Orbital Mechanics

Three Body Problem

Hodei Urrutxua
Three Body Problem
Introduction
Three Body Problem
Introduction
The general Three-Body Problem is the problem of three point-masses that move
under the action of their mutual gravitational action only.

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Three Body Problem
Introduction

While the Keplerian Two-Body Problem has a very elegant analytical solution,
the general Three-Body Problem increases the level of complexity to such a
degree to make an analytical solution intractable.

While no general solution exists for the 18th order system, ten exact analytical
integrals are possible for the general case, corresponding to:
▪ Conservation of angular momentum (3 integrals)
▪ Conservation of energy (1 integral)
▪ Motion of the system centre of mass (6 integrals)
These ten integrals, together with imposing other special case conditions, permit
considerable additional analytical progress to be made.
Virtually all of this progress stems from the work of the brilliant French
astronomer and mathematician Lagrange.

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Three Body Problem
Introduction

A familiar three-body problem is the Sun-Earth-Moon system.

While the Moon does orbit the Earth in near-elliptical manner, to account for
some of the deviations of its orbit relative to Earth, the gravitational effect of the
Sun must also be considered. This is one reason why a precise description of the
lunar orbit is very complicated.

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Three Body Problem
Introduction
Of particular interest is the Circular Restricted Three-Body Problem (CR3BP).
Here, two larger, spherical bodies (primary bodies) are restricted to follow a
circular, Keplerian motion, while a third body of relatively infinitesimal mass
(restricted mass) is moving among them in a general fashion, such that the
primaries are unaffected by the presence of the small one, since that is assumed
not to perturb the motion of the two primaries.

A good way to visualise this is to think of a spacecraft flying under the

gravitational influence of the uniformly rotating Earth-Moon system.

Orbital Mechanics | Three Body Problem | Hodei Urrutxua | 2024-2025

Three Body Problem
Introduction
Of particular interest is the Circular Restricted Three-Body Problem (CR3BP).
Here, two larger, spherical bodies (primary bodies) are restricted to follow a
circular, Keplerian motion, while a third body of relatively infinitesimal mass
(restricted mass) is moving among them in a general fashion, such that the
primaries are unaffected by the presence of the small one, since that is assumed
not to perturb the motion of the two primaries.

A good way to visualise this is to think of a spacecraft flying under the

gravitational influence of the uniformly rotating Earth-Moon system.

Originally formulated by Euler in 1772, the CR3BP represents one of the long-
standing problems in orbital mechanics. The restricted problem was worked on
extensively by Lagrange in the 18th century and Poincaré in the 19th century.

Although it has been shown that the problem cannot be solved analytically (i.e. in terms of
a closed-form solution of known constants and elementary functions), particular solutions
do exist, and approximate ones can be calculated by means of series expansions, numerical
methods or perturbation methods.
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 Circular Restricted
Three Body Problem
Equations of Motion
Circular Restricted Three Body Problem
Equations of Motion
Two bodies (the primaries) revolve around their mutual centre of mass in
circular orbits under the influence of their mutual gravitational attraction. The
masses 𝑚1 and 𝑚2 of these bodies are arbitrary, but the bodies have such
internal mass distributions that they may be considered point masses.
The mass of the third body, 𝒎, is much smaller than that of the primaries.
Therefore, the masses 𝒎𝟏 and 𝒎𝟐 affect the motion of 𝒎, without in return
being affected by 𝒎 themselves.

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Circular Restricted Three Body Problem
Equations of Motion
Consider a non-inertial, co-rotating reference frame 𝒙𝒚𝒛 whose origin lies at the
centre of mass of the two primaries (i.e. a synodic reference frame) with the 𝑥-axis
directed toward 𝑚2 .

In this particular
frame of reference,
𝑚1 and 𝑚2 appear
to be at rest, the
force of gravity on
each one seemingly
balanced by the
fictitious centripetal
force required to
hold it in its circular
path around the
system’s centre of
mass.

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Circular Restricted Three Body Problem
Equations of Motion
Consider a non-inertial, co-rotating reference frame 𝒙𝒚𝒛 whose origin lies at the
centre of mass of the two primaries (i.e. a synodic reference frame) with the 𝑥-axis
directed toward 𝑚2 .

