Io

Vac

Figure 13.24. Series half-wave voltage multipliers:

(a) two stage positive hv output voltage; (b) two stage negative hv output voltage; and
(c) four stage multiplier configured with ± output hv voltage.
491 Power Electronics

Dual polarity output voltage is produced by connecting positive and negative multipliers as shown in the
four stage circuit is shown in figure 13.24c, where an unlimited stage number can be cascaded. Since
regulation is proportional to N³, a large number of stages eventually becomes ineffective. A centre
tapped capacitor string connection reduces the maximum voltage potential with respect to ground. An
odd number of stages can be produced as well as an even number of stages. The output voltage may
be tapped at any point on the capacitor series filter bank.

Once a load is connected at the output, the output voltage decreases due to the voltage regulation. Also,
any small fluctuation of load impedance causes a large fluctuation in the multiplier output voltage due to
the number of stages involved. For this reason, voltage multipliers are used only in special applications
where the load is constant and has a high impedance or where voltage stability is not critical.

Half-wave Output Voltage

The open-circuit output voltage Vo/c of each stage is nominally twice the peak input voltage Vpk.
Assuming the ac input voltage and frequency are constant, for N cascaded stages, the output voltage is
Vo /c  2N Vpk (13.132)
In practice, several cycles are required to reach full output voltage. The output voltage follows an RC
network exponential curve, where R is the output impedance of the ac source, whilst C is the effective
dynamic capacitance of the voltage multiplier, N×C. This charging occurs only upon switch-on of the
voltage multiplier from a discharged state, and does not repeat itself unless the output is short circuited.
The most common input ac waveforms are sine waves and square waves.

Output Voltage Regulation

DC output voltage drops as the dc output current increases, as shown in figure 13.23b. Regulation is the
drop in dc output voltage from the ideal at a specified dc output current (assuming the ac input voltage
and input frequency are constant). The voltage drop under load is mostly reactive and is calculated as:
4N 3  3N 2  N 4N 2  3N 2  1
V reg  I o   Io  (13.133)
6f  C 6f  C
N
where:
Io is the load or output dc current (A)
C is the stage capacitance (F)
f is the ac frequency (Hz)
N is the number of stages
C/N is the effective output capacitance (F).

Regulation voltage droop is not a power loss in a multiplier. Power losses are primarily diode forward
conduction and rarely result in excessive multiplier temperatures at the low current loadings.
Substituting Vreg from equation (13.133):
4N 3  3N 2  N
Vout  Vo /c V reg  2NVpk  I o  (13.134)
6f  C

Output Voltage Ripple

Ripple voltage is the magnitude of fluctuation in dc output voltage at a specific output current. This
assumes the ac input voltage and frequency are maintained constant. The ripple voltage in the case
where all stage capacitances, C1 through C2N, are equal, is:
N2 N
V ripple  I o  (13.135)
2f  C
The ripple grows rapidly as the number of stages increases, with N squared. A common modification to
the design is to make the stage capacitances larger at the input, with C1 = C2 = N×C, C3 = C4 = (N-1)×C,
and so forth. Then the ripple is:
Io
Vripple  (13.136)
f C
3
For a large number of stages, N ≥ 5, the N term in the voltage drop equation dominates. Differentiating
the Vout equation without the negligible terms, with respect to the number of stages and equating to zero,
gives an equation for the optimum (integer) number of stages Nopt for the equal valued capacitor design:
dVout d  Io 
  2NV pk   4N 3   0
dN dN  6f  C 
V pk f  C ½ 
N opt  int    (13.137)
 I o  
Chapter 13 Naturally Commutating AC to DC Converters- Uncontrolled Rectifiers 492

Increasing the frequency can dramatically reduce the ripple, and the voltage drop under load, which
accounts for the popularity of driving a multiplier stack with a switching power supply.
If the driving voltage Vpk and the required output voltage Vo/c are known, the optimum number of
cascaded stages is:
 3V 
N opt  int  out  (13.138)
 4V pk 

13.6.2 Half-wave parallel multipliers

Opposite polarity half-wave parallel voltage multipliers are shown in figure 13.24. The output capacitors
share a common connection but must have a high voltage rating. The output is usually low voltage but
with high currents. The basic charging sequence in figure 13.25 is the same as shown in figure 13.23,
where the diodes conduct in the order D1 to D4, for both output polarity versions.

