Chapter 3

Useful Sentence Structures and

Language for
Academic Writing
a) Passive Construction
b) Hedging Language
c) Noun Phrases and Clauses
d) Adjective Phrases and Clauses

(Activity Sheets)

© English Language Education Section

Curriculum Development Institute
Education Bureau
HKSAR, 2022
All rights reserved
 3. Useful Sentence Structures and Language for Academic Writing 1

Useful Sentence Structures and Language for Academic Writing

As discussed in Chapter 1, academic texts are characterised by four distinct features and the language
used is usually formal, objective, precise and technical. To achieve these and to present information
and ideas in an effective manner, the following language items are often used in academic writing:

a) passive construction
b) hedging language
c) noun phrases and clauses
d) adjective phrases and clauses
 3. Useful Sentence Structures and Language for Academic Writing 2

3a: Passive Construction

The passive voice is commonly used in academic texts for the following purposes:

 To focus on the key subject matter by putting it first or to emphasise the

process/act/outcome over the doer

e.g. The electric current is created by electrons or charges moving through a path called an
electric circuit. An electric circuit can be formed by attaching conductors to the positive and
negative sides of a power source (e.g. a battery cell).

(* “The electric current” and “an electric circuit” are the key terms and concepts to be defined
and described here.)

 To avoid mentioning an unknown/unclear doer or avoid attributing the action to a

particular doer

e.g. The electric current is classified into two types, i.e. alternating current and direct current.
It is measured in ampere.

 To present information, ideas or views in a more objective tone

e.g. In an experiment (which was) conducted in the Physics lesson on 3 Oct 2021, it was
observed that the length and thickness of a wire would affect the current flow in an electric
circuit.

(c/f: In an experiment I conducted in the Physics lesson on 3 Oct 2021, I observed that the
length and thickness of a wire would affect the current flow in an electric circuit.)

The passive voice is formed by a verb “to be” (in different tense forms) + past participle.

e.g. The electric current is measured in ampere.

 3. Useful Sentence Structures and Language for Academic Writing 3

Practice

Activity 1

Underline all the passive forms in the text below:

Body mass index (BMI) is used commonly as a first indicator to identify overweight and obese

individuals. In the metric system, BMI is calculated by dividing the body weight in kilograms by the

square of height in metres, i.e. kg/m2. An Asian adult with BMI between 23.0 and 24.9 is classified

as overweight, while an Asian adult with BMI above 25.0 is considered obese.

Activity 2

The following sentences are taken from an article on obesity. Identify the main purpose the passive
voice serves in each sentence. Put the correct letters (A/B/C) in the spaces provided.
A. To focus on the key subject matter by putting it first or to emphasise the process/act/outcome
over the doer
B. To avoid mentioning an unknown/unclear doer or avoid attributing the action to a particular
doer
C. To present information, ideas or views in a more objective tone

Purposes Sentences from the Text

(i) Obesity is a health problem that is growing rapidly in many parts of the
world. It was officially defined by World Health Organisation as “a disease
in which excess body fat has accumulated to such an extent that one’s health
may be at risk” in 2000.
(ii) Obesity is associated with the leading causes of death, which include
strokes, diabetes and cardiovascular diseases.
(iii) Obese people are also found to be at a higher risk of suffering from some
cancers, for example, breast, bowel and pancreatic cancers.
(iv) In an affluent city like Hong Kong, the main causes of obesity are believed
to be the popularity of western fast food and a lack of physical exercise.
(v) To tackle the problem of obesity, education campaigns must be launched to
raise people’s health consciousness. Cross-sectoral action is also required to
promote healthy eating and physical activity.
 3. Useful Sentence Structures and Language for Academic Writing 4

3b: Hedging Language

Hedging language is often used to soften the tone and avoid making sweeping statements, over-
generalisations and unsupported claims. Using hedging language allows us to be cautious and more
accurate when explaining results or making a point.

There are several ways to hedge:

Examples Sample Sentences

(i) Using adjectives to possible, probable, prone to,  What are the possible reasons for
indicate possibility (un)likely young people to smoke?
and tendency
 Teenagers are prone to smoke with
companions.

