Transmission Line Protection

Distance Relaying

> Distance Protection - 2007 1

 Transmission line Protection
Introduction
Electricity is an incredible form of energy, which can be converted to many
different forms to bring about new and enabling technologies of high value.
In supplying reliable, secure and economic electric power, integrated utility
power system is a well-established technology. It consists of different
segments such as Generation, Transmission, Distribution and End-use.
Transmission system provides synchronous operation of different
generating stations separated by long distances, and feeds the electric
power into distribution networks which are again covering geographically
widespread areas.
Transmission system runs on controllability and power-transfer capability
functions, and with frequency and voltage tolerances, and stability
requirements for optimal performance.
To transmit high values of electric power over larger distances,
transmission systems are operated at high voltages (HVs) and/or extra high
voltages (EHVs), which may vary in the range of 220kV-800 kV.
At these voltage levels, power systems are usually designed and operated
as a multiple earthed system.

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 Transmission line Protection
The use of overhead (OH) lines results in economy of scale resulting from
using air as an effective insulation medium. Insulator strings are only used
for fixing the phase conductors on to the supporting cross arms of
transmission towers.
Power system components are exposed to in-service failures occurring
suddenly and/or gradually. Open air insulation is susceptible to
breakdowns caused by lightning strikes, switching stresses.
Dust and wind storms, weather disturbances, bush fires, mechanical
damages to insulator are other sources of insulation breakdowns.
In tropical countries, bush fires are quite common. Smoke from such fires
may induce acing faults of high resistance.
Insulation breakdown in air results in power arcs so long as the fault
currents flow.
The requirement is to interrupt the fault current at the earliest, to enable air
to recover insulation very fast following fault arc interruptions.
The OH transmission line is thus capable of being returned to service very
quickly in the aftermath of a fault clearance. A forced outage of an
important transmission line may have a major impact on stable operation
of the power system, and is likely to reduce margin in transmission system
reserve capacity.

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 Transmission line Protection

Fault Clearance Requirements

Electricity industry is now split into smaller ‘unbundled’ companies,
catering individually for generation, transmission and distribution. The
emphasis on rapid fault clearance to prevent the on-set of a wide-area-
disturbance.
In modern transmission systems the requirement for faster protection
relays grows. Delayed fault clearance times are not suitable for the present-
day power system. Backup protection operating times had contributed to
system splitting and cascading on numerous occasions.
Typical values specified as critical fault clearance times are in the range of
3-4 cycles (60-80ms) for 220 kV -400 kV networks. These times include the
circuit breaker time.
With high speed fault clearance, system instability, loss of synchronism,
voltage and frequency transients, cascade tripping due to overloading, etc.,
can be avoided.
The target operating time of protection for transmission system is normally
well within 30 ms.

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 Transmission Line Protection
Distance Relays

Distance protection is applied universally for transmission lines as

one of two fast protections.
Transmission line parameters provide electrical measurement of
distances in direct proportion to their lengths. In other words, the
impedance measured by the relay is directly proportional to the
physical distance from its location to the fault location.
Relays are offered nowadays as a full distance scheme having
measuring elements for each type of phase-to-phase fault, for each
type of phase-to-earth fault and for each zone measurement.
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 Distance Protection
Basics & Characteristics

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 Distance Protection

Popular, widely used on Sub-Transmission and

Transmission Systems
Virtually independent of Fault Current Level
(ZS/ZL ratios)
Fast Discriminative Protection:- Zone 1 or
‘Aided’ Distance Scheme
Time Delayed Remote Back-Up:- Incorporated
at little extra cost

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 Advantages of Distance Protection

Measures Z, X or R correctly irrespective of

System Conditions

Compare this with Instantaneous Overcurrent

Protection:-

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 Advantages of Distance Protection

ZS = 10 Ω

ZL = 4 Ω
ZS = 10 Ω
IF1 F1

115kV 50

IF1 = 115kV/√3(5+4) = 7380A

∴ Is > 7380A

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 Advantages of Distance Protection