Parallel multipliers offer the following features:

 uniform stress on diodes
 compact
 voltage stress on capacitors increases with successive stages by Vpk
 highly efficient
Io Io

Vout Vout
+ hv dc - hv dc
C3 D4 C3 D4
+ +

D3 C4 + D3 C4

+
D2 D2
C1 C1
+
+ +
C2 C2
+
D1 D1

Vac Vac
0V 0V

(a) (b)

Figure 13.25. Parallel half-wave voltage multipliers:

(a) two stage positive hv output voltage and (b) two stage negative hv output voltage.

13.6.3 Full-wave series multipliers

Increasing the frequency can dramatically reduce the ripple, and the voltage drop under load, which can
be achieved by driving a multiplier stack with a switched mode power supply.

Figure 13.26 shows a typical full-wave two-stage series voltage multiplier. It is comprised of two anti-
phase ac input half-wave multipliers sharing a common series output capacitor string. This effectively
doubles the number of charging cycles per second, and thus reduces the voltage drop and ripple factor.
The input is usually fed from a centre-tapped ac transformer or MOSFET H-bridge circuit.

The full-wave series voltage multiplier has the following general features:
 uniform stress on components
 highly efficient
 high voltage
 high power capability
 easy to produce
 increased voltage stress on capacitors with successive stages
 wide range of multiplication stages
493 Power Electronics

Vac C1 C3

+ +

+ + Io

0V
C5 C6

Vout

+ +

Vac C2 C4

Figure 13.26. Two-stage series full-wave voltage multiplier.

Full-wave Output Voltage

As with the half-wave voltage multiplier, the full-wave voltage multiplier output voltage is given by:
Vo /c  2NV pk (13.139)

Output Voltage Regulation

DC output voltage decreases as dc output current increases. Regulation is the drop in dc output voltage
from the ideal at a specified dc output current, assuming constant ac input voltage and frequency. The
voltage drop under load is mostly reactive and is:
N 3  2N N2  2
Vreg  I o   Io  (13.140)
6f  C 6f  C
N
where:
Io is the load or output dc current (A)
C is the stage capacitance (F)
f is the ac frequency (Hz)
N is the number of stages
C/N is the effective output capacitance (F).

Regulation voltage droop is not a power loss in a multiplier. Power losses are primarily diode forward
conduction and rarely result in excessive multiplier temperatures at the low current loadings. Substituting
equation (13.140) for Vreg:
N 3  2N
Vout  Vo /c V reg  2N V pk  I o  (13.141)
6f  C

Output Voltage Ripple

The ripple voltage, in the case where all stage capacitances are equal, is given by:
N
Vripple  I o  (13.142)
2f  C

If the driving voltage Vpk and the required output voltage Vo/c are known, the optimum number of
cascaded stages is:
 0.521Vout 
N opt  int   (13.143)
 V pk 

Example 13.9: Half-wave voltage multiplier

A three-stage half-wave series voltage multiplier, is driven by a 50kHz peak voltage of 10kV, with 1nF
capacitances, and a load current of 10mA.

i. Calculate the open circuit output voltage, regulated output voltage, ripple voltage, and
optimal number of stages for the required voltage transfer function.
ii. What is the capacitance and voltage rating of each stage of a parallel connected multiplier?
iii. What is the output ripple if progressively smaller capacitance is used?
Chapter 13 Naturally Commutating AC to DC Converters- Uncontrolled Rectifiers 494

