Section A: Mechanics

1. Measurement and Units

o Physical quantities and their units
o Use of SI units and standard prefixes
o Scalar and vector quantities
2. Motion
o Distance, displacement, speed, velocity, and acceleration
o Graphs of motion
o Equations of uniformly accelerated motion
o Projectile motion
3. Forces
o Types of forces
o Newton's laws of motion
o Frictional forces
o Circular motion and centripetal force
4. Energy and Work
o Work done by a force
o Forms of energy and energy conversion
o Principle of conservation of energy
o Power and efficiency
5. Momentum
o Linear momentum and impulse
o Conservation of linear momentum
o Collisions
6. Statics
o Principle of moments
o Conditions for equilibrium
o Centre of gravity
7. Hydrostatics
o Pressure in fluids
o Archimedes' principle
o Principle of flotation
🧲 SECTION A: MECHANICS
Mechanics is the branch of physics that deals with the motion of objects and the forces that cause or
change that motion. It includes several key areas:

1. Measurement and Units

Subtopic Explanation

Physical Quantities These are properties that can be measured. They are either scalar
(magnitude only) or vector (magnitude and direction).
SI Units The International System of Units (SI) provides standard units for all
physical quantities. See table below.
Prefixes Used to express very large or small quantities conveniently.
Instruments for Common instruments include meter rules, vernier calipers, micrometer
Measurement screw gauges, and stopwatches.

Table 1: Common Physical Quantities and SI Units Table 2: SI Prefixes

Quantity SI Unit Symbol Type Prefix Symbol Factor Power of 10

Length metre m Scalar Giga G 1,000,000,000 10⁹

Mass kilogram kg Scalar Mega M 1,000,000 10⁶

Time second s Scalar Kilo k 1,000 10³

Temperature kelvin K Scalar centi c 0.01 10⁻²

Electric current ampere A Scalar milli m 0.001 10⁻³

Luminous intensity candela cd Scalar micro μ 0.000001 10⁻⁶

Amount of substance mole mol Scalar nano n 0.000000001 10⁻⁹

Displacement metre m Vector

Velocity m/s m/s Vector

Acceleration m/s² m/s² Vector

Force newton N Vector

2. Motion

Subtopic Explanation

Distance vs Distance is total path length (scalar); displacement is the straight-line

Displacement change in position (vector).

Speed vs Velocity Speed is scalar (distance/time); velocity is vector (displacement/time).

Acceleration Rate of change of velocity: 𝑎 = (v - u)/t

Graphs of Motion Position-time and velocity-time graphs help visualize motion.

Equations of Motion Apply to uniform (constant) acceleration.
Free Fall Vertical motion under gravity only (acceleration = 9.8 m/s²).

Projectile Motion Object projected at an angle follows a parabolic path due to horizontal
velocity and vertical acceleration.

Equations of Uniformly Accelerated Motion

Equation Meaning

v = u + at Final velocity

s = ut + ½at² Displacement
v² = u² + 2as Relation between v, u, a, s
Gradient = Velocity
s = ((u + v)/2) × t Average velocity × time

Where:

• u = initial velocity
• v = final velocity
• a = acceleration
• s = displacement
• t = time
Gradient = Acceleration Area under graph= Distance travelled

3. Forces

Subtopic Explanation

Definition of Force A push or pull acting on an object.

Types of Forces Contact (friction, tension, normal) and non-contact (gravitational,

magnetic).

Newton’s Laws of Fundamental principles governing how forces affect motion.

Motion
 Free-body Diagrams Visual representations of all forces acting on an object.
Friction Opposes motion between surfaces in contact.

Circular Motion Motion in a circle due to a centripetal force acting toward the center.

Direction changing

Velocity changing

It has an acceleration

It has a resultant force [Force = Centripetal Force]

Newton’s Three Laws of Motion

1. Law of Inertia: An object remains at rest or in uniform motion unless acted upon by an
external force.
2. F = ma: Force equals mass times acceleration.
3. Action–Reaction: For every action, there's an equal and opposite reaction.