Consider with one source out of service:-

ZS = 10 Ω
F2

IF2

50

√3 x 10 = 6640A
IF2 = 115kV/√
∴ Is <6640A
>7380A - IMPRACTICAL
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 Simplified Line Diagram

L R L L L R
R R
C C C

L R

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 Basic Principle of Distance Protection

ZS ZL

IR

21 VR

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 Impedance Seen By Measuring Element

jX

ZL

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 Basic Principle of Distance Protection

ZS !"#
IR ZL

$
VS VR ZLOAD
%

VR
Impedance measured ZR = = Z L + Z LOAD
ΙR

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 Basic Principle of Distance Protection

ZL

ZS IR ZF

VS VR ZLOAD Fault

&$ ' % ( ) %* + ,I *
-' .* / * 01 *
& + 1 2.. ∴+ %
+
& I 1 -' 2..

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 Plain Impedance Characteristic

&$ ' % 3 4
( )
)

" &! 3"45 2

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 Impedance Characteristic Generation

jIX
IF zF
IZ
V2 V1
VF V3

IR
Trip TRIP STABLE
Spring

Restrain + +
Operate
) I
' &$ ' % *
Ampere Turns : VF IZ
" ' % 36 / 37
Trip Conditions : VF < IFZ
01 37 *≈*
I*
36 + ≈*

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 Basic Principle of Distance Protection

I1/I2 ZP

IR
V1
21 VR VFP
V2

8 % % 1$

VFP x V2 /V 1 VFP Ι1/ Ι 2

Z R = VR/ ΙR = = x
ΙFP x Ι 2 / Ι1 ΙFP V1/V 2

C.T. RATIO
ZR = Z P x
V.T. RATIO
> Distance Protection - 2007 18
 Example

Ω; V1/V2 = 115kV/115V; I1/I2 = 600/5A

ZP = 4Ω

#"# 4"&-
* *! 9
+#"# 4"&-

Ω -5A Relay
ZR(5) = 4 x 600/5 x 115/115x103 = 0.48Ω
ZR(1) = 2.4 Ω - 1A Relay

> Distance Protection - 2007 19

 Input Quantities for ∅-∅ Faults

FAULT VRESTRAINT IOPERATE

A-B VA - VB I A - IB
B-C VB - VC IB - IC
C-A VC - VA IC - I A

VRESTRAINT & IOPERATE are selected inside the relay

No setting adjustments are required apart from
Z1 = Phase Replica Impedance

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 Input Quantities for Phase to Earth Faults

FAULT VRESTRAINT IOPERATE

A-E VA ? IA ?

B-E

C-E

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Neutral Impedance Replica Vectorial Compensation

I 4 *7
&*
*7

*7
I
I
I *

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 Neutral Impedance Compensation

For a single phase to ground fault the total earth

loop impedance is given by :- (Z1 + Z2 + Z0)/3 = ZT

ZT = (Z1 + Z2 + Z0)/3 = Z1 + ZN
ZN = (Z1 + Z2 + Z0)/3 - Z1
= (2Z1 + Z0)/3 - Z1
= - Z1 + Z0
: :
= KN Z1

where KN = (Z0 - Z1)

:*7
> Distance Protection - 2007 23
Neutral Impedance Vectorial Replica Compensation
";
4
*! I4*!
5
*! I5*!

*! I *!

* I *

3 * ! *7

3 * * * 7
:
< ) ∠* ∠ *! . - ;

> Distance Protection - 2007 24

 Neutral Impedance Replica Compensation

! ∠ " ≠∠
∴ #$% & ' %& ( $ ) '& ( * ) +$ * )$,

- " -  ∠∅

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 Characteristics

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 Distance Characteristics

*
* * *

( - - 32"
* *
&( !2 4 2 ( -
-33
!- 4 &32
( -

* *
*

2 "& < 4 = <4 & 4"2 4 !- > -

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 Self Polarised Mho Relays

Very popular characteristic

Simple
23" 4&
Less sensitive to power swings
Inherently directional
Operates for F1, but not for F2 -!2 4"2

Mho = 1/OHM
ϕ

3
* 1 /

ϕ 1

> Distance Protection - 2007 28

Neutral Impedance Replica Vectorial Compensation

Vectorial compensation allows for ∠ZN ≠ ∠ZPH which is

especially important for cable distance protection
where ∠ZN < ∠ZPH and ∠ZN is sometimes negative.

