TABLE OF CONTENTS:

1. ABSTRACT
[Link]
[Link] MOTOR
[Link] TECHNIQUE
[Link] 555 TIMER
6. SOLDERING
7. COMPONENTS
8. BLOCK DIAGRAM
[Link] DIAGRAM
[Link] OF THE CIRCUIT
[Link] MODEL
[Link] AND DISCUSSION
13. CONCLUSION
[Link] SCOPE
ABSTRACT:
DC motors are widely used in industries because they are easy to
control and provide accurate speed and torque. Speed control is
very important in applications where precision is needed. This
project uses a method called Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) to
control the speed of a DC motor. The PWM signal is generated using
a 555 timer IC in astable mode, which produces regular high and
low voltage pulses. By adjusting the width of these pulses (duty
cycle), the motor speed can be controlled efficiently.

Compared to older methods like phase control (which creates more

power loss and electrical noise), PWM is more reliable, cost-
effective, and better suited for modern applications. DC motors
also have benefits like high starting torque and easy control over a
wide speed range, making them ideal for use in automation,
robotics, and transportation systems.
INTRODUCTION:
This project demonstrates how to control the speed of a 12V DC
motor using a 555 timer IC through the Pulse Width Modulation
(PWM) technique. Speed control of DC motors is crucial in various
industrial and household applications where performance,
precision, and protection are important. Devices such as CPU fans,
toy cars, and exhaust systems often require variable motor speeds
depending on the workload. For instance, a CPU fan needs to run at
high speed during heavy tasks like gaming or video editing but can
operate at lower speeds during light use to conserve energy and
reduce noise.
In this project, the 555 timer IC is configured in astable mode,
where it acts as a free-running oscillator that continuously
generates square wave pulses. These pulses are used to switch the
motor's power on and off rapidly. The average voltage supplied to
the motor is controlled by adjusting the pulse width — this is the
essence of PWM. A higher duty cycle (more ON time) results in
higher motor speed, while a lower duty cycle (more OFF time)
reduces the speed. This method is highly efficient compared to
using variable resistors or other analog techniques, as it minimizes
energy loss. The setup is simple, cost-effective, and reliable,
making it ideal for DIY projects and learning about motor control
systems.
DC MOTOR:
INTRODUCTION TO SPEED CONTROL:
Speed control of a drive means deliberately adjusting its speed to
suit the specific needs of a work process. It's important to
distinguish this from natural speed variations that occur due to
changes in the load on the motor shaft — speed control refers to
intentional, controlled adjustments. In the past, mechanical
methods such as stepped pulleys, change gears, and variable
speed clutches were commonly used to vary the speed of industrial
equipment. These mechanical systems allowed for some flexibility
and marked the beginning of adjustable speed drives. However,
they were often limited in precision, efficiency, and ease of use.

With advancements in technology, electrical methods of speed

control became more popular due to their greater efficiency,
accuracy, and cost-effectiveness. Unlike mechanical methods,
electrical speed control systems can offer smoother and more
precise speed variations without the need for physical adjustments.
The specific speed control requirement depends on the type of
industrial drive. Some applications require continuously variable
speed over a full range, from zero to maximum, for fine control and
flexibility. Others may only need the drive to operate at a few
distinct, fixed speeds. Understanding the nature of the required
speed control helps in choosing the appropriate method and
equipment for the application.
SPEED CONTROL METHODS:
[Link] or Rheostatic control method.

[Link] control method

3. Armature control method

4. Voltage Control Method

5. Variable resistance in series with armature.

1. Armature or Rheostatic Control Method:

In this method, a variable resistor is connected in series with the
armature. By increasing the resistance, the voltage drop across the
armature decreases, which reduces the motor speed. It is mainly
used to control speed below the rated value. However, it is
inefficient because a lot of electrical energy is lost as heat in the
resistor.

2. Flux Control Method:

This method controls the speed by adjusting the current in the field
winding, which changes the magnetic flux. When the field current is
reduced, the magnetic flux decreases and the motor speed
increases. It is commonly used to control speed above the rated
speed. This method is efficient and does not waste power like the
armature control method.
3. Armature Control Method:
Also known as the rheostatic method, it involves inserting a
resistance in series with the armature to reduce the voltage across
it. The reduced voltage lowers the speed of the motor. Like the
rheostatic method, it is suitable for speeds lower than the rated
value and suffers from energy losses.