The distance 𝑟12

between primaries is
constant.
The synodic frame
rotates with constant
angular velocity:

𝐺(𝑚1 + 𝑚2 )
𝜔= 3
𝑟12

These can be taken as

characteristic values
to make the problem
non-dimensional.

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Circular Restricted Three Body Problem
Equations of Motion
The total mass of the system is:
𝑀 = 𝑚1 + 𝑚2
(being 𝑚 negligible with respect to the other two).

The mass ratio is defined as:

𝑚2
𝜇=
𝑀
(it is 𝜇 = 0.01215 for the Earth-Moon system, and only 𝜇 = 3.0359 · 10−6 for the Sun-Earth system).

Then, the primary masses can be expressed as:

𝑚2 = 𝜇 𝑀
𝑚1 = 1 − 𝜇 𝑀

And the (non-dimensional) position of the

primary masses in the synodic frame becomes:
𝑥1 = −𝜇
𝑥2 = 1 − 𝜇
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Circular Restricted Three Body Problem
Equations of Motion
The equation of motion of a small mass 𝑚 in this rotating frame is written in
vector form as:
𝐅1 + 𝐅2
𝐫ሷ + 𝛚 × 𝛚 × 𝐫 + 2𝛚 × 𝐫ሶ =
𝑚
where centripetal and Coriolis accelerations need to be included.

Recalling that: 𝛚 × 𝛚 × 𝐫 = −𝜔2 𝑥 𝐢 − 𝜔2 𝑦 𝐣

𝛚 = 𝜔𝐤 2𝛚 × 𝐫ሶ = −2𝜔𝑦ሶ 𝐢 + 2𝜔𝑥ሶ 𝐣
𝐫= 𝑥𝐢+𝑦𝐣+𝑧𝐤
𝐫ሶ = 𝑥ሶ 𝐢 + 𝑦ሶ 𝐣 + 𝑧ሶ 𝐤 𝐅1 + 𝐅2 𝐫1 𝐫2
𝐫ሷ = 𝑥ሷ 𝐢 + 𝑦ሷ 𝐣 + 𝑧ሷ 𝐤 = −𝐺𝑀 (1 − 𝜇) 3 + 𝜇 3
𝑚 𝑟1 𝑟2

𝐫1 = (𝑥 + 𝜇 𝑟12 ) 𝐢 + 𝑦 𝐣 + 𝑧 𝐤
𝐫2 = (𝑥 − (1 − 𝜇) 𝑟12 ) 𝐢 + 𝑦 𝐣 + 𝑧 𝐤

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Circular Restricted Three Body Problem
Equations of Motion
The equation of motion of a small mass 𝑚 in this rotating frame is written in
vector form as:
𝐅1 + 𝐅2
𝐫ሷ + 𝛚 × 𝛚 × 𝐫 + 2𝛚 × 𝐫ሶ =
𝑚
where centripetal and Coriolis accelerations need to be included.

Collecting all the terms, we obtain:

𝑥 + 𝜇 𝑟12 𝑥 − (1 − 𝜇)𝑟12
𝑥ሷ − 2𝜔𝑦ሶ − 𝜔2 𝑥 = − 1 − 𝜇 𝐺𝑀 3 − 𝜇𝐺𝑀
𝑟1 𝑟23
2
𝑦 𝑦
𝑦ሷ + 2𝜔𝑥ሶ − 𝜔 𝑦 = − 1 − 𝜇 𝐺𝑀 3 − 𝜇𝐺𝑀 3
𝑟1 𝑟2
𝑧 𝑧
𝑧ሷ = − 1 − 𝜇 𝐺𝑀 3 − 𝜇𝐺𝑀 3
𝑟1 𝑟2

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Circular Restricted Three Body Problem
Equations of Motion
It is possible to recast these equations into non-dimensional form, by using the
characteristic length 𝑟12 and the characteristic time 1Τ𝜔.