Solution

i. In a three-stage voltage multiplier, the no load voltage Vo/c = 2×N×Vpk = 2×3×10kV = 60kV
4N 3  3N 2  N 33  3  32  3
V reg  I o  10mA   1.7kV
6f  C 6  50kHz  1nF

Vout = 60kV - 1.7kV = 58.3kV

So the output voltage will swing between 60kV and 58.3kV, depending on the load current.
The output ripple voltage is
N2 N 32  3
V ripple  I o  10mA  3kV
2f  C 2  50kHz  1nF
The optimal number of stages, from equation (13.143), is
 0.521 Vout   0.521  58.3kV 
N opt  int    int  3
 V pk   10kV 

ii. An equivalent parallel multiplier would require each capacitor stage to equal the total series
capacitance of the series capacitor bank.
In this case, the three capacitors in the dc bank would equal 1000pF/3 or 330pF. The parallel
equivalent would require 330pF capacitors in each stage. However, each successive stage,
from the input, would require a higher voltage capacitor, 20kV, 40kV and 60kV, respectively.

iii. When C1 = C2 = N×C = 3nF, C3 = C4 = (N-1)×C = 2nF, C5 = C6 = (N-2)×C = 1nF.

I 10mA
Vripple  o   200V
f  C 50kHz  1nF
This modification reduces the ripple voltage from 3kV to just 200V.
♣

Example 13.10: Full-wave voltage multiplier

A three-stage full-wave parallel voltage multiplier, is driven by a 50kHz peak voltage of 10kV, with 1nF
capacitances, and a load current of 10mA. Calculate the output voltage and ripple voltage.

Solution
In a three-stage voltage multiplier, the no load voltage Vo/c = 2×N×Vpk = 2×3×10kV = 60kV.
N 3  2N 33  2  3
V reg  I o  10mA  1.1kV
6f  C 6  50kHz  1nF
Full-wave rectification reduces the regulation voltage drop from 1.7kV in example 13.9, to 1.1kV. The
output voltage is increased by 600V, from 58.3kV in example 13.9, to Vout = 60kV - 1.1kV = 58.9kV.
The ripple voltage reduces from 3kV for half-wave multiplication in example 13.9, to
N 3
Vripple  I o  10mA  200V
2f  C 2  50kHz  1nF
♣

13.6.4 Three-phase voltage multipliers

The full-wave multiplier in figure 13.27 is a special case of a poly-phase (0° and 180°) multiplier where
more than one multiplier share a common series stack of load capacitors. In figure 13.27, the phase
angle between phases is 0°, 120°, and 240°, respectively. The peak voltage supplied by each secondary
winding is Vpk.
The three-phase circuit in figure 13.27b can be modified by disconnecting the centre point of the Y
configuration from ground and omitting the first capacitor in each charging stack, as shown in figure
13.27c. As a result, the open-circuit dc voltage per stage is reduced from 2×Vpk to √3×Vpk. The output
impedance, however, decreases dramatically, so the output voltage under load may be even higher,
depending on the load current. Therefore, this variant is preferred if the multiplier has to supply higher
currents.

13.6.5 Series versus parallel voltage multipliers

The theory of operation is the same for both series and parallel connected voltage multipliers. Parallel
multipliers require less capacitance per cascaded stage than their series counterparts, however parallel
multipliers require higher capacitor voltage ratings on successive cascaded stages. The parallel
multiplier output is easier to RC filter in applications requiring low output ripple voltage.
495 Power Electronics

D1 D4
(a)
C1 C4 D7
+ +

D2 D5

C2 C5 D8 Io
+ +

D3 D6
Vout
C3 C6 D9
+ +

C3 +
(b)

Vpk
C2 +

C1 +

D1 D2 D3 D4 D5 D6
Vpk Vpk Io Vout
+
0V C4 2Vpk
(c)

C3 +

Vpk
C2 +

C1 +

D1 D2 D3 D4 D5 D6 D7 D8 D9 D10 D11 D1
Vpk Vpk 2 Vout
+ +
0V C4 C5 √3NVpk

Figure 13.27. Three-phase Y configuration voltage multipliers:

(a) series diode output stage; (b) grounded centre point; and (b) floating centre point.

