WINDOWS

Functions
▪ The primary function of a window is to provide a means for admission of natural daylight to the
interior of a building.
▪ A window can also serve as a means of providing the necessary ventilation of dwellings by
including opening lights in the window design.

Performance Requirements
▪ A window must be aesthetically acceptable in the context of building design and surrounding
environment
▪ Glass and glazing to be suitable for window position and type.
▪ Suitable or durable materials required for framing.
▪ Thermal and sound insulation properties to be acceptable to client and within building
regulations.
▪ Windows should be weather tight when opening lights are closed.
▪ Perimeter joint to be adequately sealed.
▪ Windows should be selected or designed to resist wind loadings.
▪ Windows should be easy to clean.
▪ Windows should provide for safety and security.
▪ They should be sited to provide visual contact with the outside.

Terminologies
Mullion: Vertical bar between the panes of glass or casements of a window.
Transom: The horizontal dividing bar in a window.
Jamb: Either of the vertical components that form the side of an opening in a wall, such as that of a
door frame, window frame or fireplace.

Sash: Framing of the opening part (casement) of a window usually containing the glass panes, hinged
to the jamb, or sliding.

Sill: Horizontal slat which forms the base of a window.

Conventional Types
Windows may be classified in two different ways or a combination of them.
▪ The method of opening
 casements which are side hung or top hung on hinges;
 pivot hung either horizontally or vertically;
 double-hung sashes which slide vertically;
 sliding sashes which slide horizontally.
▪ The materials from which they are made: steel; aluminium; timber; PVC.
Page1

WINDOWS KINYUA
 FIXED LIGHT SIDE HUNG TOP HUNG
Usually used in CASEMENT CASEMENT
conjunction with Simplest and Usually of small
other types cheapest type of size for controlled
opening window ventilation

BOTTOM HUNG VERTICAL PIVOT HORIZONTAL PIVOT

CASEMENT High performance windows
Uses as for top Dearer than casement types
hung casement Can be obtained as reversible for easy cleaning

DOUBLE HUNG HORIZONTAL LOUVRE

SLIDING SASH SLIDING SASH Good ventilation
Gives good controlled ventilation without any with only small
backward or forward projection of sash projections of louvres
Fig. 1: Conventional window types
Page2

WINDOWS KINYUA
CASEMENT WINDOWS
i. Traditional Timber Casement Window

With timber casement windows, a solid wood frame is fixed to the edges of the opening and this
receives the glazed casements which may be side hung or top hung. The window frame sometimes
subdivided into mullions and transoms. Casements may be subdivided into smaller areas by glazing
bars.
Construction

▪ Heads and sills always extend across the full width of the frame and in many cases have
projecting horns for building into the wall.
▪ The jambs and mullions span between the head and sill; these are joined to them by a wedged
or pinned mortise and tenon joint. This arrangement gives maximum strength, as the vertical
members will act as struts; it will also give a simple assembly process.
▪ The frame has deep rebates to accommodate the full thickness of the sash. If fixed glazing or
lights are required it is necessary to have a sash frame surround to the glass, because the
depth of rebate in the window frame is too great for direct glazing to the frame.

Fig. 2: Traditional timber casement window - External elevation

Fig. 3: Traditional timber casement window - Horizontal section

Page3

WINDOWS KINYUA
Fig. 4: Traditional timber casement window - Vertical section

ii. Standard Timber Casement Windows

Manufacture of standard casement windows follows the basic principles for traditional casement
windows but with improved head, sill and jamb sections.
The sashes and ventlights are designed so that their edges rebate over the external face of the frame
to form a double barrier to the entry of wind and rain.
The general construction is similar to that described for traditional casement windows, and the fixing
of the frame into walls follows that described for door frames.
Standard casement window types are identified by a notation of figures and letters, for example;
312 CVC
Where; 3 - width divided into three units
12 - 1200 mm height
C - casement
V - ventlight
Page4

WINDOWS KINYUA
Fig. 5: Standard timber casement window - External elevation (312 CVC window)

Fig. 6: Standard timber casement window - Vertical section

Page5

WINDOWS KINYUA
Fig. 7: Standard timber casement window - Horizontal section

iii. Steel Casement Windows

The standard range covers fixed lights, hung casements, pivot casements and doors. They are
produced in dimensions to suit both imperial and metric applications.
Steel windows, like wood windows, are identified by a notation of numbers and letters:
 Prefix number: × 100 = basic space length.
 Code letters: F = fixed light.
C = side-hung casement opening out.
V = top-hung casement opening out and extending full width of frame.
T = top-hung casement opening out and extending less than full width of
frame.
B = bottom casement opening inwards.
S = fixed sublight.
 Suffix number: × 100 = basic space height.
 Suffix code: RH = right-hand casement as viewed from outside.
LH = left-hand casement as viewed from outside.