The non-dimensional equations of motion are:

𝑥+𝜇 𝑥 − (1 − 𝜇)
𝑥ሷ − 2𝑦ሶ − 𝑥 = − 1 − 𝜇 3 −𝜇
𝑟1 𝑟23
𝑦 𝑦
𝑦ሷ + 2𝑥ሶ − 𝑦 = − 1 − 𝜇 3 − 𝜇 3
𝑟1 𝑟2
𝑧 𝑧
𝑧ሷ = − 1 − 𝜇 3 − 𝜇 3
𝑟1 𝑟2
where
𝑟1 = 𝑥+𝜇 2 + 𝑦2 + 𝑧2 ; 𝑟2 = 𝑥 − (1 − 𝜇) 2 + 𝑦2 + 𝑧2

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Circular Restricted Three Body Problem
Equations of Motion
It is possible to define a 3-body force function from which acceleration may be derived:
1 1−𝜇 𝜇
𝒰(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + +
2 𝑟1 𝑟2

The non-dimensional equations of motion are:

𝑥+𝜇 𝑥 − (1 − 𝜇) 𝜕𝒰
𝑥ሷ − 2𝑦ሶ = 𝑥 − 1 − 𝜇 3 −𝜇 3 =
𝑟1 𝑟2 𝜕𝑥
𝑦 𝑦 𝜕𝒰
𝑦ሷ + 2𝑥ሶ = 𝑦 − 1 − 𝜇 3 − 𝜇 3 =
𝑟1 𝑟2 𝜕𝑦
𝑧 𝑧 𝜕𝒰
𝑧ሷ = − 1 − 𝜇 3 − 𝜇 3 =
𝑟1 𝑟2 𝜕𝑧
where
𝑟1 = 𝑥+𝜇 2 + 𝑦2 + 𝑧2 ; 𝑟2 = 𝑥 − (1 − 𝜇) 2 + 𝑦2 + 𝑧2

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 Circular Restricted
Three Body Problem
Libration Points
Circular Restricted Three Body Problem
Libration Points
Given two massive bodies in circular orbits around their common centre of mass,
it can be shown that there are 5 positions in space, the Lagrangian libration
points, where a third body of comparatively negligible mass would maintain its
position relative to the two massive bodies.
As seen in the synodic frame, the gravitational fields of two massive bodies,
combined with the centrifugal force, are in balance at the Lagrange points.
Lagrangian points are equilibrium points of the CR3BP.

For a static equilibrium, it is necessary that the following equations hold:

𝑥 ′′ = 𝑦 ′′ = 𝑧 ′′ = 0
𝑥′ = 𝑦′ = 𝑧′ = 0
These conditions imply that:
𝜕𝒰 𝜕𝒰 𝜕𝒰
= = =0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

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Circular Restricted Three Body Problem
Libration Points

There are 5 Lagrangian points,

labelled L1 to L5, all in the orbital
plane of the two primary bodies.

L1, L2 and L3 are the collinear

points, because they are on the line
connecting the two primaries.
Collinear points are unstable.

𝜇 1/3
𝐿1 : 𝑥∗ = +𝑟12 1− 𝑦∗ = 0
3
𝜇 1/3
𝐿2 : 𝑥 ∗ = +𝑟12 1+ 𝑦∗ = 0
3
5
𝐿3 : 𝑥 ∗ = −𝑟12 1+ 𝜇 𝑦∗ = 0
12

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Circular Restricted Three Body Problem
Libration Points

There are 5 Lagrangian points,

labelled L1 to L5, all in the orbital
plane of the two primary bodies.

L4 and L5 are the equilateral

points, since they form an
equilateral triangle with the two
primaries. Equilateral points are
stable, which implies that objects
can orbit around them in the
synodic frame.