13.7 Marx voltage generator

The Marx generator shown in figure 13.28, charges the energy storage capacitor of each stage in
parallel with a relatively low voltage (1kV to 6kV), and then discharges them by means of active switches
in series, into the load. The output voltage is then equal to the charging voltage multiplied by the number
of stages. The series inductance of this type of generators is low, as a result the rise time and fall time of
the output pulses can be less than 1µs. The pulse repetition rate can be more than 20kHz for short
pulses, and the pulse length can be several ms.
The spark gaps in the tradition approach in figure 13.28a can be replaced by IGBTs, as in figure 13.28b,
for pulses duration greater than about 1μs. Switches P are turned on simultaneously to parallel charge
all the cell capacitors, and pulse discharge is produced by switching on switches S (all switches P
remain off). Pulse shaping is possible by controlling the on/off of switches S. An inactive cell (S off) is
bypassed by diode D, whence the voltage across the off switch S is clamped to the cell capacitor
voltage. Pulse length, magnitude, and shape can be controlled by switches S, provide the charged
delivered to the load from the capacitors decreases for cells progressive further from the charging
source Vs(unless the cells are fully discharged into the load after each pulse). Cell capacitor charging
efficiency through resistor Rc can be improved by using smps techniques, which would allow adjustable
cell capacitor voltage levels.
Chapter 13 Naturally Commutating AC to DC Converters- Uncontrolled Rectifiers 496

L L L L
C C C C
Vdc
+ + + +
+ SG SG SG SG

L L L L

Io

Vout
(a)

Rc
P P P
Vs
C + C + C +
S S S

Dd Dd Dd Io
(b)

Figure 13.28. The hv Marx pulse generators: (a) spark gap version and (b) semiconductor version.

Figure 13.29 shows semiconductor Marx generators based on HVDC MMC concepts, with a buck-boost
converter for parallel capacitor charging. The dc converter offer soft start and an extra degree of output
freedom by offering adjustable output voltage, hence cell capacitor voltages. The unipolar pulse
generator in figure 13.29a requires an extra diode per cell and a switch Tp, (rated at the buck boost
converter output voltage  1  Vs ) to isolated the load during capacitor parallel charging. It offers better
directing-diode Dd voltage clamping than in figure 13.28b, since diode clamping is passive, through a
diode as opposed to through switch S in figure 13.28b. Figure 13.29a can be extending to a bipolar
voltage output topology by using full bridge cells, as shown in figure 13.29b, thereby avoiding using two
unipolar generators, back to back.
S

+ DdN N/C P
CSM
P SMN CSM +
SdN
P N DdN
≈ ≈
S
SMN
+ + ≈ ≈
+ Dd2
RL RL
SM2 N/C P
P CSM CSM
+
S
Sd1
Dd1 P N Dd1
+
SM1 CSM SM1
P
Q Vs
L Q Vs
+ L
+
buck-boost Tp buck-boost
Tp smps Dn smps
(a) (b)

Figure 13.29. Semiconductor hv Marx generators: (a) unipolar output and (b) bipolar output.
497 Power Electronics

In figure 13.29b, switches P are turned on for positive output voltages and switches N and N/C for
negatives voltages. Cell capacitors are charged by simultaneously turning on N/C and Sd. Switches Sd
prevent cell capacitor discharge during negative outputs, through a path created involving adjacent cells.
In both topologies in Figure 13.29, for controlled cell capacitor charging (to avoid uncontrolled in rush
current between cells) pulse generation should ensure cells further from the smps deliver less charge
than cell closer to the dc converter.