Fig. 8: External elevation (18 FCT 11 RH window)

Page6

WINDOWS KINYUA
Fig. 9: Typical steel window - Horizontal section

Fig. 10: Typical steel window - Vertical section

Construction
Steel windows are fabricated from hot-rolled steel sections, mitred and welded at the corners, while
subdividing bars are hot-tenon riveted to the frames and each other.
They are hot-dip galvanised to resist corrosion, and some manufacturers supply windows with
decorative coatings such as polyester applied over the galvanising.
Fixing

Steel windows can be fixed into an opening by a number of methods, such as:
Page7

WINDOWS KINYUA
 ▪ Direct fixing to the structure
Steel windows are fixed to brick walls with metal or wire lugs, and;

Fig. 11: Fixing to brick walls using steel lugs

to concrete with fibre or wood plugs.

Fig. 12: Fixing to concrete using plugs

▪ Using wood surround

A wood surround is built into the reveals and secured with fixing ties or cramps. The frame is screwed
onto the wood surround by use of wood screws.
The use of timber surrounds improves the appearance of steel windows considerably and reduces
condensation staining, although they do increase the cost.
Page8

WINDOWS KINYUA
Fig. 13: Steel casement in wood surround

It is necessary to point with a suitable sealant the gap between the metal window and the adjoining
masonry or wood surround, and between wood surround and masonry to ensure a watertight joint
in these vulnerable positions.
iv. Aluminium Hollow Profile Casement Windows
Extruded aluminium profiles can be designed for use in window and door framing. The main
advantages over other materials in these applications are high strength and durability relative to light
weight, and very little maintenance except for occasional cleaning.
The aluminium is protected from surface oxidisation and corrosive atmospheres with a coloured
polyester powder coating.
Metals are very poor thermal insulators, but the overall thermal performance of aluminium profiled
casements can be considerably improved by specifying a closed cell foam infill to the hollow sections.
Cold or thermal bridging and associated condensation is prevented by incorporating a thermal barrier
or break between internal and external components. The thermal break is produced from a high
strength two-part polyurethane resin. Page9

WINDOWS KINYUA
Fig. 14: Aluminium casement window

v. UPVC Hollow Profile Casement Windows

uPVC (or PVC-U) window components are produced in similar sectional profiles to that shown for
hollow section aluminium windows. Plastic is an excellent thermal insulating material, so there is no
need to incorporate a thermal break.
uPVC has lower strength characteristics than aluminium therefore, manufacturers include box
sections of aluminium or galvanised steel within the profiles of larger framing members.

Manufacturers’ designs can emulate most traditional features associated with timber casements,
with the added advantage of excellent thermal insulation, improved security and a maintenance-free
finish. Pigmenting in the plastic provides for a variety of colour options, generally white, light or dark
brown.

BAY WINDOWS
These can be defined as any window with side lights which projects in front of the external wall and
is supported by a sill height wall. Bay windows not supported by a sill height wall are called oriel
windows.
Bay windows can be constructed of timber, and/or metal and designed with casement or sliding
sashes; the main difference in detail is the corner post, which can be made from the solid, jointed or
masked in the case of timber and tubular for metal windows.
Page10

WINDOWS KINYUA
Fig. 155: Parts of a bay window

Various names are, however, given to various plan layouts namely square, splay and circular or
segmental.