(ii) Using modal verbs can, could, may, might  A more radical measure the
to show uncertainty government might want to adopt is to
introduce a licensing system for sales
of tobacco and limit it to a few
licensed retail locations.

 Schools could launch an anti-smoking

campaign.

(iii) Using adverbs to often, perhaps, possibly,  Noticeable drops were observed in
show frequency, probably, apparently, 2007 and 2011, probably due to the
approximation and presumably, approximately, comprehensive smoke-free legislation
probability nearly in 2007 and the 50% increase in
tobacco tax in 2009.

(iv) Using “cautious” assume, believe, suggest,  Smoking is considered a source of

verbs and/or the seem, appear, say, consider, comfort for some people.
passive voice to think, tend to
make statements  It is believed that curiosity is also a
less direct reason for teenage smoking.

 Men tend to have a higher dependence

on tobacco than women.
 3. Useful Sentence Structures and Language for Academic Writing 5

Practice
Activity 3

Compare the two texts below. Choose the one with a softer tone.

Text 1
There are different reasons for teenagers to take up smoking. Some teenagers see
smoking as a way of rebelling and showing independence. The developmental
changes in adolescents fuel their urge to imitate adult behaviour, one of which is to 
make their own decisions. Coupled with the urge to rebel against authority,
adolescents will start smoking. Boredom also causes teenagers to smoke. Although
teenagers know the harm caused by smoking, they continue to smoke simply because
they have become addicted to nicotine.

Text 2
Surveys conducted by some non-government organisations suggest that there are
different possible reasons for teenagers to take up smoking. Some teenagers may see
smoking as a way of rebelling and showing independence. The developmental 
changes in adolescents are very likely to fuel their urge to imitate adult behaviour,
one of which is to make their own decisions. Coupled with the urge to rebel against
authority, adolescents are prone to smoke. Boredom is likely to be another reason for
youth smoking. It is believed that although most of the teenagers interviewed know
the harm caused by smoking, they may continue to smoke because of possible nicotine
addiction.
 3. Useful Sentence Structures and Language for Academic Writing 6

Activity 4

Rewrite the following sentences with the use of hedging language.

1) Peer influence is the most common reason for teenage smoking.

(Using a “cautious” verb)

_____________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________

2) The significant drop in the number of teenage smokers is due to the recent anti-smoking campaign.
(Using an adverb showing possibility)

_____________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________

3) Teens with emotional problems always have nicotine addiction.

(Using adjectives indicating possibility and tendency)

_____________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________

4) Nicotine is as addictive as other drugs, including cocaine and morphine.

(Using the passive voice)

_____________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________
 3. Useful Sentence Structures and Language for Academic Writing 7

3c: Noun Phrases and Clauses

 Noun phrases

A noun phrase acts as a noun and can be the subject or object of a sentence. It is formed by a
group of words consisting of a noun/pronoun and words that add meanings to it. The words that
help add meanings to a noun/pronoun are called “modifiers” and they can be placed before or
after the noun/pronoun.

Modifiers Examples of Noun Phrases

determiners the/these/my opinions

quantifiers a lot of/some of them

adjectives novel/inspiring ideas

prepositional phrase the equipment with a new design

present participle those (the people) supervising the production

past participle the products exported

 Noun clauses

A noun clause is a group of words acting together as a noun to add more details to a sentence.
Unlike noun phrases, noun clauses contain both a subject and a verb, while a noun phrase does
not have any verbs.

Noun clauses are dependent clauses. They cannot stand alone as full sentences. They can be
the subject or object of a sentence.

“That-clauses” are also examples of noun clauses. They can be the subject or object of a sentence.

Examples:

A. Noun clauses as subject:

 How often people shop will affect the sales strategies.
 (The idea) that humans and chimpanzees share the common ancestor is widely
accepted.

B. Noun clauses as object:

 It is important to understand what customers want.
 Astronomers believe that there are billions of galaxies.
 3. Useful Sentence Structures and Language for Academic Writing 8

Practice
Activity 5
Decide whether the underlined parts are noun phrases (NP) or noun clauses (NC). Put NP or NC
in the spaces provided.