𝑟12 𝑚1 − 𝑚2 3
𝐿4 : 𝑥 ∗ = 𝑦∗ =+ 𝑟
2 𝑚1 + 𝑚2 2 12
𝑟12 𝑚1 − 𝑚2 3
𝐿5 : 𝑥 ∗ = 𝑦∗ = − 𝑟
2 𝑚1 + 𝑚2 2 12

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Circular Restricted Three Body Problem
Libration Points

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 Circular Restricted
Three Body Problem
Jacobi Constant
Circular Restricted Three Body Problem
Jacobi Constant
The CR3BP equations of motion are:
𝜕𝒰 𝜕𝒰 𝜕𝒰
𝑥ሷ − 2𝑦ሶ = , 𝑦ሷ + 2𝑥ሶ = , 𝑧ሷ =
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

Multiplying the first equation by 𝑥,ሶ the second by 𝑦ሶ and the third by 𝑧,ሶ and summing up,
one gets:
𝜕𝒰 𝜕𝒰 𝜕𝒰
𝑥ሶ 𝑥ሷ + 𝑦ሶ 𝑦ሷ + 𝑧ሶ 𝑧ሷ = 𝑥ሶ + 𝑦ሶ + 𝑧ሶ
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
which can be rewritten as:
1𝑑 2 2 2
𝑑𝒰
𝑥ሶ + 𝑦ሶ + 𝑧ሶ =
2 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

Letting
𝑉 2 = 𝑥ሶ 2 + 𝑦ሶ 2 + 𝑧ሶ 2
where 𝑉 is the magnitude of the (non-dimensional) relative velocity of the third body, the
latter equation can be easily integrated yielding the Jacobi’s integral:
𝑉 2 = 2𝒰 − 𝐶
where the constant of integration 𝐶 is the Jacobi’s constant.
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Circular Restricted Three Body Problem
Jacobi Constant
The Jacobi Integral
𝑉 2 = 2𝒰 − 𝐶
can be reformulated to be expressed in terms of the absolute velocity (w.r.t. the
inertial frame) instead of the relative velocity (w.r.t. the synodic frame).

This yields
1
ℰ − ℎ3 = − 𝐶
2
where ℰ is the (non-dimensional) specific energy of the third body:
1 2 1−𝜇 𝜇
ሶ ሶ 2 ሶ
ℰ = 𝑋 +𝑌 +𝑍 − 2 −
2 𝑟1 𝑟2
and ℎ3 is the vertical component of the (non-dimensional) angular momentum.

As a consequence, Jacobi’s integral can also be expressed in a non-rotating frame as a

combination of the total specific energy and the vertical component of the angular
momentum of the third body, both constant in an inertial frame of reference.
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 Circular Restricted
Three Body Problem
Zero-Velocity Surfaces
Circular Restricted Three Body Problem
Zero-Velocity Surfaces
The Jacobi Integral is
𝑉 2 = 2𝒰 − 𝐶

The magnitude of the velocity must be a real number, so that:

▪ If 2𝒰 > 𝐶 then 𝑉 2 > 0 and the motion is possible.
▪ If 2𝒰 < 𝐶 then 𝑉 2 < 0 and the motion is impossible.

Thus, the implicit equation

2𝒰 − 𝐶 = 0
defines the boundary between the allowed and the forbidden region in the
rotating frame, i.e. the surfaces of zero velocity or Hill surfaces, where 𝐶 = 2𝒰.

Recalling the definition of the force function 𝒰, it is:

2 2
1−𝜇 𝜇
𝐶 = 2 𝒰 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 = 𝑥 +𝑦 +2 +2
𝑟1 𝑟2
which is a surface in the 3D space {𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧}.
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Circular Restricted Three Body Problem
Zero-Velocity Surfaces
The surfaces of zero velocity are symmetrical with respect to the 𝑥-𝑦 plane.
Thus, only their intersection with this plane will be analysed in the following. This
is achieved by letting 𝑧 = 0, and thus the zero-velocity surfaces reduce to zero-
velocity curves on the 𝑥-𝑦 plane.

How do these zero-velocity curves look like???

Recalling the definition of the force function 𝒰, it is:

2 2
1−𝜇 𝜇
𝐶 = 2 𝒰 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 = 𝑥 +𝑦 +2 +2
𝑟1 𝑟2
which is a surface in the 3D space {𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧}.
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Circular Restricted Three Body Problem
Zero-Velocity Surfaces