In low power electronics, the Marx concept is used to increase a low voltage, and is more meaningfully
termed a switched capacitor converter.
Chapter 13 Naturally Commutating AC to DC Converters- Uncontrolled Rectifiers 498

13.8 Definitions

 
v t    2Vn sin n t  n  i t    2 I n sin n t  n 
n 0 n 0
distortion current
total current I s  I  I  I  ...I n
2
1
2 2
2
2
3
2
harmonic current
I dis
2
 I 22  I 32  ...I n2

total
harmonic factor I dis
distortion factor
DF  k 
Is
I dis
total harmonic distortion THD 
I1
displacement power factor DPF  cos 1  1
active input power
circuit power factor pf   
Vs I s
cos 1

1  THD 2
iˆs
crest factor cf 
Is
rms value
form factor 
average value

The average (or mean or dc) rms (or effective) values, respectively, of a waveform, are defined by
T
1
Vo  v o t  dt
T o

and
T
1
Vrms  v t  dt
2
o
T o

Vo average output voltage I o average output current

Vrms rms output voltage I rms rms output current
V peak output voltage 
I peak output current
V
Load voltage form factor  FF  rms Load voltage crest factor  CFv  V

v Vo Vrms
I
Load current form factor  FF i  rms

Load current crest factor  CF i  I
Io Irms

effective values of acV (or I ) VRi

Waveform smoothness = Ripple factor  RFv  
average value of V (or I ) Vo
V rms
2
Vo2
  FFv 2  1
Vo
2

½
 2 
where VRi    12 v an2  v bn 
 n 1 
I Ri
similarly the current ripple factor is RF i   FF i 2  1
Io
RF i  RFv for a resistive load

dc load power
Rectification efficiency   
ac load power + rectifier losses
Vo I o

Vrms I rms  Lossrectifier
499 Power Electronics

Waveform fundamental and harmonic rms components are define by

V1  ½ V12a V12b 
where
T T
2 2
V1a 
T v t  cos 2 t
o
T
dt V 1b 
T v t  sin 2 t T dt
o
th
and for the k harmonic component
V k  ½ V ka2 V kb2 
where
T T
2 2
V ka 
T v t  cos 2 kt
o
T
dt V kb 
T v t  sin 2 kt T dt
o

Distortion factor is defined as

V1
DFv 
V rms
The total harmonic distortion is
2

V  1  DFv 2
THDv    k  
k  0  V1  DFv 2
k 1

13.9 Output pulse number

Output pulse number p is the number of pulses in the output voltage that occur during one ac input
cycle, of frequency fs. The pulse number p therefore specifies the output harmonics, which occur at p x
fs, and multiples of that frequency, m×p×fs, for m = 1, 2, 3, ...

period of input supply voltage

p
period of minimum order harmonic in the output V or I waveform

The pulse number p is specified in terms of

q the number of elements in the commutation group
r the number of parallel connected commutation groups
s the number of series connected (phase displaced) commutating groups

Parallel connected commutation groups, r, are usually associated with (and identified by) intergroup
reactors (to reduce circulating current), with transformers where at least one secondary is effectively star
connected while another is delta connected. The rectified output voltages associated with each
transformer secondary, are connected in parallel.

Series connected commutation groups, s, are usually associated with (and identified by) transformers
where at least one secondary is effectively star while another is delta connected, with the rectified output
associated with each transformer secondary, connected in series.
q =3 r =2 s =2
p=qxrxs
p = 12
The mean rectifier output voltage Vo can be specified by
q 
Vo  s 2V  sin (13.144)
 q

For a full-wave, single-phase rectifier, r = 1, q = 2, and s = 1, whence p = 2

2  2 2 V
Vo  1  2V  sin 
 2 

For a full-wave, three-phase rectifier, r = 1, q = 3, and s = 2, whence p = 6

3  3 2 V
Vo  2  2V  sin 
 3 
Chapter 13 Naturally Commutating AC to DC Converters- Uncontrolled Rectifiers 500

13.10 AC-dc converter generalised equations

Alternating sinusoidal voltages

V1  2V sin t
V 2  2V sin t   2
q 
.
Vq  2V sin t  q  1 2q 
where q is the number of phases (number of voltage sources)

On the secondary or converter side of any transformer, if the load current is assumed constant I o then
the power factor is determined by the load voltage harmonics.