4. Energy and Work

Subtopic Explanation

Work Done when a force moves an object through a distance: W = F × d

Kinetic Energy Energy due to motion: KE = ½mv²

Potential Energy Energy due to position: PE = mgh

Conservation of Energy Total energy in a closed system is constant.

Power Rate of doing work: P = W/t

Efficiency Ratio of useful energy output to input: η = (useful output/input) × 100%

5. Momentum

Subtopic Explanation

Momentum p = mv (vector quantity).

Impulse Force × time = change in momentum.

Conservation of Total momentum before = total momentum after (in the absence of
Momentum external forces).
Collisions Elastic: kinetic energy conserved; Inelastic: kinetic energy not
conserved, but momentum is.

6. Statics

Subtopic Explanation

Equilibrium Net force and net moment on a body is zero, ie

upward forces = downward forces
Moment (Torque) Turning effect of a force: Moment = Force × Perpendicular Distance from
pivot.
Principle of Sum of clockwise moments = sum of anticlockwise moments.
Moments
Centre of Gravity The point at which the whole weight of an object appears to act. Determined
(CoG) by suspension or symmetry. To increase stability you can :

• Lower the centre of gravity

• Wider the base

7. Hydrostatics

Subtopic Explanation

Pressure !"#$%
P= '#%'
[Pascals/Pa]
on solids
Pressure in P = ρgh (ρ = fluid density, g = gravity, h = depth).
Fluids
Buoyant Upthrust = weight of fluid displaced (Archimedes' Principle states that the upward
Force buoyant force that is exerted on a body immersed in a fluid, whether fully or partially
submerged, is equal to the weight of the fluid that the body displaces and acts in the
upward direction at the center of mass of the displaced fluid).

Upthrust = Weight of fluid it displaces

 = Mf g

= Pf Vs g

Flotation A body floats if its weight = upthrust. If object is less dense than fluid, it floats.
A) float: u = w

B) sink: w > u

C) rise: u > w
Section B: Thermal Physics and Kinetic Theory

1. Thermal Expansion
o Expansion of solids, liquids, and gases
o Applications and consequences of thermal expansion
2. Temperature and Thermometers
o Temperature scales (Celsius and Kelvin)
o Thermometric properties and types of thermometers
3. Heat Transfer
o Conduction, convection, and radiation
o Applications of heat transfer methods
4. Quantity of Heat
o Specific heat capacity
o Specific latent heat
o Calculations involving heat energy
5. Kinetic Theory of Matter
o States of matter and molecular structure
o Brownian motion
o Gas laws and absolute zero
🌡 SECTION B: THERMAL PHYSICS AND KINETIC
THEORY

1. Thermal Expansion

Subtopic Explanation

Expansion of Solids, When substances are heated, their particles move more vigorously,
Liquids, and Gases leading to an increase in volume. Gases expand most, followed by
liquids, and then solids.

Linear, Area, and Solids expand in one, two, or three dimensions. Gases and liquids
Volume Expansion typically show volume expansion.
Applications and Expansion is useful in devices like bimetallic strips and problematic in
Consequences bridges and pipelines without expansion joints.

Key Points:

• Solids expand slightly and uniformly.

• Liquids expand more than solids.
• Gases expand significantly when heated at constant pressure.

2. Temperature and Thermometers

Subtopic Explanation

Temperature A measure of the average kinetic energy of particles in a substance.

Scales of Celsius (°C), Kelvin (K), Fahrenheit (°F). C and K are most used in
Temperature physics.

Thermometric Physical properties that vary with temperature (e.g., length of a mercury
Properties column, resistance of a wire).

Types of Liquid-in-glass (mercury/alcohol), thermocouple, resistance thermometer,

Thermometers infrared thermometer.
Fixed points Upper fixed points- The upper fixed point, or steam point, is the temperature of
pure boiling water at normal atmospheric pressure. [1000C]

Lower fixed points- The lower fixed point, or ice point, is the temperature of pure
melting ice at normal atmospheric pressure. [00C]
Table: Celsius vs Kelvin

Celsius (°C) Kelvin (K)

0°C 273 K

100°C 373 K

-273°C 0K

Conversion:
K = °C + 273

3. Heat Transfer

Subtopic Explanation

Conduction Transfer of heat through solids from molecule to molecule without bulk movement.
Convection Transfer of heat in fluids (liquids/gases) through movement of warmer regions.