NP or NC

e.g. A short circuit can overheat cables and cause a fire. e.g. NP

1. Nylon was one of the earliest synthetic fibres.

2. The main concern is how the government can prevent a further increase in crime.

3. The chart shows what students usually buy online.

4. Mendel’s work on genetics provided new perspectives for agronomists.

5. The survey identified three categories of voluntary workers.

 3. Useful Sentence Structures and Language for Academic Writing 9

 Using noun phrases/clauses

(i) Nominalisation
Academic writing is characterised by the use of noun phrases/clauses. Turning verbs and adjectives
into nouns helps create a more formal style and make the sentences more compact. For example,

As transportation network has improved, The improvement in transportation network

time to travel to other places has shortened. results in the shortening of travel time.

As shown above, changing a verb or other word forms into a noun is called “nominalisation”.

Practice
Activity 6
Change the underlined parts into nouns.
e.g. Money supply increases and shifts the money supply curve to the right.
An increase in money supply shifts the money supply curve to the right.

1. As technology advances, crops grow faster than they used to be.

Advanced technology accelerates the _________________ of crops.

2. By providing the right amount of support and challenge, young children can learn to be
independent.
Young children’s _________________ can be nurtured by _________________ of proper
support and challenge.

3. The assessment was difficult. Many students did not perform well.
The _________________ of the assessment resulted in poor student _________________.

4. The government decided to increase the VAT (value-added tax) to 15% and this concerned
the general public.
The government’s _________________ to increase the VAT to 15% caused
_________________ to the general public.

5. We analysed the data and they showed that peer pressure could influence drug addiction.
The _________________ of the data showed the _________________ of peer pressure on
drug addiction.

6. More and more people use the Internet. As a result, people’s shopping habits have changed.
Widespread _________________ of the Internet has led to a major _________________ in
people’s shopping habits.
 3. Useful Sentence Structures and Language for Academic Writing 10

(ii) Using noun phrases/clauses after cohesive devices

Noun phrases are used after some cohesive devices. Compare the following two sentences:

A. The metabolism of
because new genes (subject) are inserted (verb). clause
organisms is affected

B. The metabolism of noun

because of the insertion of new genes.
organisms is affected phrase

Some cohesive devices are followed by a clause, which is a group of words that has a subject and a
verb (e.g. because – see Sentence A), while some are followed by a noun phrase (e.g. because of –
see Sentence B).

The table below shows some cohesive devices of different functions:

Functions Followed by a Clause Followed by a Noun Phrase

Stating cause and because because of
effect relationships as due to
since as a result of
due to the fact that as a consequence of
so
therefore See examples below for verbs stating cause and
as a result effect relationships:
consequently cause … effect effect … cause
e.g. e.g.
bring about result from
lead to stem from
result in (be) attributed to

Examples:
- It is believed that excessive pressure at
work (cause) could bring about mental
illnesses (effect).
- The failure of the project (effect)
stemmed from inadequate resources
(cause).

Making although despite

concession though in spite of
even though
Showing so that with the aim of
purpose/intention with a view to
 3. Useful Sentence Structures and Language for Academic Writing 11

Practice
Activity 7

Choose the correct answer for each of the sentences below.

1. A lot of consumers still prefer shopping online despite …

 it can be very dangerous.
 the security risks.

2. The genetically modified (GM) salmon can produce growth hormone all year round.
Therefore, …
 they can reach maturity in a shorter time.
 early maturity in a shorter time.

3. Improvement in health results from …

 regular exercise and a balanced diet.
 people exercise regularly and eat a balanced diet.

4. During the Great Depression, consumer spending and investment dropped tremendously. As a
result, …
 countless workers were laid off.
 large-scale unemployment.

5. New measures have been proposed with a view to …

 increasing the company’s profits.
 the company could make more profits.

6. The unpopularity of electric vehicles in Hong Kong is mainly due to …

 there are inadequate charging spots and facilities.
 a lack of charging spots and facilities.

7. The success of David Beckham can be attributed to …

 his perseverance and passion for soccer.
 he is always persevering to the end and he really loves soccer.
 3. Useful Sentence Structures and Language for Academic Writing 12

3d: Adjective Phrases and Clauses

Sentences in academic texts tend to be dense. They contain lots of grammatically complex sentences
which are composed of phrases and clauses of different purposes. Some common examples are
adjective phrases and clauses, which are used to provide additional information and descriptions to
nouns.