Voltage form factor

V rms
FFv 
Vo
whence the voltage ripple factor is
1 ½ ½
RFv  V rms 2
Vo2   FFv 2  1
V o

The power factor on the secondary side of any transformer is related to the voltage ripple factor by
P VI 1
pf  d  o o 
S qVI rms RFv 2  1
On the primary side of a transformer the power factor is related to the secondary power factor, but since
the supply is assumed sinusoidal, the power factor is related to the primary current harmonics.
Relationship between current ripple factor and power factor
1  2 1
RFi   I h  I rms
I1
2

h 3
 I 12
I1
I1 1
pf  
I rms RFi 2  1

The supply power factor is related to the primary power factor and is dependent of the supply
connection, star or delta, etc.

Half-wave diode rectifiers [see figures 13.2, 13.12]

Pulse number p=q. Pulse number is the number of sine crests in the output voltage during one input
voltage cycle. There are q phases and q diodes and each diode conducts for 2π/q, with q crest (pulses)
in the output voltage

Mean voltage
q ½ +  q
Vo 
2  ½   q
2V sin t d t
q 
 2V sin
 q
RMS voltage
½
q
  
½   q 2
V rms  
 2
 ½   q

2V sin t d t 
½
 q 2 
 2V ½  sin
 4 q 
Normalised peak to peak ripple voltage

v p  p  2V  2V cos
q
 
2V  2V cos 1  cos
v p p q  q
Vnp  p   
Vo q  q 
2V sin sin
 q q
501 Power Electronics

Voltage form factor

½
 q 2 
Vrms ½  4 sin q 
FFv   
Vo q 
sin
 q
whence the voltage ripple factor is
1 ½ ½
RFv  V rms 2
Vo2   FFv 2  1
V o

As q→∞, FF→1, RF→0.

Diode reverse voltage
V DR  2 2V if q is even

V DR  2 2V cos if q is odd
2q

For a constant load current Io, diode currents are

Io Io
ID  I o ID  I D rms 
q q
.

For a constant load current Io the output power is

Pd  Vo I o

The apparent power is

S  qVI rms
The power factor on the secondary side of any transformer is
P V I 1
pf  d  o o 
S qVI rms RFv 2  1
q 
2V sin  Io
 q 2q 
  sin
1  q
qV  I o
q

The primary side power factor is supply connection and transformer construction dependant.

For two-phase half-wave p=q=2

Vo I o 2 2
pf 1 ,½    0.90
V Io 
For three-phase half wave p=q=3
Vo I o 3 3
pf 3 ,½    0.827
3V I o 2
For six-phase half-wave p=q=6
Vo I o 3
pf 6 ,½    0.995 (Y conection)
3V I o 

The short circuit ratio (ratio actual s/c current to theoretical s/c current) is
q 2V
Lc q
K s/c  
2 2V  
sin 2 sin
Lc q q
Commutation overlap angle
Lc I o
1  cos  

2 V sin
q
The commutation voltage drop
v com  q L I where 2Lc  Ls / c
c o
2
Chapter 13 Naturally Commutating AC to DC Converters- Uncontrolled Rectifiers 502

p=q= Isec rms RFv Vo VD %Vp-p Ks/c pfsec pfprim

2 Io /√2 0.90V 2√2 V 0.157 1 0.636 0.90
3 Io /√3 0.68 1.17V √6 V 0.604 1.73 0.675 0.827
6 Io /√6 0.31 1.35V 2√2 V 0.140 6 0.55 0.995

For three-phase resistive load, with transformer turns ratio 1:N

2V 3 3 V 1 .3 
½
Io  I o rms  
. .