4. Voltage Control Method:

In this method, the speed is controlled by varying the voltage
supplied to the motor. A higher voltage results in a higher speed,
and vice versa. This method is efficient and provides smooth and
precise control of motor speed. It is widely used in modern DC
drives with electronic control systems.

5. Variable Resistance in Series with Armature:

This is essentially the same as the armature or rheostatic control
method. A resistor is added in series with the armature to drop part
of the supply voltage, thereby reducing the effective voltage applied
to the motor. This lowers the speed but causes energy loss in the
resistor, making it inefficient for long-term or high-load use.
PWM TECHNIQUE:
Pulse width modulation control works by switching the power
supplied to the motor on and off very rapidly. The DC voltage is
converted to a square wave signal, alternating between fully on
(nearly 12v) and zero, giving the motor a series of power “kicks”.
Pulse width modulation technique (PWM) is a technique for speed
control which can overcome the problem of poor starting
performance of a motor. PWM for motor speed control works in a
very similar way. Instead of supplying a varying voltage to a motor, it
is supplied with a fixed voltage value (such as 12v) which starts it
spinning immediately. The voltage is then removed and the motor
‘coasts. By continuing this voltage on/off cycle with a varying duty
cycle, the motor speed can be controlled.
Pulse-width modulation (PWM) or duty-cycle variation methods are
commonly used in speed control of DC motors. The duty cycle is
defined as the percentage of digital ‘high’ to digital ‘low’ plus digital
‘high’ pulse-width during a PWM period. Fig.2.7 shows the 5V pulses
with 0% through 100% duty cycle. The average DC Voltage value for
0% duty cycle is zero; with 20% duty cycle the average value is 1.2V
(20% of 5V). With 50% duty cycle the average value is 2.5V, and if
the duty cycle is 80%, the average voltage is 4V and so on. The
maximum duty cycle can be 100%, which is equivalent to a DC
waveform.

Thus, by varying the pulse width we can vary the average voltage
across a DC motor and hence its speed.
The average voltage is given by the following equation:
ý = D. Ymax + (1- D) Ymin
But usually minimum equals zero so the average voltage will be:
ý = D. Ymax The circuit of a simple speed controller for a mini DC
motor, such as that used in tape recorders and toys.

DC MOTOR SPEED CONTROL USING PWM METHOD:

The major reason for using pulse width modulation in DC motor
control is to avoid the excessive heat dissipation in linear power
amplifiers. The heat dissipation problem often results in large heat
sinks and sometimes forced cooling. PWM amplifiers greatly reduce
this problem because of their much higher power conversion
efficiency. Moreover, the input signal to the PWM driver may be
directly derived from any digital system without the need for any D/A
converters. The PWM power amplifier is not without disadvantages.
The desired signal is not translated to a voltage amplitude but rather
the time duration (or duty cycle) of a pulse. This is obviously not a
linear operation. But with a few assumptions, which are usually
valid in motor control, the PWM may be approximated as being
linear (i.e., a pure gain). The linear model of the PWM amplifier is
based on the average voltage being equal to the integral of the
voltage waveform. Thus VS * Ton = Veq * T Where VS = the supply
voltage (+12 volts) Ton = Pulse duration Veq = the average or
equivalent voltage seen by the motor T = Switching period (1/f) The
recommended switching frequency is 300Hz. The switching
frequency (1/T), is determined by the motor and amplifier
characteristics. The control variable is the duty cycle which is Ton /
T. The duty cycle must be recalculated at each sampling time.
Principle:
Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) controls the speed of a DC motor by
rapidly switching the supply voltage on and off. This creates a
square wave signal that alternates between full voltage (e.g., 12V)
and 0V. The motor receives a series of electrical "kicks," and the
average voltage it experiences depends on the duty cycle—the ratio
of ON time (Ton) to the total cycle time (T). This average voltage
determines the motor's speed.

Working:
Instead of varying the supply voltage, a constant voltage is applied
intermittently. The motor starts spinning immediately during the ON
period and coasts during the OFF period. Adjusting the duty cycle
changes the effective (average) voltage. For instance:

A 50% duty cycle (mark-space ratio 1:1) gives an average voltage of

6V → motor runs at half speed.

A 75% duty cycle (mark-space ratio 3:1) gives 9V → motor runs at ¾

speed.
A 25% duty cycle (mark-space ratio 1:3) gives 3V → motor runs at ¼
speed.