Radiation Transfer of heat as electromagnetic waves (infrared), no medium required.

Applications Cooking, home insulation, cooling devices, engines, and solar panels.

Table: Comparison of Heat Transfer Methods

Property Conduction Convection Radiation

Medium Solids Liquids & gases Vacuum, gases, solids

Particle motion Vibration Bulk movement None (EM waves)

Speed Slow Moderate Fast

Examples Metal rod heating Water boiling Sun heating Earth

4. Quantity of Heat

Subtopic Explanation

Heat Capacity (C) Quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of a body
by 1°C or 1 K. [ C = mc ]

Specific Heat Capacity (c) Heat required to raise 1 kg of a substance by 1°C (unit:
J/kg·K).

Latent Heat Heat absorbed/released during a change of state with no

temperature change.
 Specific Latent Heat of Fusion and Fusion (solid to liquid), vaporization (liquid to gas).
Vaporization

Calculations Use Q = mcΔT and Q = mL for heating/cooling and state

changes respectively.

Key Formulas:

• Heat energy: Q = mcΔ𝜽 used during temperature changes

• Latent heat: Q = mL used during phase changes

Where:

• Q = heat energy
• m = mass
• c = specific heat capacity
• Δ𝜃 = change in temperature
• L = specific latent heat

5. Kinetic Theory of Matter

Subtopic Explanation

States of Matter Solid, liquid, and gas — each with different particle arrangements and
energy levels.

Brownian Motion Random movement of particles suspended in a fluid, evidence of

molecular motion.

Assumptions of the Gases consist of small particles in constant, random motion. Collisions
Kinetic Theory are elastic. No forces between particles. Volume of particles is negligible
compared to container.
Gas Laws Relationships between pressure, volume, and temperature of a fixed mass
of gas.

6. Gas Laws

Subtopic Explanation

Boyle’s Law At constant temperature, pressure × volume = constant: P ∝ 1/V or

P1 V1 = P2 V2
Charles’ Law At constant pressure, volume ∝ temperature (K): V ∝ T or
𝑉( 𝑉)
=
𝑇( 𝑇)
Pressure Law (Gay- At constant volume, pressure ∝ temperature (K): P ∝ T or
Lussac)
𝑃( 𝑃)
=
𝑇( 𝑇)

Combined Gas Law PV/T = constant — combines all three laws.

𝑃( 𝑉( 𝑃) 𝑉)
=
𝑇( 𝑇)

Absolute Zero The lowest possible temperature (0 K or -273°C), where particles have
minimal kinetic energy.
ALL TEMPERATURES MUST BE IN KELVIN [K]
Section C: Waves and Optics

1. General Wave Properties

o Transverse and longitudinal waves
o Wave parameters: amplitude, wavelength, frequency, period, and velocity
o Wave behavior: reflection, refraction, diffraction, and interference
2. Sound
o Production and transmission of sound waves
o Characteristics of sound: pitch, loudness, and quality
o Doppler effect
3. Light
o Reflection at plane and curved surfaces
o Refraction and refractive index
o Total internal reflection and critical angle
o Lenses: types, image formation, and applications
4. Electromagnetic Spectrum
o Components of the electromagnetic spectrum
o Properties and uses of different regions of the spectrum
🌊 SECTION C: WAVES AND OPTICS

1. General Wave Properties

Subtopic Explanation

Definition of a A disturbance that transfers energy from one point to another without
Wave the transfer of matter.
Types of Waves Transverse: particles move perpendicular to wave direction (e.g. light).
Longitudinal: particles move parallel to wave direction (e.g. sound).

Wave Terms Wavelength (λ), frequency (f), period (T), amplitude (A), wave speed (v).
Wave Equation v = fλ

Wave Behavior Reflection, refraction, diffraction, interference.