R 2 R 3 4 
½
 
FFi output   227
2
 
6 .3 
NV .3
½ N V 2 .3 
½
I p    13   3  I L   
1 R  4 2 2  1 R 3 2 
V N .3 
½
I LY    29 
1 R  6 

Time domain half-wave single phase R-L-E load

E 2V  E Z   t  
i o t      sin t       sin t     e tan 
R Z   R 2V  

   cos kq t 
k
 2 1
v o t   Vo 1   2 2  
 k 1 k q  1 
 
Full-wave diode bridge rectifiers - star [see figures 13.9, 13.14]

q phases and 2q diodes

Mean voltage
q ½ +  q
 ½   q
Vo  2V sin t d t
2q 
 2V sin
 q
Pulse number
p=q if q is even
p=2q if q is odd
Diode reverse voltage
VDR  2 2V if q is even

VDR  2 2V cos if q is odd
2q
For a constant load current Io, diode currents are
Io Io
ID  I o ID  I D rms 
q q
.

The current and power factor are

2
I rms  I o
q
2q 
2V sin  Io
Pd Vo I o  q 2 q 
pf     sin
S qVI rms 2  q
qV  I o
q
which is √2 larger than the half-wave case.
For single-phase, full-wave p=q=2
Vo I o 2 2
pf 1    0.90
V Io 
For three-phase full-wave p=2 q=6
6
2V  ½I o
Vo I o 3
pf 3      0.955
3VI o 2 
3V  I
3 o
503 Power Electronics

p, q Isec RFv Vo VD %Vp-p Ks/c pfY prim pfsec

p=q=2 Io 0.483 1.80V 2√2 V 0.157 2/π 0.90 0.90
p=2 q=6 √⅔ Io 0.31 2.34V √6 V 0.140 6/π 0.995 0.995

The short circuit ratio (ratio actual s/c current to theoretical s/c current) is
q
K s/c 

2 sin
q
which is smaller by a factor π than the half-wave case.
q
K s/c  for q  2

Relationship between current ripple factor and supply side power factor on the primary
1 
1
RFi 
I 1 h 3 I1
I 2
h  I rms
2
 I 12

I1 1
pf  
I rms 1  RFi 2
For single phase p=2
1
RFi  I rms
2
 I 12
I1
2
 1 4 
I o2   Io 
 2  2  8
   0.483
.

1 4 8
Io
. 2
1 1 2 2
pf     0.90
.

1  RFi 2
 8 2 
1
8
The rms of the fundamental component is
1 4
I1  Io
2 .

The rms of the harmonic components are

I1 I1
Ih   for k  1,2,3...
h kp  1
For p-pulse
2
p2
RFv  1

sin2
p
1 p 
pf   sin
1  RFv 2  p
Commutation overlap angle
Lc I o
1  cos  

2V sin
q
The commutation voltage drop
v com  q L I where 2Lc  Ls / c
 c o
For p=q=2, only
2Lc I o
1  cos  
2V
v com  4 L I
 c o
Chapter 13 Naturally Commutating AC to DC Converters- Uncontrolled Rectifiers 504

Load characteristics
2
Io
I o rms q 2
Current Form Factor  FF I   
Io Io q

Full-wave diode bridge rectifiers – delta

Same expression as for delta connected secondary, except supply voltages V are replaced by
V

2 sin
q
For example in three-phase, V is replaced by V/√3, that is, VL L  . 3VL N  . 3V phase

The mean output voltage is

2q  2q V  q
Vo  2V  sin  2 sin  2V
 q   q 
2 sin
q
Pulse number
p=q if q is even
p=2q if q is odd
diode reverse voltage and currents
2V
VDR  if q is even

sin
q
2V
VDR  if q is odd

2 sin
2q
I D  I o I D  Io /q I D rms  I o / q .

rms current and power factor

q
2V I o
Io Vo I o 2 2
 
.

I rms even  pf q even  

.