METHODS
The PWM signals can be generated in a number of ways.
there are several methods:
➢ Analogue method
➢ Digital method
➢ Discrete IC
Soldering
Soldering is a process used to join electronic parts by melting a
metal called solder, which creates a strong electrical connection.
This connection can be undone using a desoldering tool.
Main Tools and Materials in Soldering:
1. Soldering Iron:
➢ A hand tool that heats up to melt solder.
➢ Best for beginners: pen-style, 15W to 30W.
➢ Gets very hot (up to 896°F), so handle with care.
2. Soldering Station:
➢ An advanced version of a soldering iron.
➢ Allows precise temperature control and safety features.
➢ Ideal for frequent or professional use.
3. Soldering Iron Tips:
➢ Conical Tip: Pointed tip for small, precise work.
➢ Chisel Tip: Flat tip, good for soldering wires and bigger parts.
4. Cleaning Sponge (Brass or Wet Sponge):
➢ Used to clean the iron tip by removing black oxidation.
➢ Brass sponge is better since wet sponges can damage the tip.
5. Soldering Iron Stand:
➢ Holds the hot iron safely when not in use.
➢ Prevents burns and fire risks.
6. Solder:
➢ A metal wire that melts to join parts.
➢ Lead-free solder (Tin-Copper) is safer and commonly used.
BLOCK DIAGRAM:

DIAGRAM DESCRIPTION:
[Link] SUPPLY:
A power supply is responsible for delivering the correct amount of electrical
power to a device or circuit. It takes electrical current from a source, such as
an electrical outlet, and converts it into a specific voltage and current
suitable for the load (like an electronic device or circuit). The power supply
may also adjust the frequency to meet the requirements of the load.
In this project, a 12V power supply is used, achieved through a 12-0-12
transformer. This transformer steps down the voltage, and the rest of the
components (capacitors, voltage regulator, resistors, diodes, and an LED
indicator) are used to filter, regulate, and control the power, ensuring it
remains stable and safe for the circuit to function. The LED serves as an
indicator, showing whether the power supply is working correctly.
[Link] 555 TIMER:
The 555 timer IC is a popular electronic chip used in many circuits for timing
and pulse generation. It can work in three different ways: monostable mode
(produces one pulse when triggered), astable mode (creates a continuous
square wave or signal), and bistable mode (works like an on/off switch). It
can run on voltages from 5V to 18V, which makes it suitable for many types
of projects.
By changing the values of resistors and capacitors connected to it, you can
adjust how long the timer stays on or how fast it generates signals. The
output from the 555 timer is strong enough to directly run other electronic
parts like LEDs or digital logic gates. It also has input pins for starting or
stopping the timer using signals from other devices. Overall, it's easy to use,
reliable, and useful for making things like alarms, timers, blinkers, or sound
effects in circuits

[Link]:
The TIP122 is a Darlington NPN transistor, meaning it contains two
transistors inside one package to boost performance. It offers a high current
gain (around 1000) and can handle up to 5A of current and 100V across its
terminals, making it suitable for controlling heavy loads. The internal setup
connects one transistor's emitter to the base of the second, increasing
overall gain and current handling.
[Link] MOTOR:
A DC motor is any of a class of rotary electrical machines that converts
direct current electrical energy into mechanical energy. The most common
types rely on the forces produced by magnetic fields. Nearly all types of DC
motors have some internal mechanism either electromechanical or
electronic, to periodically change the direction of current flow in part of the
motor.
In this project, we use 12V DC motor

[Link]:
A potentiometer is a three-terminal resistor with a sliding or rotating contact
that forms an adjustable voltage divider . If only two terminals are used, one
end and the wiper, it acts as a variable resistor or rheostat.

In this project, we use 100 KΩ potentiometer.