Table: Wave Quantities

Quantity Symbol Unit Definition

Wavelength λ metre (m) Distance between two consecutive crests or troughs

Frequency f hertz (Hz) Number of waves per second

Period T second (s) Time for one complete wave (T = 1/f)
Amplitude A metre (m) Maximum displacement of a particle from rest

Wave Speed v m/s Speed = frequency × wavelength (v = fλ)

2. Sound
Subtopic Explanation

Nature of Sound Longitudinal mechanical wave; requires a medium (solid, liquid, gas).

Production of Caused by vibrating sources (e.g., vocal cords, tuning fork).

Sound

Transmission Travels fastest in solids, slower in liquids, slowest in gases. Cannot travel
in a vacuum.

Characteristics Pitch (frequency), Loudness (amplitude), Quality (waveform).

Speed of Sound Approx. 340 m/s in air at room temperature.
Doppler Effect Apparent change in frequency due to relative motion of source and
observer.

Reflection of Echoes occur when sound reflects from a surface. Echoes require at
Sound least 0.1 s delay (≈17 m round trip).
3. Light
Subtopic Explanation

Nature of Light Transverse electromagnetic wave; can travel in a vacuum at

speed of 3.0 × 10⁸ m/s.
Reflection Follows the law: Angle of incidence = angle of reflection.

Refraction Bending of light when it moves between media of different

densities.

Refractive Index (n) Ratio of speed of light in vacuum to speed in medium: n = c/v or
n = sin(i)/sin(r)

Critical Angle & Total Occurs when light moves from denser to rarer medium. If angle
Internal Reflection (TIR) of incidence > critical angle, light is totally reflected.

Lenses Converging (convex) and diverging (concave). Used to form real

or virtual images.

Image Formation by Depends on object distance. Ray diagrams help determine

Lenses nature of image (real/virtual, inverted/upright,
magnified/reduced).

Table: Image Characteristics for Convex Lens

Object Position Image Nature

Beyond 2F Real, inverted, reduced

At 2F Real, inverted, same size

Between F and 2F Real, inverted, magnified

At F No image (rays parallel)

Between lens and F Virtual, upright, magnified

4. Electromagnetic Spectrum
Subtopic Explanation

Definition A family of waves that travel at the speed of light in vacuum and do
not need a medium.

Order of Spectrum Radio → Microwaves → Infrared → Visible Light → Ultraviolet →

X-rays → Gamma rays.

Wavelength & As wavelength ↓, frequency and energy ↑.

Frequency
Uses and Dangers Each region of the spectrum has important applications and potential
risks.

Table: Electromagnetic Spectrum

Type Wavelength Use Risk
Range

Radio waves >1 m Broadcasting, None known

communication

Microwaves 1 mm – 1 m Cooking, mobile phones Internal heating of body

tissue

Infrared 700 nm – 1 mm Remote controls, heaters Burns

Visible 400–700 nm Vision, photography Bright light can damage
Light eyes

Ultraviolet 10–400 nm Sterilization, tanning Skin cancer, eye damage

X-rays 0.01–10 nm Medical imaging Can cause cell damage

Gamma <0.01 nm Cancer treatment, High cell damage,

rays sterilization mutations

5. Reflection and Refraction (Reinforced)

Law or Concept Explanation

Law of Reflection i = r (angle of incidence = angle of reflection)

Snell’s Law n = sin(i)/sin(r) or n₁sin(i) = n₂sin(r)

Critical Angle (c) sin(c) = n₂/n₁ (only if n₁ > n₂)

Total Internal Reflection Occurs if angle of incidence > critical angle; used in fiber optics.

Waves
Waves carry energy from one place to another.
 1. Transverse: vibrate perpendicular to direction of motion. E.g. light waves
2. Longitudinal: vibrate parallel to direction of motion. E.g. soundwaves

a- amplitude

T- period
!
F- frequency: T = " (𝐻# )

λ- wavelength

v= f λ – speed

Reflection

Laws:
Ø i=r
Ø normal, incident at reflected ray lie on the same plane
Refraction

Ɵi > Ɵr (ray slows down)

Snell’s Law: Refractive Index,

$%& ' ) *
n = $%& ( = )! = *!
" "

NB: Frequency is constant

Critical Angle
 !
c= sin-1 (+)

Total Internal Reflection

Ø i>c
Ø ray must be in denser medium

Example: Triangular Glass Prism

Diffraction- is the spreading of a wave as is passing through an opening that is comparable to its
wavelength.