Square Bay 450 Bay

600 Bay Segmental Bay

Fig. 166: Bay window types

SLIDING SASH WINDOWS

These are an alternative format to the conventional side hung casement windows and can be
constructed as a vertical or double hung sash window or as a horizontal sliding window in timber,
metal, plastic or in any combination of these materials.

i. Double-Hung Sash Windows

These windows are sometimes called vertical sliding sash windows and consist of two sashes sliding
vertically over one another.
They are costly to construct, but are considered to be more stable than side-hung sashes and have a
better control over the size of ventilation opening, thus reducing the possibility of draughts.
In timber, two methods of suspension are possible:
Page11

WINDOWS KINYUA
 ▪ weight-balanced type;
This is the older method, in which the counterbalance weights suspended by cords are housed in a
boxed framed jamb or mullion. It has been generally superseded by the metal spring balance, which
uses a solid frame and needs less maintenance.

Fig. 17: Typical double hung weight balanced window - Elevation

Page12

Fig. 188: Typical double hung weight balanced window - Vertical section
WINDOWS KINYUA
Fig. 199: Typical double hung weight balanced window - Jamb detail

▪ spring-balanced type.
Double-hung sashes in metal are supported and controlled by spring balances or by friction devices,
but the basic principles remain the same.

Fig. 20: Typical double hung spring balanced window – Elevation

Page13

Fig. 211: Typical double hung spring balanced window - Jamb section
WINDOWS KINYUA
Fig. 222: Typical double hung spring balanced window - Vertical section

ii. Horizontally Sliding Sash Windows

These are an alternative format to the vertically sliding or double hung sash windows and can be
constructed in timber, metal, plastic or combinations of these materials with single or double glazing.
A wide range of arrangements are available with two or more sliding sashes which can have a
ventlight incorporated in the outer sliding sash.
Page14

Fig. 23: Typical Horizontally Sliding Sash Window – Elevation

WINDOWS KINYUA
Fig. 244: Typical Horizontally Sliding Sash Window - Vertical section

Fig. 255: Typical Horizontally Sliding Sash Window - Horizontal section

PIVOT WINDOWS
Like other windows these are available in timber, metal, plastic or in combinations of these materials.
They can be constructed with centre jamb pivots enabling the sash to pivot or rotate in the horizontal
plane or alternatively the pivots can be fixed in the head and sill of the frame so that the sash rotates
in the vertical plane.
These windows give good adjustment for ventilation purposes, and both faces of the glazing can be
cleaned from the inside of the building.
Page15

WINDOWS KINYUA
Fig. 26: Typical pivot window details
Page16

WINDOWS KINYUA
 GLAZING
Glazing: This is the act of securing glass in prepared openings such as doors, windows and partitions.

Glass: This material is produced by fusing together soda, lime and silica with other minor ingredients
such as magnesia and alumina.

CHOICE OF GLASS
The main factors to be considered are:
▪ Resistance to wind loadings
▪ Clear vision required
▪ Privacy
▪ Security
▪ Fire resistance
▪ Aesthetics
▪ Building usage
▪ Size of the opening. It is logical that, as the area of glass pane increases, so must the thickness.

GLAZING TERMINOLOGY

Fig. 27: Glazing terminologies

GLAZING - LOCATION
The Building Regulations effect suitable standards for the safe use and application of glass. Position
is very important, and critical locations are shown in Fig. 28. These are defined within 800 mm of the
finished floor level and 1500 mm if in a door or adjacent side panel.
Page17

WINDOWS KINYUA
Fig. 28: Zones of safe glazing – shown shaded

Glass in critical locations must be classified as safe, which means it satisfies one of the following:
▪ Breakage to leave only a small opening with small detachable particles without sharp edges.
▪ Disintegrating glass must leave only small detached pieces.
▪ Glass should be robust; designed is such a way as to be resistant to total failure despite partial
damage.
▪ Panes should be in small areas, isolated or in groups, separated by glazing bars: maximum pane
width is 250 mm, maximum pane area is 0.5 m2, nominal thickness minimum 6 mm.
▪ Annealed glass is also acceptable but with the following limitations:
Thickness of Max. glazed area.
annealed glass (mm) Height (m) Width(m)
8 1.100 1.100
10 2.250 2.250
12 3.000 4.500
15 no limit

▪ It is permanently protected by a screen, as shown in Fig. 29.

