Properties of Logarithms
1. loga MN = loga M + loga N
M
2. loga = loga M - loga N
N
3. loga Mn = n loga M
4. loga a = 1
5. loga ax = x loga a = x
6. loga 1 = 0
7. If loga M = N, then aN = M
8. If loga M = loga N , then M = N
9. loge M = ln M
e = 2.71828 ( ڮNaperian ) logarithm
10. logm 10 = log 10 (Common) logarithm
11. logn M = log M / log n = ln M / ln n
12. If logb x = a , then x = anti logb a
13. ax = anti loga x
14. log10 4250 = log10 ( 1000 × 4.25 )
= log 1000 + log 4.25
log10 4250 = 3 + 0.6284 = 3.6284
3, the integral part, is called the
characteristic.
0.6284, a non-negative decimal fraction
part, is called the mantissa.
Polynomials
Expanding Brackets
By multiplying the brackets together, each term in one
bracket is multiplied to each term of the other bracket.
( a + b + c )( d + e ) = ad + ae + bd + be + cd + ce
Factorization
Factorization is the opposite process of expanding
brackets. The usual process incudes a changing a long
expression without any brackets to a shorter
expression that includes brackets.
2x2 - 6x + 4 = 2 ൫ x2 + 3x + 2 ൯
= 2(x-2)( x -1)
Special Products and Factoring
1. ( x + y )( x - y ) = x2 - y2
2. ( x + y )2 = x2 + 2xy + y2
3. ( x - y )2 = x2 - 2xy + y2
4. ( x + y + z )2 = x2 + y2 + z2 + 2xy + 2xz + 2yz
5. x3 + y3 = ( x + y ) ൫ x2 - xy + y2 ൯
6. x3 - y3 = ( x - y ) ൫ x2 + xy + y2 ൯
3 3 2
7. x6 - y6 = ൫x2 ൯ - ൫y2 ൯ = ( x2 - y2 ) [ ൫x2 ൯ +
2
൫ x2 ) ( y2 ൯ + ൫ y2 ൯ ] = ( x + y ) ( x - y ) ( x4 +
x2 y2 + y4 )
Division of Polynomials
Carrying out the division of polynomials in so different,
in principle, to numerical division. Consider the
following example.
Example 1-1
Divide x4 - 10x2 - 9x - 20 by x – 4
Solution A: (By long division)
x3 + 4x2 + 6x + 15 remainder 40
x-4 x4 - 10x2 - 9x - 20 1. x4 ÷ x = x3
x4 - 4x3
4x3 - 10x2 2. 4x3 ÷ x = 4x2
4x3 - 16x2
6x2 - 9x 3. 6x2 ÷ x = 6x
6x2 - 24x
15x - 20 4. 15x ÷ x = 15
-15x - 60
Remainder ĺ
Solution B: (By Synthetic Division)
Write the coefficients of the terms, supplying zero as
the coefficient of the missing power of x.
1 0 -10 -9 -20 4
4 16 24 60
1 4 6 15 40
The quotient is x3 + 4x2 + 6x + 15 remainder 40.
Factor Theorem
Consider a function f(x). If f(1) = 0 then ( x - 1) is a
factor of f(x). If f(-3) = 0 then ( x + 3) is a factor of f(x).
Use of factor theorem can produce the factors of a
expression in a trial and error manner.
Example:
Factorize 2x3 + 5x2 - x - 6
Solution:
f(x) = 2x3 + 5x2 - x - 6
f(1) = 2(1)3 + 5(1)2 - (1) - 6 = 0,
hence (x-1) is a factor
f(-1) = 2(-1)3 + 5(-1)2 - (-1) - 6 = -2,
hence (x+1) is not a factor
f(2) = 2(2)3 + 5(2)2 - (2) - 6 = 28,
hence (x-2) is not a factor
f(-2) = 2(-2)3 + 5(-2)2 - (-2) - 6 = 0,
hence (x+2) is a factor
f(-3/2) = 2(-3/2)3 + 5(-3/2)2 - (-3/2) - 6 = 0,
hence (2x+3) is a factor
Thus, 2x3 + 5x2 - x - 6 = (x-1) (x+2) (2x+3)
Remainder Theorem
If a polynomial f (x) is divided by (x - r) until a
remainder which is free of x is obtained, the remainder
is f(r). If f(r) = 0, then (x - r) is a factor of f(x).
Example 1-2
Find the remainder when x4 - 10x2 - 9x - 20 is divided
by (x - 4).
Solution:
f(x) = x4 - 10x2 - 9x - 20
x-r = x-4,r = 4
Remainder = f(4) = (4)4 - 10(4)2 - 9(4) - 20 = 40
Example 1-3
Find k such that x-3 is a factor of kx3 - 6x2 + 2kx - 12.
Solution:
Remainder = f(3) =k(3)3 - 6(3)2 + 2k(3) - 12 = 0
k=2
Binomial Theorem, Expansion of (a+b)n
Properties:
1. The number of terms in the expansion n + 1.
2. The first term is an and the last term is bn ,
3. The exponent of a descends linearly from n
to 0,
4. The exponent from b ascends linearly from
0 to n,
5. The sum of the exponents of a and b in any
of the terms is equal to n,
6. The coefficient of the second term and
second from the last term is n,
Pascal’s Triangle
(Used to determine the coefficients of the terms in a
binomial expansion)
(a + b)0 1
(a + b)1 1 1
(a + b)2 1 2 1
(a + b)3 1 3 3 1
(a + b)4 1 4 6 4 1
(a + b)5 1 5 10 10 5 1
rth term of ( a + b )n
n!
rth term= an - r+1 br+1
( n - r + 1 ) ! ( r - 1) !
To get the middle term set
n
r = + 1
2
Example 1-4
5
Find the 3rd term in the expansion of ൫ x2 + y ൯ .
Solution 1:
(Using the properties and Pascal”s Triangle)
5 2 5 4 3
൫x + y൯ = ( x ) + 5 ൫ x2 ൯ y + 10 ൫ x2 ൯ y2
2
= x10 + 5x8 y + 10x6 y2
Solution 2: (Using the Formula)
n!
th
r term = an - r + 1 br - 1
(n-r+1)!(r-1)!
r = 3, a = x2, n = 5, b = y
rd 5! 5-3+1 3-1
3 term = (x2 ) y
(5-3+1)!(3-1)!
=10x6 y2
To expand completely a given binomial, one may use
the following procedure:
Example 1-5
Expand (x + y)8
Solution:
By principle, the first term is x8, the second term is
8x7y. The variable part of the third term is x6y2. To get
the coefficient:
(Coefficient of previous term)(exponent of x)
C=
(exponent of y)+1
(8) (7)
C3 = = 28
1+1
3rd term = 28 x6 y2
(28) (6) 6 2
4th term = x y = 56x3 y3
2+1
(56) (5) 4 4
5th term = x y = 70x3 y3
3+1
(x + y)8 = x8 + 8x7 y + 28x6 y2 + 56x5 y3 + 70x4 y4
+ 56x3 y5 + 28x2 y6 + 8xy7 + y8
Sum of Coefficient of Variables
To get the sum of the coefficients in the expansion of
(ax+by+ )ڮn , substitute 1 to each of the variables x,
y…
Example 1-6
Find the sum of the coefficient of the variables in the
expansion of (2x + 3y - z)8.
Solution:
Sum = [ (2)(1) + (3)(1) - 1 ]8 = 48 = 65536