 Adjective phrases
An adjective phrase is a group of words that describes a noun or pronoun. It provides further
details and specifies the features/characteristics of an object, a person or a place. An adjective
phrase is usually placed before or after the noun or pronoun in a sentence. There are different
kinds of phrases that can act as adjectives. Below are some examples:

a. Prepositional phrases Growing tomatoes with a longer shelf life can reduce fruit
loss.
b. Present participle Nowadays, those (employees) working from home can still
phrases (-ing phrase) communicate with colleagues using information and
communication technology.
c. Past participle phrases Most of the squatter settlements built in the 1940s were
destroyed during World War II.

Practice
Activity 8
Read the following sentences and decide which type of adjective phrase is used for the underlined
parts.
e.g. Compulsory education is adopted in many places of the world and in general, children between
6 and 15 years old have to attend school.

 A prepositional phrase
 A present participle phrase
 A past participle phrase

1. The skyline along the coast of the Victoria Harbour is a famous tourist attraction in Hong Kong.
 A prepositional phrase
 A present participle phrase
 A past participle phrase
 3. Useful Sentence Structures and Language for Academic Writing 13

2. In Hong Kong, the first housing estate built by a private developer is Mei Foo Sun Chuen.
 A prepositional phrase
 A present participle phrase
 A past participle phrase

3. The film featuring the iconic locations in Hong Kong was well received globally.
 A prepositional phrase
 A present participle phrase
 A past participle phrase

 Adjective clauses
An adjective clause, which is also called a relative clause, functions as an adjective to describe
a noun. It can be used to link up ideas, compress information and make communication more
effective. For example,

A nurse is a professional. A nurse cares for sick people.

 A nurse is a professional who cares for sick people.

By connecting the two sentences with ‘who’, the ideas are better linked and the message becomes
clearer.

A relative clause begins with a relative pronoun (i.e. that, who, which, where, whose, when,
why, what or whom) and provides essential information (defining relative clauses) or non-
essential information (non-defining relative clauses) about the noun it modifies.

Notes about the Defining/

Examples
Non-defining Clauses
- essential information as it specifies
People who are allergic to
the group of people who may have the
Defining clauses wheat may suffer from nausea
problems
and diarrhoea.
- cannot be omitted
- additional information about the
person that is already known to the
Nicholas II, who was the last reader
Non-defining
Emperor of Russia, was put to - can be omitted
clauses
death in July 1918. - a comma before the relative pronoun,
separating the relative clause and the
noun it modifies
 3. Useful Sentence Structures and Language for Academic Writing 14

Practice
Activity 9

Decide whether defining or non-defining clauses are used in the following sentences. Then choose
the best relative pronouns to complete the sentences.

1. The mechanical lifting device _____ is used to lift heavy loads is called a jack.
 A defining relative clause  which
 A non-defining relative clause  who
 why
 what

2. Sir Charles Kuen KAO, _____ laid the groundwork for fibre optic communications, was
awarded the 2009 Nobel Prize in Physics.
 A defining relative clause  that
 A non-defining relative clause  who
 where
 whom

3. Nick Vujicic, _____ stories are full of hope and motivation, has warmly moved a lot of people.
 A defining relative clause  whose
 A non-defining relative clause  who
 which
 whom

4. Passwords _____ are simple and repetitive must be avoided.

 A defining relative clause  whose
 A non-defining relative clause  where
 why
 that
 3. Useful Sentence Structures and Language for Academic Writing 15

 Relative pronouns with fronted prepositions

A relative clause may contain a preposition with the relative pronoun serving as the object of
the preposition. In informal English, the preposition is usually placed at the end of the relative
clause while in more formal academic contexts, the preposition is usually put before the relative
clause.

Less Formal More Formal

Samuel Morse sent his first public telegraph Samuel Morse sent his first public telegraph
message on 24 May 1844. The picture shows message on 24 May 1844. The picture shows
the apparatus which he sent the message the apparatus with which he sent the message.
with.

