Chapter 4: Ecosystem

4.1 - The Sonoran Desert

A desert in Arizona
 Deserts are harsh environments with little rainfall, requiring plants and animals to have
special adaptations to survive.
 All plants in the photograph are saguaro cacti, which grow very slowly and can be over
100 years old.
 Saguaro cacti have wide, spreading roots just under the soil to absorb any rainwater.
 Many animals live among desert plants, including birds that nest in cacti.
 Gila woodpeckers make holes in Saguaro cacti for nests, which other birds also use.
 Cactus rains build nests in teddy bear cholla cacti whose sharp spines protect them from
predators.

Life in the Sonoran Desert

 Lizards, tortoises, and other animals taste in the shade or Burrow in into the soil during
hot days to stay cool
 Kangaroo rats come out at night to feed but must be cautious of predators like snake
and coyotes.
 the Sonoran Desert receives heavy rain at least once a year temporarily transforming
the landscape
 After being called, many plants quickly bloom, attracting insects that feed on nectar and
help with pollination.
 At night, bears feed on the nectar of agave flowers.
 Seeds fall to the ground, where ants collect them for food storage.
 Some uneaten seeds may germinate into new plants, continuing their cycle of life.

Interactions in the Sonoran Desert

 Plants and animals depend on each other for survival in the harsh desert environment.
 Birds nest in cacti, using them for shelter and protection.
 Insects pollinate flowers, helping plants to reproduce.
 Bats feed on agave nectar, aiding in plant pollination.
 Ants collect seeds, storing them for food, while uneaten seeds may grow into new
plants.

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  Predators like rattlesnakes and coyotes hunt small animals, maintaining balance in
ecosystems.
 Every organism's action affects others, creating a web of interactions necessary for
survival.

Non-Living Things in the Desert

Organisms in the desert interact with non-living elements of the environment, which
influence their survival.

Light—bright sunlight enables plants to photosynthesize, producing food for other

organisms.

Temperature -
 Higher daytime temperatures make some animals nocturnal to avoid heat.
 Cooler underground temperatures encourage animals like tarantulas to Barrow for
shelter.
 Soil provides essential nutrients for plant growth and material for ground nesting
birds.

Water -
 All organisms need water to survive.
 Rainforest plants and animals become more active and reproduce.
Air -
 Plants use carbon dioxide from the air for photosynthesis.
 All organisms use oxygen for respiration.

Organisms impact their environment; for example, kangaroo rat droppings English to soil
and gaseous exchange effect air composition.

The Desert Ecosystem

The desert is a complex ecosystem where all living and nonliving things interact.
 An ecosystem is a network of interactions between organisms and their
environment.
 Food webs are a key part of the ecosystem.
 Plants produce food using sunlight.
 Animals eat plants and other animals, passing energy through the food web.

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Other important interactions include:

 Plants providing shelter for animals, e.g., birds nesting in cacti.

 Plant roots hold soil together, preventing erosion when it rains.
 Pollination and seed dispersal, which help plants reproduce,

Ecology is the study of ecosystems, and scientists continue to discover new interactions
even in well-studied environments.

Habitats in a Desert Ecosystem

A habitat is a natural place where an organism lives.

Different organisms have different habitats in the desert.

 Saguaro cactus—open dessert.
 Gilded woodpecker—nest in Saguaro vector and forages on the ground.
 Desert ants live under rocks and soil and move on the surface.
 Termites -- found at the base of Saguaro stems.
 Sap Beetles—live inside saguaro flowers.
 Kangaroo rats—live in barrows and come out at night to find food.

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Questions
1. Why could a food web not exist without producers?

A food web relies on producers (plants) because they convert sunlight into energy through
photosynthesis.
This energy is passed on to herbivores, which are then eaten by predators.
Without producers, the entire food web would collapse, as no energy would enter the
system.
2. What do the arrows in a food web represent?

The arrows show the flow of energy from one organism to another.
They indicate which organism eats another and how energy moves through the ecosystem.
3. Two examples of interactions in the desert that are not related to feeding

Birds nesting in cacti—Gila woodpeckers and other birds use saguaro cacti for shelter.