*!
*

*2 $ $
0 ∅ 0
!

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 Offset Mho Characteristic

$ ) %
8 ?)' '
-' .
.) )' . )
$
1
% %
% $ @

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 Mho Relays

Directional circular characteristic obtained by

introducing VPOLARISING

VF → self polarised
VSOUND PHASE → fully cross-polarised
VF + xVS.F. → partially cross-polarised
VPRE-FAULT → ‘memory’ polarised

Purpose for this is to ensure operation for close up

faults where measured fault voltage collapses

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 Quadrilateral Characteristic

*
*7 %

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 Lenticular Load Avoidance Characteristic

I
Lenticular
characteristic created
from two offset Mho
comparators

Aspect ratio = a/b

8

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 Lenticular Characteristic

4 ' ,8
*:
#A7
#BC
7#
8
% $' %

*: @

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 Forward Offset Characteristic

*:

*6

0 %8 %
*7

Enhanced resistive coverage for remote faults

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 Zones of Protection

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 Zones of Protection

"$

*:4 *:
":

*64 *6
"6

*74 *7

4 *75 5
"6
*65

*74 D E .*45
*64 76 E .*45
*:4 - 4 76 E .F*45 G * H

> Distance Protection - 2007 37

 Zones of Protection

*:4

*64
5
*74

> Distance Protection - 2007 38

 Zone 1

FAST OPERATION
Trips circuit breaker without delay as soon as
fault within Zone 1 reach is detected.

REACH SETTING
Cannot be set to 100% of protected line or may
overreach into next section.
Overreach caused by possible errors in :-
CTs
VTs
ZLINE information
Relay Measurement

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 Zone 1

! 8
-@ 1
*- 2 7 *

Possible incorrect tripping for fault at ‘F’

∴ Zone 1 set to ∼ 0.8ZL

*- 2 7 #D*

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 Zone 1 Settings for Teed Feeders

*7 #D*4
4

*74 #D*45
*75 #D*54

*7

*74
*75

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 Zone 1 Settings for Direct Intertrip Schemes

*74
4 *
*75 5

*74
3 % @

" ' I5;

*75
@ 3 %

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 Zone 1 Settings for Direct Intertrip Schemes

Effective Zone 1 reaches at A and B must overlap.

Otherwise :- No trip for fault at ‘F’

*74
4

*75 5

∴ Effective Z1A and Z1B must be > 0.5ZL

Settings for Zone 1 > 0.8ZL are o.k.

> Distance Protection - 2007 43

 Minimum Zone 1 Reach Setting

Dictated by :-

Minimum relay voltage for fault at Zone 1

reach point to ensure accurate measurement.

Minimum voltage depends on relay design typically

1 → 3 volts.

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 System Impedance Ratio :- SIR

SIR = ZS/Zn

where :- ZS = Source impedance behind relay

Zn = Reach setting

VRPA = Minimum voltage for reach point accuracy

Can be expressed in terms of an equivalent value

of SIRMAX

SIRMAX = ZS MAX
Zn MIN

∴ Zn MIN ≡ ZS MAX
SIRMAX
> Distance Protection - 2007 45
 Zone 2

Covers last 20% of line not covered by Zone 1.

Provides back-up protection for remote busbars.
*6

"&( 2
*7 *7

To allow for errors :-

Z2G > 1.2 ZGH

Zone 2 is time delayed to discriminate with Zone 1 on

next section for faults in first 20% of next section.

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 Zone 2
Zone 2 on adjacent line sections are not normally time
graded with each other
*6 *6

*7 *7

I ; I ;

Overlap only occurs for faults in first 20% of following line.