Interference-when lights falls on two narrow slits very close together.

Young’s Double Slit

WAVELENGTH INCREASES

1. speed of light, c= 3 * 108 ms-1

2. through a vacuum
3. all transverse waves

A wave of compression and rarefaction, by which sound is propagated in an elastic medium such as air.
Convex lens- is the thickest in the center and is also called a converging lens

Concave or diverging lens is the thinnest in the center and spreads light out.

Image

Ø Real or Virtual
Ø Max, Min, Same
Ø Upright or Inverted
Ø Position

𝒊𝒎𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒉𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕
Magnification = 𝒐𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕 𝒉𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕

( ( (
!
=5+6
Section D: Electricity and Magnetism

1. Electrostatics
o Charge, conductors, and insulators
o Laws of electrostatics
o Electric field and potential
2. Current Electricity
o Electric current, potential difference, and resistance
o Ohm's law
o Series and parallel circuits
o Electrical energy and power
3. Magnetism
o Magnetic materials and properties
o Magnetic fields and field lines
o Earth's magnetic field
4. Electromagnetism
o Magnetic effect of a current
o Force on a current-carrying conductor
o Electromagnetic induction
o Transformers and their applications
5. Electronics
o Diodes and rectification
o Transistors and simple circuits
o Logic gates and truth tables
⚡ SECTION D: ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM

1. Electrostatics
Subtopic Explanation

Electric Charge There are two types: positive (+) and negative (−). Like
charges repel, unlike charges attract.

Conductors and Insulators Conductors (e.g., metals) allow electrons to flow freely.
Insulators (e.g., plastic) do not.
Charging by Friction, Friction: rubbing objects transfers electrons.
Conduction, Induction Conduction: direct contact transfers charge.
Induction: charging without contact using electric fields.

Electric Fields A region around a charge where another charge

experiences a force. Represented by field lines.

Field Lines Point away from +ve charges and toward -ve charges. Never
cross. Closer lines = stronger field.

2. Current Electricity
Subtopic Explanation

Electric Current (I) Flow of charge per unit time: I = Q/t, measured in amperes (A).

Potential Difference (V) Energy per unit charge: V = W/Q, measured in volts (V).
Resistance (R) Opposition to current flow: R = V/I, measured in ohms (Ω).

Ohm’s Law V ∝ I when temperature is constant: V = IR.

Resistors in Series and Series: Rₜ = R₁ + R₂ + ...
Parallel Parallel: 1/Rₜ = 1/R₁ + 1/R₂ + ...

Voltage and Current in Series: same current, voltages add.

Circuits Parallel: same voltage, currents add.

Energy and Power Power: P = IV, Energy: E = IVt (Joules).

Electrical Safety Fuses, circuit breakers, earthing, double insulation protect
users and devices.

A form of energy resulting from the existence of charged particles (such as electrons or protons), either
statically as an accumulation of charge or dynamically as a current.

Charges
Unlike charges attract Like charges repel

Q= It (C)

A stationary electric charge, typically produced by friction, which causes sparks or crackling or the attraction of
dust or hair.

Static Charge
Ø Friction
Ø Conduction

Current, I
,
I = - (A)

Ø Charge flowing per unit time

Symbols
Supply
AC

DC

Series and Parallel Circuits

I- V Characteristics

The above is circuit is used to determine the I-V characteristics of an electrical

component.

Filament Lamp

Metallic Conductor
 M = Resistor
.
Ohm’s Law = R =
/

V = IR

Other formulae:

W = QV

W = VIT

P= IV
."
P=
0

P = I2R (Power Loss)

Series Parallel

I Same Splits up

V Splits up Same

! ! ! !
R RT =R1 + R2 + R3 =0 +0 +0
0# ! " $

Bills
1 unit => 1 KWh

E => P * T
3. Magnetism
Subtopic Explanation

Magnetic Materials Attracted to magnets: iron, steel, cobalt, nickel.