Practice
Activity 10

Read the following sentences and decide where the prepositions should be best placed ((a), (b), or (c))
to suit the academic contexts.

e.g. in

(a) New York City is the place (b) which you can find almost all the big businesses (c).

Answer: (b)

1. with

It is the software (a) which people use to edit (b) videos (c).

Answer: _______________

2. during

(a) Ramadan is the ninth month of the Islamic calendar, (b) which almost all adult Muslims
fast (c) from dawn to sunset.

Answer: _______________
 3. Useful Sentence Structures and Language for Academic Writing 16

 Reduced relative clauses

When the relative pronoun is the subject of the relative clause, the relative clause could be
‘reduced’. Reduced relative clauses can make the writing more concise and add variety to
sentences. A relative clause can be reduced to:

i) an adjective phrase
Hand, foot, and mouth disease is a contagious disease which is prevalent among children
under 5.
Can be reduced to  Hand, foot, and mouth disease is a contagious disease prevalent
among children under 5.
Notes:
A related kind of structure that adds additional information is called appositive phrase,
which consists of two nouns/noun phrases that refer to the same person/thing. For
example,

Ieoh Ming PEI, who was a Chinese-American architect, designed the Louvre Pyramid
in Paris and the Bank of China Tower in Hong Kong.

Can be reduced to  Ieoh Ming PEI, a Chinese-American architect, designed the

Louvre Pyramid in Paris and the Bank of China Tower in Hong Kong.

ii) a present participle phrase

Shops that offer delivery service are popular during the pandemic.
Can be reduced to  Shops offering delivery service are popular during the pandemic.
Notes:
If the relative clause is in the active voice, it can be reduced to a present participle phrase
(verb + -ing).

iii) a past participle phrase

Cheung Sha Beach, which is located on Lantau Island, is the longest beach in the Hong
Kong area.
Can be reduced to  Cheung Sha Beach, located on Lantau Island, is the longest beach
in the Hong Kong area.
Notes:
If the relative clause is in the passive voice, it can be reduced to a past participle phrase.
 3. Useful Sentence Structures and Language for Academic Writing 17

Practice
Activity 11
Choose the most appropriate answer for each of the sentences below. ‘’ means no word is needed.
The first one has been done as an example.

e.g. Cheung Sha Beach, _____ on Lantau Island, is the longest  locating
beach in the Hong Kong area. 
 located

1. Cheetahs are carnivores that hunt small to medium-sized  weighing

prey _____ 20 to 60 kg.  
 weighed
2. In Hong Kong, all children _____ between 6 and 15 are  are
eligible to attend public sector schools.  
 aging
3. The bureau _____ for developing policies in  
environmental protection is managed by the Secretary for  responsible
the Environment.  is responsible
4. Consumption vouchers can be used at local retail, catering  accepting
and service outlets or their online platforms _____  
payments by different mobile payment apps.  accepted
5. The Big Buddha, _____ the second largest outdoor  is
Buddha statue in the world, is an iconic attraction of  
Lantau Island.  that is
 3. Useful Sentence Structures and Language for Academic Writing 18

Activity 12

Complete the passage with the following relative pronouns/adjective clauses. Use each answer ONCE
only. Put a cross ‘’ if no word is needed. One of them has been done as an example.

for those who want to stay healthy who in which

that is fun and affordable in summer which are affordable

who cannot afford suffering from joint pain needed for swimming

Swimming (i) _________________________ is a favourite pastime for most people and it is an

excellent form of exercise (e.g.) for those who want to stay healthy and burn calories.

Swimming, (ii) ___________________________ a type of aerobic exercise, can also result in a

reduction in stiffness and joint pain. People (iii) _________________________share that

swimming is much better than other forms of sports like running as it is easier on the joints. In

addition to the benefits it brings, swimming also attracts people

(iv) ________________________________ expensive equipment. The equipment

(v) _____________________________ is no more than just a swimsuit and maybe a pair of

goggles, (vi) _____________________________ to most people.

Some public pools, (vii) _________________________ “fun pools” with special designs and water

toys are built, provide excitement and enjoyment for the public

(viii) _________________________ no longer regard swimming as a mere form of exercise. If

you are looking for a sport (ix) _________________________, swimming could be an option for

you.