COMPONENTS:
COMPONENTS REQUIRED FOR SPEED CONTROL
1. NE555P TIMER IC
2. 1KΩ Resistor × 2
3. 100 nF Capacitor × 2
4. 1N4007 Diode × 3
5. 100KΩ Potentiometer
6. Transistor (Darlington TIP122)
7. 12V Power Supply
8. 12V DC Motor
9. Connecting Wire

COMPONENT LIST OF 12V POWER SUPPLY

1. Transformer (12-0-12)
2. 1N4007 Diode × 4
3. Capacitor (470 µF, 25V)
4. Capacitor (0.1 µF) ×2
5. Regulator (IC2 7812)
6. 4.7 KΩ Resistor
7. LED bulb
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

WORKING OF THE CIRCUIT:

This circuit uses a 555 Timer IC in astable mode to control a DC
motor by generating Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) signals. In
astable mode, the 555 Timer continuously switches between HIGH
and LOW outputs, creating a square wave signal. This signal's ON
and OFF times (duty cycle) can be adjusted using resistors (R1,
potentiometer) and a capacitor (C1). The duty cycle determines
how much time the signal stays HIGH (motor ON) and LOW (motor
OFF), which in turn controls the motor speed.
When the capacitor charges through R1 and part of the
potentiometer, the output goes HIGH. When it discharges through
the other part of the potentiometer, the output goes LOW. Changing
the potentiometer value adjusts the ON and OFF durations, hence
the motor speed.
The control pin is connected to a small capacitor (100nF) to reduce
noise, and the reset pin is connected to VCC to avoid accidental
resets.
Since the 555 Timer can handle only up to 200mA, it cannot directly
drive a DC motor that needs more current. Therefore, a TIP122
Darlington transistor is used to amplify the current, as it can handle
up to 5A, making it suitable for driving the motor safely.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM FOR 12V POWER SUPPLY:

WORKING OF THE CIRCUIT:

The objective of this project is to convert 220V AC supply in to +12V
and -12v DC supply, that is why it is named Dual Power Supply as
we get positive and negative 12v power supply at the same time.
This can be achieved in simple three steps:

1. Firstly, 220V AC is converted into 12V AC by using simple step-

down (220V/12V) transformer.
Converting 220v AC into 12v AC using Step Down Transformer
The primary terminals of the centre tapped transformer is
connected with household supply (220V ac, 50Hz) and output is
taken from secondary terminals of the transformer. The centre
tapped describes the voltage output of a center tapped transformer.
For example: A 24V centre tapped transformer will measure 24V ac
across the outer two taps (winding as a whole), and 12V ac from
each outer tap to the center-tap (half winding). These two 12V ac
supplies are 180 degrees out of phase with each other, thus making
it easy to derive positive and negative 12 volt dc power supplies
from them. The advantage of using a centre tapped transformer is
we can get the both +12V and -12V DC supply using only one
transformer.
HARDWARE MODEL:

CIRCUIT FOR SPEED SUPPLY CIRCUIT

CONTROL

COMPLETE CIRCUIT
RESULT AND DISCUSSION:
In this project, the speed of a DC shunt motor was controlled using
the Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) technique by adjusting an ohmic
potentiometer. This controls the duty cycle of the PWM pulses that
trigger the base of an IGBT (Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor),
which acts as the switching device. It was observed that PWM is a
simple, low-cost, and efficient method for speed control. However,
when compared experimentally, the traditional rheostatic method
showed slightly better efficiency in some cases.
The PWM signal controls how long the motor receives voltage in
each cycle—this is known as the duty cycle. A higher duty cycle
means the motor is ON for a longer duration in each cycle, resulting
in higher speed. For example, at 60% duty cycle, the motor runs
faster than at 40%. Additionally, changing the PWM frequency (e.g.,
500 Hz to 1500 Hz) also affects performance—higher frequencies
can increase output voltage and improve response.
Overall, by varying duty cycle and frequency, the speed and
performance of the DC motor can be precisely controlled using
PWM, making it a useful method for many practical applications
CONCLUSION:
The dc motor speed is controlled by using power electronic device
and the PWM is used which to control the speed of dc motor. The
speed pulse train will be based on required input speed. This circuit
is useful to operate the dc motors at required speed with very low
losses and low cost. The circuit response time is fast. Hence high
reliability can be achieved. The designed circuit was tested for
various speed inputs satisfactorily. The method already employed in
traction system and has a good scope ahead.

FUTURE SCOPE:
➢ DC motors are widely used in industries due to their low
cost, simple control, and broad speed/torque range.
➢ The project uses PWM (Pulse Width Modulation), a
modern technique for smooth and efficient speed control.
➢ PWM is increasingly used in advanced systems like fuzzy
logic controllers, indicating strong future potential.
➢ Overall, PWM-based motor control is reliable, efficient,
and well-suited for modern industrial applications.