Magnetic Fields The region where magnetic forces act. Represented by field
lines from N → S pole.
Earth’s Magnetic Field Behaves like a giant bar magnet tilted from its geographic axis.
A compass aligns with this field.

Magnetization and Magnetization: stroking with a magnet, electric current.

Demagnetization Demagnetization: heating, hammering, or alternating current.

Permanent vs Temporary Permanent: retains magnetism (e.g., steel).

Magnets Temporary: easily magnetized/demagnetized (e.g., soft iron).

4. Electromagnetism
Subtopic Explanation

Magnetic Effect of a A current-carrying wire produces a magnetic field (right-hand

Current rule). Stronger when coiled (solenoid).

Electromagnets A soft iron core inside a solenoid increases magnetic strength.

Used in bells, relays, MRI.

Force on a Conductor A current in a magnetic field experiences a force: F = BIL sinθ

(Motor Effect) (Fleming's left-hand rule).
DC Motor Converts electrical energy to mechanical energy. Based on
interaction between current and magnetic field.
Electromagnetic A voltage (EMF) is induced when a conductor moves through a
Induction magnetic field.

Faraday’s Law Induced EMF is proportional to the rate of change of magnetic

flux.

Lenz’s Law Induced current opposes the change that caused it.

AC Generator Converts mechanical energy to electrical energy. Induces current

by rotating a coil in a magnetic field.

Transformers Change voltage using electromagnetic induction. Step-up

(↑voltage) and step-down (↓voltage) types. Only work with AC.

Transformer Formula:
V₁/V₂ = N₁/N₂
Where:
• V = voltage
• N = number of turns
• Subscripts 1 = primary, 2 = secondary
Around a magnet there is a magnet field that moves from the north to the south pole. A magnetic field is
defined as region around a magnetic field where a magnetic force is experienced.

Magnetic flux is the magnetic field lines per unit area.

Like poles repel, unlike poles attract

Magnetic field lines around current carrying conductor

Flemings righthand screw rule.

Flat Circular Coil

Solenoid
Fleming’s Left Hand Rule (motor rule)

Currents Carrying Conductor In A Magnetic Field

Motor
Generator

Transformer

Np > Ns step down transformer

Ns > Np step up transformer

+% )% /&
= =
+& )& /%

Faraday Law states that the rate at which the magnetic field lines cuts the solenoid/ conductor the greater is
the e.m.f induced

Lenz’ Law is the direction of the induced current always opposes motion.
5. Electronics
Subtopic Explanation

Diodes Allow current to flow in one direction only. Used in rectifiers (convert
AC to DC).

Rectification Using diodes to convert alternating current (AC) into direct current
(DC).
Transistors Amplify or switch electronic signals. Two main types: NPN and PNP.
Logic Gates Basic digital components that follow Boolean logic.

Types of Logic AND, OR, NOT — combine digital signals to produce specific outputs.
Gates

Truth Tables for Basic Gates

A B AND OR

0 0 0 0

0 1 0 1
1 0 0 1

1 1 1 1
NOT Gate:
A NOT A

0 1
1 0

Diode
Half- Wave Rectification

Logic Gates
Section E: The Physics of the Atom

1. Structure of the Atom

o Subatomic particles: protons, neutrons, and electrons
o Nuclear structure and notation
2. Radioactivity
o Types of radiation: alpha, beta, and gamma
o Properties and detection of radiation
o Half-life and radioactive decay calculations
o Applications and hazards of radioactivity
3. Nuclear Energy
o Mass-energy equivalence
o Nuclear fission and fusion
o Applications
🧬 SECTION E: THE PHYSICS OF THE ATOM

1. Structure of the Atom

Subtopic Explanation

Atoms and Atoms are composed of protons (+), neutrons (0), and electrons (−).
Subatomic Particles Protons and neutrons are in the nucleus; electrons orbit the nucleus.