Plant roots prevent soil erosion: roots hold the soil together, reducing the impact of rain
and wind.

4. Difference between an ecosystem and a habitat

Ecosystem: a large system that includes all living organisms and non-living factors (e.g.,
plants, animals, soil, water, air) and their interactions.

Habitat: the specific place where an organism lives (e.g., a saguaro cactus is the habitat of a
gilded woodpecker).

4.2 - Different Ecosystems

More about ecosystems
Mangrove forest
 Mangroves are trees that grow with their roots in seawater, forming coastal forests in
tropical regions.
 Young fish live among mangrove roots, protected from larger predators.
 Mudskippers climb onto mud during low tide to search for food.
 Fallen mangrove leaves decompose with the help of bacteria.
 Prawns and crabs feed on partially decomposed leaves.

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  Crab-eating macaques climb trees and hunt crabs on roots and mud.

Sea ice in the Arctic Ocean

 In winter, the Arctic Ocean freezes, creating ice floes.
 Seals hunt for fish underwater but must come to the surface to breathe air.
 Polar bears patrol the ice, hunting seals for food. They are strong swimmers and can
move between floes.
 Arctic foxes also search for food on the ice.
 Algae grow on the underside of the ice floes, nourished by light passing through the ice.
 Shrimp-like organisms feed on algae, and fish eat the shrimp-like organisms.

Rice Paddy
Not all ecosystems are natural—rice paddies in Malaysia are human-made ecosystems.
 Seasonal flooding occurs, filling the paddy fields with water.
 Algae grow in shallow water and on the muddy edges.
 Fish enter the flooded paddies from irrigation canals.
 Frogs and dragonflies breed in the water, benefiting from the warm daytime
temperatures.
 Water temperature fluctuates, warming up quickly during the day and cooling down at
night.
 Farmers add fertilizer, which increases the growth of rice and algae, providing more
food for animals.
 Many birds feed in and around the paddy fields, forming part of the ecosystem.

4.3 - Intruders in an ecosystem

New species in an ecosystem
 All living things in an ecosystem depend on each other and their surroundings.
 When a new species arrives, it can change how things work.
 It might take food and space from other animals or plants.
 It could become a hunter, food, or helper for other species.
 Some native species might struggle or disappear if they can’t compete.
 If the new species spreads too much, it can harm nature.
 The whole food chain and balance of the ecosystem might change.
 Sometimes, the new species can be helpful.
 People may need to step in to control the changes.

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Introduced species in New Zealand
New Zealand’s Isolation: It separated from other lands 66 million years ago, so its animals
developed differently.

No Natural Predators: Before humans came, there were no mammals that hunted birds. Many
birds, like the kiwi, couldn’t fly and nested on the ground.

Humans Arrive: About 700 years ago, humans came and brought animals that didn’t belong,
like rats.

Rats as a Threat: Rats ate bird eggs and young birds, making them unsafe.

More introduced Species: Farmers brought sheep and rabbits, but the rabbits escaped and ate
too much grass.

Stoats Introduced: To control rabbits, people brought stoats, but they became dangerous
predators.

Stoats’ Impact: They spread across New Zealand, killing many birds, including the Kiwi chicks.
Some birds, like the laughing owl, went extinct.

Current Efforts: People are trying to remove stoats, but it’s very hard. The best they can do is
control their numbers.
 Since humans arrived, 53 native bird species in New Zealand have gone extinct.
 Some extinctions happened because people hunted the birds.
 Most extinctions were caused by invasive species brought by humans.
 Animals like rats and stoats ate eggs, chicks, and even adult birds.
 These changes destroyed many bird populations.

Questions

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What is a native species?
A native species is a plant or animal that naturally lives in a certain place and has been there for
a very long time. It was not brought by humans but evolved in that environment.

Why is it hard to remove an introduced species?

 It spreads quickly and adapts to the new environment.

 It may have no natural predators, so nothing controls its population.
 It may compete with native species for food and space, making them weaker.
 Some introduced species reproduce very fast, making them hard to control.
 Human activity (farming, cities, and transport) can help them spread further.