Note that if 𝑥 and 𝑦 are large, If 𝑟1 or 𝑟2 is small (i.e. the third body is
the relative terms 1Τ𝑟1 and 1Τ𝑟2 near one of the primaries), the
are both small. Hence, corresponding term 1Τ𝑟1 or 1Τ𝑟2
𝐶 ≈ 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 becomes dominant, and the zero-
and the zero-velocity surfaces velocity curves are circles around the
are circles in the 𝑥-𝑦 plane, i.e. nearest primary:
each value of 𝐶 will define a 1−𝜇 𝜇
𝐶≈2 or 𝐶≈2
different circle. 𝑟1 𝑟2

Recalling the definition of the force function 𝒰, it is:

2 2
1−𝜇 𝜇
𝐶 = 2 𝒰 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 = 𝑥 +𝑦 +2 +2
𝑟1 𝑟2
which is a surface in the 3D space {𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧}.
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Circular Restricted Three Body Problem
Zero-Velocity Surfaces

𝑥
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Circular Restricted Three Body Problem
Zero-Velocity Surfaces
Zero-velocity curves
can be seen as
contour lines of the
force function 𝒰.

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Circular Restricted Three Body Problem
Zero-Velocity Surfaces
A particle may have relative motion only in regions of space corresponding to
values of the force function 2𝒰 that are higher than (or at most equal to) the
Jacobi constant 𝐶.

The constant −𝐶/2 corresponds to the total energy of the third body in the
rotating frame
1 2 1
Remember: 2
𝑉 − 𝒰 = −2𝐶

and, in fact, represents the maximum value of the potential energy that the third
body can attain by zeroing its velocity.

A spacecraft can only access the region of space with 2𝒰 > 𝐶, where the
potential energy (i.e. −𝒰) is less than its total energy.

As 𝑉0 increases, the third body can access larger regions of space, and
eventually cross from the neighbourhood of the primaries and further escape from
the system.

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Circular Restricted Three Body Problem
Zero-Velocity Surfaces
If 𝐶 is very large, the zero- Case: 𝐶 > 𝐶1
velocity curves consist of
three circles:
▪ The largest one has
approximately a radius
𝐶 and is centred at the
origin of the synodic
frame;
▪ Two smaller circles
enclose the primaries.

A spacecraft orbiting any of

the primaries is confined
there and cannot move
between the realms around
𝑚1 and 𝑚2 .
Shaded areas indicate forbidden regions where the motion is impossible
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Circular Restricted Three Body Problem
Zero-Velocity Surfaces
𝐶1 is the value of the Jacobi Case: 𝐶 = 𝐶1
constant corresponding to
the zero-velocity curves
passing through the collinear
libration point L1.

When 𝐶 = 𝐶1 the allowable

regions around the primaries
connect at L1.

Shaded areas indicate forbidden regions where the motion is impossible

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Circular Restricted Three Body Problem
Zero-Velocity Surfaces
𝐶2 is the value of the Jacobi Case: 𝐶 = 𝐶2
constant corresponding to
the zero-velocity curves
passing through the collinear
libration point L2.

When 𝐶1 > 𝐶 > 𝐶2 a neck

or gateway between the
realms around 𝑚1 and 𝑚2
opens up, permitting the
third body to move between
the two realms. The L1 point
is in this neck.
The third body is still barred
from moving between these
two realms and the exterior
realm extending to infinity.
Shaded areas indicate forbidden regions where the motion is impossible
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Circular Restricted Three Body Problem
Zero-Velocity Surfaces
𝐶3 is the value of the Jacobi Case: 𝐶 = 𝐶3
constant corresponding to
the zero-velocity curves
passing through the collinear
libration point L3.

When 𝐶2 > 𝐶 the particle

can move between the
vicinity of 𝑚1 and 𝑚2 and the
exterior realm via a neck
around L2.

Shaded areas indicate forbidden regions where the motion is impossible

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Circular Restricted Three Body Problem
Zero-Velocity Surfaces
When 𝐶3 > 𝐶 the third Case: 𝐶3 > 𝐶 > 𝐶4
body can pass directly from
the vicinity of 𝑚1 to the
exterior via a neck around L3.

Shaded areas indicate forbidden regions where the motion is impossible

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Circular Restricted Three Body Problem
Zero-Velocity Surfaces
𝐶4 is the value of the Jacobi Case: 𝐶 ≤ 𝐶4
constant corresponding to
the zero-velocity curves
passing through the collinear
libration points L4 and L5.