Atomic Number (Z) Number of protons in the nucleus. Determines the identity of the
element.

Mass Number (A) Total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus: A = Z + N

Isotopes Atoms of the same element with the same number of protons but
different numbers of neutrons.

Nuclear Notation Represented as:

ZAX{}^{A}_{Z}\text{X}ZAX

Where X = element symbol, A = mass number, Z = atomic number. |

Table: Subatomic Particles
Particle Symbol Charge Mass (kg) Location

Proton p⁺ +1 1.67 × 10⁻²⁷ Nucleus

Neutron n⁰ 0 1.67 × 10⁻²⁷ Nucleus

Electron e⁻ −1 9.11 × 10⁻³¹ Electron shells

2. Radioactivity
Subtopic Explanation

Radioactive Decay Spontaneous breakdown of unstable nuclei, emitting radiation.

Types of Radiation Alpha (α): Helium nucleus (⁴₂He).

Beta (β): High-speed electron (⁰₋₁e).
Gamma (γ): Electromagnetic radiation.

Properties of Radiation Differ in mass, charge, penetrating power, and ionising ability.

Detection of Radiation Geiger-Müller tube, photographic film, cloud chamber.

Decay Equations Show changes in atomic and mass numbers. For example:

Comparison of Alpha, Beta, and Gamma Radiation

Type of Symbol Charge Mass Penetrating Ionising Stopped By
Radiation Power Ability
 Alpha (α) ⁴₂He +2 4u Low High Paper, skin, few cm
of air

Beta (β⁻) ⁰₋₁e −1 ~0 Medium Medium Aluminium sheet

(few mm)

Gamma (γ) γ 0 0 Very high Low Thick lead, concrete

1
Half-Life Formula: N = N0 [ ]
2𝑛

Where:
• N = number of undecayed nuclei remaining
• N₀ = original number of nuclei
• n = number of half-lives elapsed

3. Nuclear Energy
Subtopic Explanation

Mass-Energy Einstein’s equation E = mc² shows mass can be converted to energy.

Equivalence

Nuclear Fission Splitting of a heavy nucleus (e.g., uranium-235) into smaller nuclei,
releasing energy and more neutrons. Basis of nuclear reactors.

Nuclear Fusion Joining of light nuclei (e.g., hydrogen) to form heavier ones (e.g., helium),
releasing more energy than fission. Powers the sun.

Comparison: Fission Fission: controllable, used in power plants, produces waste.

vs Fusion Fusion: cleaner, more energy, requires extreme conditions.

Applications of Power generation, medical treatments (e.g., cancer radiotherapy),

Nuclear Energy sterilisation of equipment, space probes.

Dangers Radiation exposure, waste disposal, accidents (e.g., Chernobyl,

Fukushima), potential weaponization.

The emission of ionizing radiation or particles caused by the spontaneous disintegration of atomic nuclei.
Gold oil Experiment – Geiger and Marsden

Conclusion

Ø Empty space
Ø Small positive core
Ø Small dense core

#
"𝑋
A – mass/ number of nucleon

Z- atomic/ umber of protons

Types of radiation:

1. Alpha- 𝛼 : 21𝐻𝑒 13

2. Beta- 𝛽 : 4!5 𝑒 -1

3. 𝐺𝑎𝑚𝑚𝑎 − 𝑟𝑎𝑦 𝛾 : energy

Stopped by Range in Air

𝛼 Paper cm

𝛽 Al m

𝛾 Ld Km

Half – Life
The time taken for half of a present element to decay.
 !
Fraction Left: 1'

n – number of half lives

Einstein energy mass-relationship

E = ∆mc2

∆m = 𝑚( - 𝑚6

C = 3 * 108 ms-1 (speed of light)

Nuclear Fission
A nuclear reaction in which a heavy nucleus splits spontaneously or on impact with another particle, with the
release of energy.

Nuclear Fusion
A nuclear reaction in which a heavy nucleus splits spontaneously or on impact with another particle, with the
release of energy.
Radioisotopes Uses
Ø Carbon Dating
Ø Treating Cancer
Ø tracer