Page18

WINDOWS KINYUA
Fig. 29: Screen protection to glazing

GLAZING METHODS

▪ Glazing with Putty

This is a suitable method for general domestic window and door panes. The glass is bedded in a
compound, secured with clips, and fronted with a weathered surface putty. Putty is a glazing
compound that will require a protective coating of paint as soon as practicable after glazing. Two
kinds of putty are in general use:
 Linseed oil putty: For use with primed wood members; made from linseed oil and whiting.
 Metal putty: For use with metal or non-absorbent wood members; made from refined
vegetable drying oils and finely ground chalk.
Note: A general-purpose putty is available that will satisfy application for both wood and metal
glazing.

Steps
1. The glass pane should be cut to allow a minimum clearance of 2 mm all round for both wood
and metal frames.
2. Sufficient putty is applied to the rebate to give at least 2 mm of back putty.
3. Press the pane of glass into that bed of putty ensuring that it is evenly bedded in and that the
putty is squeezed up between the back of the rebate and the glass; any surplus putty being
stripped off level or at an angle above the rebate.
4. Secure the glass with sprig or clips at not more than 440 mm centres.
5. Apply more putty in front of the glass and finish off with a weathered putty fillet to an even
slope so that the top edge of the fillet is at or just below the sightline, pressing it in to give an
even, firm density.
6. Clean off the surplus putty.
Page19

WINDOWS KINYUA
Fig. 30: Glazing with putty – Wood frame

Fig. 31: Glazing with putty - Metal frame

▪ Glazing with Beads

For domestic work, glazing with beads is generally applied to good-class joinery. The beads should be
secured with either panel pins or screws; for hardwoods it is usual to use cups and screws. The glass
is bedded in a compound or a suitable glazing felt, mainly to prevent damage by vibration to the
glass.
Beads are usually mitred at the corners to give continuity of any moulding. Beads for metal windows
are usually supplied with the surround or frame.

Steps
1. The glass pane should be cut to allow a minimum clearance of 2 mm all round for both wood
and metal frames.
2. Sufficient compound is applied to the rebate to give at least 2 mm of back putty.
Page20

3. Press glass into the back putty and ensure it is evenly bedded.
WINDOWS KINYUA
 4. Spread a little compound against glass as a fore putty.
5. Press bead against the fore putty, squeezing it up the face of the glass but not trapping any
under the bead. Fix beads with glazing pins or wood screws.
6. Clean off surplus compound.

Fig. 32: Glazing with beads - Wood frame

Fig. 33: Glazing with beads - Metal frame

▪ Double Glazing
As its name implies this is where two layers of glass are used instead of the traditional single layer.
Page21

WINDOWS KINYUA
Uses
 To reduce the rate of heat loss through windows and glazed doors. Thermal insulation is
achieved by having a small air or argon gas filled space within the range of 3 to 20mm between
the two layers of glass.
 To prevent internal misting by condensation.
 To reduce the sound transmission through windows.
In the context of sound insulation three factors affect the performance of double glazing:
 good installation to ensure airtightness;
 the weight of glass used - the heavier the glass used the better the sound insulation;
 the size of air space between the layers of glass - the air space needs to be within the
range of 50 to 300mm.

Fig. 34: Double glazing - Wood frame

Fig. 35: Double glazing - Metal frame

Page22

WINDOWS KINYUA
 ▪ Low-Emissivity Glass
The use of low-emissivity or ‘Low E’ glass in double-glazed units can considerably enhance window
insulation. Units are manufactured with a standard pane of float glass to the outside and a
microscopic-metal-coated outer surface to the inner pane of glass.
The effect is to permit short-wave radiation such as sunlight to pass through the glazed unit, while
reflecting long-wave radiation such as internal heat from radiators and fires back into the room. Using
argon gas, which has lower thermal conductivity than air, between the panes will also reduce heat
losses.

Fig. 36: ‘Low E’ double glazing

WINDOW SCHEDULES
The main function of a schedule is to collect together all the necessary information for a particular
group of components such as windows, doors and drainage inspection chambers. There is no
standard format for schedules but they should be;
 easy to read;
 accurate;
 contain all the necessary information for their purpose.
Schedules are usually presented in a tabulated format which can be related to and read in
conjunction with the working drawings.
Typical Example
Page23

WINDOWS KINYUA
 Page24

WINDOWS KINYUA