When 𝐶4 > 𝐶 the forbidden

realm disappears, and the
particle is free to move in the
entire 𝑥-𝑦 plane.

Shaded areas indicate forbidden regions where the motion is impossible

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Circular Restricted Three Body Problem
Zero-Velocity Surfaces
Case: 𝐶2 > 𝐶 > 𝐶3

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 Circular Restricted
Three Body Problem
Motion Around Libration Points
Circular Restricted Three Body Problem
Motion Around Libration Points
Of particular interest is whether motions near the Lagrange stationary points are
stable solutions of the relative equations of motion.
The question is: if a body starts out at rest near a Lagrange libration point, will
it remain in the vicinity or will it wander off over time?

To study the stability of a particular Li point, we linearize the relative equations

of motion about Li and check whether any eigenvalues of the linearized plant
matrix have positive real components.
▪ The collinear libration points (L1, L2 and L3) are unstable due to the saddle-
point nature of the zero-velocity contours.
▪ The equilateral libration points (L4 and L5) are stable (can be neutrally stable).

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Circular Restricted Three Body Problem
Motion Around Libration Points: L4 and L5
While the third body
does wander away from
the immediate vicinity of
L4, it does librate in the
neighbourhood of L4.

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Circular Restricted Three Body Problem
Motion Around Libration Points: L4 and L5
Since 1906, over 1000 Trojan asteroids have been found at L4 and L5 of the Sun-Jupiter system, providing
nature’s very significant empirical statement regarding the stability of motion near equilateral libration
points.

Inertial Frame Synodic Frame

Orbital Mechanics | Three Body Problem | Hodei Urrutxua | 2024-2025
Circular Restricted Three Body Problem
Motion Around Libration Points: L4 and L5
Earth's first
Trojan asteroid
2010 TK7 orbit

Orbital Mechanics | Three Body Problem | Hodei Urrutxua | 2024-2025

Circular Restricted Three Body Problem
Motion Around Libration Points: L1 and L2
Interestingly, families of periodic orbits exist in the neighbourhood of collinear
libration points.

According to Lyapunov’s centre theorem, each collinear equilibrium point gives rise to two
one-parametric families of periodic orbits, known as the planar and the vertical Lyapunov
families of periodic orbits.

In addition, in each energy level

close to the one of the equilibrium
point, there is a two-parameter family
of 2D tori, known as Lissajous orbits,
that connects the two Lyapunov
families.

Along the families of Lyapunov

periodic orbits, bifurcating orbits exist
where other families of periodic orbits
appear, known as halo orbits. At the
bifurcation, two families are born, the
Northern and the Southern families.
Orbital Mechanics | Three Body Problem | Hodei Urrutxua | 2024-2025
Circular Restricted Three Body Problem
Motion Around Libration Points: L1 and L2

Periodic orbits around 𝐿1 and 𝐿2 in the Earth-Moon system.

Orbital Mechanics | Three Body Problem | Hodei Urrutxua | 2024-2025
Circular Restricted Three Body Problem
Motion Around Libration Points: L1 and L2

Periodic orbits around 𝐿1 and 𝐿2 points of the Pluto-Charon system

Orbital Mechanics | Three Body Problem | Hodei Urrutxua | 2024-2025
Circular Restricted Three Body Problem
Motion Around Libration Points: L1 and L2

This visualization views the WFIRST trajectory (in synodic frame) to Sun-Earth Lagrange point L2.

Orbital Mechanics | Three Body Problem | Hodei Urrutxua | 2024-2025

Circular Restricted Three Body Problem
Motion Around Libration Points: L1 and L2

LISA Pathfinder to Orbit the L1 Lagrangian Point

Orbital Mechanics | Three Body Problem | Hodei Urrutxua | 2024-2025

Circular Restricted Three Body Problem
Motion Around Libration Points: L1 and L2

NASA and ESA operate a fleet of heliophysics satellites at the Lagrange point L1 between the
Earth and the Sun: SOHO, ACE, and Wind have been operating at this point for over 15 years.
Orbital Mechanics | Three Body Problem | Hodei Urrutxua | 2024-2025