2 qVI rms qV ½I o 
½
I q  1
2
Vo I o 2 2 q
I rms odd  o  pf q odd  
.

2 q qVI rms  q 2  1½

 

Commutation angle and voltage

LI o
1  cos   v com  q L I q even
2V
.
2
c o

LI o  1  1
1  cos   1   v com  q L I 1   q odd
2V 
.
q  2
c o
 q 

The short circuit ratio (ratio actual s/c current to theoretical s/c current) is
q  q 1 
K s/c even  sin K s/c odd  sin
 q  q
For single-phase resistive load, with transformer turns ratio 1:N
2V 4 2V
Io  I o rms 
.

R  R
 2
FFi output  RFv  FF 2  1  1
2 2 .
8
N N 2V 1 2 2
Ip  I sec   pf  
.

1 1 R RF  1
2 
505 Power Electronics

Reading list

Dewan, S. B. and Straughen, A., Power Semiconductor Circuits, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1975.
th
Sen, P.C., Power Electronics, McGraw-Hill, 5 reprint, 1992.
nd
Shepherd, W et al. Power Electronics and motor control, Cambridge University Press, 2 Edition 1995.

[Link]

[Link]

[Link]

[Link]

Problems

13.1. Derive equations (13.35) and (13.36) for the circuit in figure 13.7.

13.2. Assuming a constant load current, derive an expression for the mean and rms device current
and the device form factor, for the circuits in figure 13.9.

13.3. The single-phase full-wave uncontrolled rectifier is operated from the 415 V line-to-line voltage,
50 Hz supply, with a series load of 10Ω + 5mH + 40 V battery. Derive the load voltage
expression in terms of a Fourier series. Determine the rms value of the fundamental of the load
current.

13.4. A single-phase uncontrolled rectifier has a 24Ω resistive load a 240V ac 50Hz supply. Determine
the average, peak and rms current and peak reverse voltage across each rectifier diode for
i. an isolating transformer with a 1:1 turns ratio
ii. centre-tapped transformer with turns ratio 1:1:1.

13.5. A single-phase bridge rectifier has an R-L of R = 20Ω and L = 50mH and a 240V ac 50Hz
source voltage. Determine:
i. the average and rms currents of the diodes and load
ii. rms and average 50Hz source currents
iii. the power absorbed by the load
iv. the supply power factor

13.6. A single-phase, full-wave uncontrolled rectifier has a back emf Eb in its load. If the supply is
240Vac 50Hz and the series load is R = 20Ω, L = 50mH, and Eb = 120V dc, determine:
i. the power absorbed by the dc source in the load
ii. the power absorbed by the load resistor
iii. the power delivered from the ac source
iv. the ac source power factor
v. the peak-to-peak load current variation if only the first ac term of the Fourier
series for the load current is considered.

13.7. A three-phase uncontrolled rectifier is supplied from a 50Hz 415V ac line-to-line voltage source.
If the rectifier load is a 75 Ω resistor, determine
i. the average load current
ii. the rms load current
iii. the rms source current
iv. the supply power factor.

13.8. A three-phase uncontrolled rectifier is supplied from a 50Hz 415V ac line-to-line voltage source.
If the rectifier load is a series R-L circuit where R = 10Ω and L = 100mH, determine:
i. the average and rms load currents
ii. the average and rms diode currents
iii. the rms source and power current
iv. the supply power factor.
Chapter 13 Naturally Commutating AC to DC Converters- Uncontrolled Rectifiers 506

Table 13.7. Characteristics of single-phase rectifier circuits with a resistive load

P  I o2R
Vo  I o R
I o2

I o2 rms

Table 13.8. Characteristics of three-phase rectifier circuits with a resistive load

507 Power Electronics

Table 13.9. Characteristics of rectifiers with an L-C output filter

Table 13.10. Characteristics of multi-phase topologies

Chapter 13 Naturally Commutating AC to DC Converters- Uncontrolled Rectifiers 508