Native Species in Oman:

 Arabian Oryx: A desert antelope, also the national animal of Oman.

 Arabian Leopard: A rare and endangered big cat.
 Spiny-tailed Lizard (Dhub): A desert lizard that survives in hot climates.
 Frankincense Tree: famous for producing aromatic resin.
 Arabian Tahr: a wild goat species found in the mountains.

Native Species in Pakistan:

 Markhor: The national animal of Pakistan, a wild goat with twisted horns.
 Indus River dolphin: a rare freshwater dolphin found in the Indus River.
 Snow Leopard: A big cat living in the northern mountains.
 Himalayan Brown Bear: Found in the northern regions like Gilgit-Baltistan.
 Deodar Cedar: A tall tree found in the Himalayan forests.

What is the name for a plant growing where it does not belong?

A plant like buffelgrass that grows in a place where it was not originally found, is called an
invasive species.

How could buffelgrass affect native species in the Sonoran Desert?

Takes Resources: Buffelgrass takes water and nutrients from the soil, making it harder for
native plants like cacti to survive.

Outcompetes Native Plants: It spreads quickly and replaces native plants that desert
animals rely on for food and shelter.

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Increases Wildfires: Unlike native desert plants, buffelgrass burns easily and spreads
wildfires, which can destroy the habitat of native species.

Harms Animals: With fewer native plants, animals like desert tortoises and bighorn sheep
may struggle to find food.

Changes the Ecosystem: By taking over the land, buffelgrass can permanently change the
desert environment.

4.4 Bioaccumulation
What is DDT?
DDT is an insecticide that kills insects.

Uses of DDT:
First used in the 1940s to kill insects that spread diseases like malaria and typhus.
Also used to protect crops from insect pests.

Early Beliefs:
People thought DDT only affected insects and was safe for other organisms.

Harmful Effects Discovered:

Over time, scientists realized DDT was also harming birds and other animals.

Rachel Carson’s Book (Silent Spring, 1962) raised awareness of DDT’s dangers.

Impact on Birds:
DDT entered the food chain, causing birds' eggshells to become thin and weak, leading to a
decline in bird populations.

Conclusion:
DDT was effective at killing insects but had serious environmental side effects.

Why DDT is Harmful to the Environment:

 DDT is a persistent chemical; it does not break down and stays in the environment for
many years.
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  Decomposers cannot break it down, so it remains in soil, water, and air.
 It spreads far—DDT can be carried by the wind to places far from where it was used.
 It stays in animals' bodies for life—once inside an organism, DDT never leaves.
 It is toxic (poisonous) to animals, especially birds.
 Birds’ eggshells become thin and weak, causing them to break before hatching.
 This led to a decline in bird populations, including species like the ibis.

Bioaccumulation and Biomagnification of DDT:

Bioaccumulation:
Bioaccumulation is when a single organism accumulates (builds up) toxins like DDT over its
lifetime.

For example, shrimp eat algae that contains DDT. Over time, the DDT builds up in the shrimp’s
body. The longer the shrimp lives and the more algae it eats, the more DDT it accumulates.

Biomagnification:
Biomagnification occurs when toxins like DDT move up the food chain and increase in
concentration at each level.

A fish eats many shrimp, so it accumulates all the DDT from those shrimps.
A cormorant (a fish-eating bird) eats many fish, so it accumulates the DDT from all the fish it
eats.
As you go up the food chain, the concentration of DDT gets stronger in each organism.

Effect: This process makes top predators like cormorants or other large birds accumulate
dangerous amounts of DDT in their bodies, leading to harmful effects like weak eggshells and
death.

Biomagnification of DDT in the Food Chain:

 Biomagnification is the process where the concentration of DDT increases as you move
up the food chain.

 This means that as the food chain goes up, the DDT becomes more concentrated in the
bodies of top predators, making them more vulnerable to poisoning and other health
issues.

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Questions
How many times greater is the concentration of DDT in a cormorant’s body than in a
minnow’s body?

If the concentration in a minnow is 1 ppm and in a cormorant is 10 ppm, the cormorant has 10
times more DDT than the minnow.