Faults at ‘F’ should result in operation of Z1H and tripping of circuit breaker ‘H’.
If ‘H’ fails to trip possible causes are :-
Z1H operates but trip relays fail.
Z2H may operate but will not trip if followed by the same trip relays.
Fault must be cleared at ‘G’ by Z2G.
Z1H and trip relays operate but circuit breaker fails to trip.

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 Zone 2

No advantage in time grading Z2G with

Z2H

Unless Z2H + trip relays energise a 2nd circuit

breaker trip coil.

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 Zone 2
*7 . ' #

) 8 0 8 ? I ; % I ; .*6 % *6
1 @ 1 $ $ #

8 @ $ 8 $ % *6 0 1 *6 #
*6

*6

*7 *7

I ; I ;
! 8 $ 0 1 1
* 6 $ % ) $ 0 1 @
0 8 #
2 % .) 1 . % ) ' 0 8
%@ 0 #
> Distance Protection - 2007 49
 Maximum Allowable Zone 2 Reach to Allow for
Equal Zone 2 Time Settings

*64 2 (4

*75 2 (&

* 7 * 6
4 5

Z2A must not reach beyond Z1B

i.e. Z2A(EFF) MAX must not reach further than Z1B(EFF) MIN

Z1BSETTING = 0.8ZL2
Z1B(EFF) MIN = 0.8 x 0.8ZL2 = 0.64ZL2
∴ Z2A(EFF) MAX < ZL1 + 0.64ZL2
∴ 1.2 Z2ASETTING < ZL1 + 0.64ZL2

Z2ASETTING < 0.83ZL1 + 0.53ZL2

> Distance Protection - 2007 50

 Zone 2 Time Settings on Long Line Followed by
Several Short Lines

*6

*:

*:J

*6
*6J

*7 *7 *7J

I ; I ; IJ;

*6 1 :% #

" $ $ 8 ? )' . .) I ;K
1 $ .*6 $ ) % $ 0 1 *: #
> Distance Protection - 2007 51
 Zone 3

Provides back-up for next adjacent line.

Provides back-up protection for busbars (reverse offset).
Actual Zone 3 settings will be scheme specified, i.e.
permissive or blocking schemes.
Many modern relays have more than 3 Zones to allow the use
of three forward and an independent reverse zone.
Z3G
REV Z3G FWD
Z2G
Time Z1G Z1H

G H K

Typical settings : Z3FWD > 1.2 x (ZGH + ZHK)

Z3REV 0.1 to 0.25 of Z1G

> Distance Protection - 2007 52

 Zone Time Coordination - Ideal Situation

Zone 1 :- tZ1 = instantaneous (typically 15 - 35mS)

Zone 2 :- tZ2 = tZ1(down) + CB(down) + Z2(reset) + Margin

e.g. tZ2 = 35 + 100 + 40 + 100 = 275mS

Zone 3 :- tZ3 = tZ2(down) + CB(down) + Z3(reset) + Margin

e.g. tZ3 = 275 + 100 + 40 + 100 = 515mS

Note: Where upper and lower zones overlap, e.g.

Zone 2 up sees beyond Zone 1 down, the
upper and lower zone time delays will need to
be coordinated, e.g. tZ2(up) to exceed
tZ2(down).

> Distance Protection - 2007 53

 Under / Overreach

> Distance Protection - 2007 54

 Under-Reach

Impedance presented > apparent impedance

%age Underreach = ZR - ZF x 100%

ZR

where ZR = Reach setting

ZF = Effective reach

> Distance Protection - 2007 55

 Underreaching Due to Busbar Infeed between
Relay and Fault

*4 *5
I4 I4GI5

I5

+ I4*4 G I4 G I5 *5

I I4

* *4 G *5 G I5 # *5
I4

> Distance Protection - 2007 56

 Underreaching Due to Busbar Infeed between
Relay and Fault

∴ Relay with setting ZA + ZB will underreach with

infeed.

Relay with setting ZA + ZB + IB . ZB will measure

IA
correctly with infeed present but if infeed is removed
the relay will overreach.