Why is the concentration in the cormorant greater than in the minnow?

The cormorant eats many fish, like the minnow, and each fish has DDT in it from the smaller
animals they ate. As you move up the food chain, the DDT builds up and gets stronger in the
animals higher up, like the cormorant.

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a) Two habitats in the tropical rainforest ecosystem:

1. The tree canopy, where bromeliads grow on tall trees and provide shelter and water for
small animals.

2. The forest floor, which is dark, damp, and home to decomposers, insects, and larger
animals.

b) Advantages to bromeliads of growing in their habitat:

1. Growing on tall trees allows bromeliads to access more sunlight for photosynthesis.
2. Their position helps them collect rainwater efficiently, providing essential nutrients and
moisture.

c) Advantages to the frog of living in the bromeliad habitat:

1. The water stored in bromeliads provides a safe place for frogs to lay eggs and for
tadpoles to develop.

2. The elevated location helps protect frogs from predators on the forest floor.

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d) Difference between an ecosystem and a habitat:

 An ecosystem includes all the living organisms (plants, animals, microorganisms) and
non-living components (water, soil, climate) interacting in an area, such as a tropical
rainforest.

 A habitat is a specific place within an ecosystem where a particular organism lives, like a
bromeliad plant for a frog.

a) Reasons why so many species can live on coral reefs:

1. Coral reefs provide a variety of habitats, such as crevices, caves, and coral structures,
where different species can find shelter and food.

2. The presence of many producers (such as algae) and consumers (such as herbivorous
and carnivorous fish) supports a diverse and complex food web.

b) Meaning of a toxic substance:

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A toxic substance is a harmful chemical that can cause illness, poisoning, or death when
ingested, inhaled, or absorbed by an organism.

c) Food chain based on the information provided:

Alga → Herbivorous fish → Carnivorous fish → Humans

d) The process is called bioaccumulation.

e) Eating a carnivorous fish is more likely to make you ill than eating a herbivorous fish
because:

Carnivorous fish eat many herbivorous fish, which may have already consumed algae containing
ciguatoxin.

Since ciguatoxin does not break down, it accumulates at higher levels in the carnivorous fish
over time.

When humans eat carnivorous fish, they consume a higher concentration of the toxin,
increasing the risk of illness.

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a) Meaning of an introduced species:

 An introduced species is a species that has been brought by humans, intentionally or

unintentionally, to an area where it does not naturally occur.

 These species can sometimes compete with native species for resources, affecting the
local ecosystem.

b) Why the scientists used two different patterns:

1. To compare the number of insect visits and seed production when winged loosestrife
was grown alone versus when it was grown with purple loosestrife.

2. This allows them to determine if the presence of purple loosestrife affects the
pollination success of winged loosestrife.

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 3. Using a controlled setup ensures that differences in results are due to competition and
not other factors like weather or soil conditions.

c) Effect of purple loosestrife on insect visits to winged loosestrife:

 When purple loosestrife was present, the mean number of insect visits to winged
loosestrife decreased from 35 to 26.

 This suggests that purple loosestrife competes for pollinators, reducing the number of
visits to winged loosestrife.

d) Do the results support the hypothesis?

 Yes, the results support the hypothesis.

 The presence of purple loosestrife led to fewer insect visits and reduced seed
production in winged loosestrife (from 80 to 58 seeds per plant), showing that fewer
flowers were successfully pollinated.

e) Ways to improve the experiment:

1. Increase the sample size – Use more plants to get a more reliable average.

2. Extend the observation period – Count insect visits over a longer time or multiple days
to get more accurate data.

Explanation of improvements:

1. Increase the sample size:

a. Using more plants in the experiment would reduce the impact of random
variations and provide more reliable data.

b. A larger sample size helps ensure that the observed effects are not due to
chance but truly reflect the impact of purple loosestrife on winged loosestrife
pollination.

2. Extend the observation period:

a. Counting insect visits over a longer period or on multiple days would provide a
better representation of pollinator activity.

b. Pollinator activity can vary based on time of day, weather, or other

environmental factors, so a longer observation period would give more accurate
results.

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