Maximum allowable setting dictated by load

impedance

> Distance Protection - 2007 57

 Under-Reach
I!

*L
I GI!

*
I

2 4>

What relay reach setting is required to ensure fault at F is at

boundary of operation ?
Impedance seen for fault at F
= ZG + IG + IP . ZK
IG
Limit of operation is when Impedance Seen = Reach Setting
∴ Reach setting required
= ZG + IG + IP . ZK
IG
> Distance Protection - 2007 58
 Over-Reach

Impedance seen < apparent impedance

%age Overreach = ZF - ZR x 100%

ZR

where ZR = Reach setting

ZF = Effective reach

> Distance Protection - 2007 59

 Mutual Coupling

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 Mutual Coupling

Mutual coupling causes distance relays to either

underreach or overreach.

Positive and negative sequence has no impact.

Zero sequence mutual coupling can have a

significant influence on the relay.

Only affects ground fault distance.

> Distance Protection - 2007 61

 Mutual Coupling Example Under Reach

*6 I5 ; ,

*6 !

*$

> Distance Protection - 2007 62

 Mutual Coupling Example Over Reach

*6 I %) %;
%; ,

*6 !

> Distance Protection - 2007 63

 Mutual Coupling Example Over Reach

*7 , '
*7 , $

*$

> Distance Protection - 2007 64

 Ancilliary Functions

> Distance Protection - 2007 65

 Switch on to Fault (SOTF)

Fast tripping for faults on line

energisation, even where line VTs
provide no prefault voltage memory

> Distance Protection - 2007 66

 Voltage Transformer Supervision

A VT fault and subsequent operation of VT fuses

or MCB’s results in misrepresentation of primary
voltages
Relay will remain stable as the current phase
selector will not pick up
Subsequent system fault may cause unwanted /
incorrect tripping
VTS operating from presence of V0 with no I0 or
V2 with no I2 is used to block relay if required

> Distance Protection - 2007 67

 VT Supervision

Under load conditions

Loss of 1 or 2 phase voltages
Loss of all 3 phase voltages

Upon line energisation

Loss of 1 or 2 phase voltages
Loss of all 3 phase voltages

Digital input to monitor MCB

Set to block voltage dependent functions

> Distance Protection - 2007 68

 Zone 1 Mho Relay

L Will not operate for load

*3 or stable power swing
Ø1, Ø2, Ø3, = Angles
between system
voltages at ‘K’ and ‘L’
*7
M: Ø increases as power
J M6 swing
- approaches relay at G
M7 4 ‘J’ is point where power
*3 swing enters relay
characteristic
At ‘J’ the angle between
! 0 30 )
voltages at ‘G’ & ‘H’ is
90°
Normal limit of angle
between voltages at ‘G’
& ‘H’ for load is of the
order of 30°

> Distance Protection - 2007 69

Comparison between Stability of Mho and Quadrilateral
Impedance Elements during a Power Swing

! 0
30
)

> Distance Protection - 2007 70

 Illustration of Basic Power Swing
Blocking System

! 0
30 )

*!

*:

> Distance Protection - 2007 71

 Power Swing Blocking

A power swing will result in continuous change of

current

Continuous output from the relay superimposed

current element can be used to block for a power
swing

Using this method the relay is able to operate for

faults occurring during a power swing

> Distance Protection - 2007 72

 Power Swing Blocking
Distance relays

∆X
Out Of Step
X lim
Ζ3
∆R

-R lim R lim

Ζ4 -X lim

Stable swing

> Distance Protection - 2007 73

 Directional Earth Fault Protection (DEF)

High resistance ground faults

Instantaneous or time delayed
IEC and IEEE curves
Single or shared signalling channel

> Distance Protection - 2007 74

 Transformer Feeders

> Distance Protection - 2007 75

 Transformer Feeders

*"
*

67

Zone 1 = ZL + 0.5ZT
T1 = Instantaneous

Zone 2 = 1.2 (ZL +ZT)

T2 = Co-ordinate with downstream protection

Zone 3
- Back-up use as appropriate
T3

> Distance Protection - 2007 76