NOTICE TO THE READER ABOUT THE AUTHOR

The publisher does not warrant or guarantee any of the prod-

Mike Holt is an author, businessman, educator,
ucts described herein or perform any independent analysis
speaker, publisher and NEC ® expert. He has
in connection with any of the product information contained
written hundreds of electrical training books
herein. The publisher does not assume, and expressly dis-
and articles, founded three successful busi-
claims, any obligation to obtain and include information other
nesses, and has taught thousands of electrical
than that provided to it by the manufacturer.
Code seminars across the United States and
The reader is expressly warned to consider and adopt all internationally.
safety precautions that might be indicated by the activities
Mike’s approach to electrical training is based on his own
herein and to avoid all potential hazards. By following the
experience as an electrician, contractor, inspector and
instructions contained herein, the reader willingly assumes
teacher. He’s always felt a responsibility to his students and
all risks in connection with such instructions.
to the electrical industry to provide education beyond the
The publisher makes no representation or warranties of any scope of just passing an exam. This commitment, coupled
kind, including but not limited to, the warranties of fitness with the lessons he learned at the University of Miami’s MBA
for particular purpose or merchantability, nor are any such program, have helped him build one of the largest electrical
representations implied with respect to the material set forth training and publishing companies in the United States.
herein, and the publisher takes no responsibility with respect
to such material. The publisher shall not be liable for any Mike’s one-of-a-kind presentation style and his ability to
special, consequential, or exemplary damages resulting, in simplify and clarify technical concepts explain his unique
whole or part, from the reader’s use of, or reliance upon, position as one of the premier educators and Code experts
this material. in the country. His passion for the electrical field drives his
goal to increase electrical safety and improve lives.
Author: Mike Holt
Mike’s commitment to pushing boundaries and setting
Technical Illustrator: Mike Culbreath
high standards extends into his personal life. He’s an eight-
COPYRIGHT © 2023 Charles Michael Holt time Overall National Barefoot Waterski Champion with
more than 20 gold medals, many national records, and he
has competed in three World Barefoot Tournaments. In
Produced and Printed in the USA 2015, at the tender age of 64, he started a new adventure—
competitive mountain bike racing. Every day he continues to
All rights reserved. No part of this work covered by the find ways to motivate himself, both mentally and physically.
copyright hereon may be reproduced or used in any form or
by any means graphic, electronic, or mechanical, including Mike and his wife, Linda, reside in New Mexico and Florida,
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and retrieval systems without the written permission of As his life has changed over the years, a few things have
the publisher. You can request permission to use material remained constant: his commitment to God, his love for his
from this text by either calling 888.632.2633, e-mailing family, and doing what he can to change the lives of others
Info@[Link], or visiting [Link]. through his products and seminars.

For more information, call [Link] (632.2633), or

e-mail Info@[Link].
I dedicate this book to the
NEC ®, NFPA 70®, NFPA 70E® and National Electrical Code ®
are registered trademarks of the National Fire Protection
Lord Jesus Christ,
Association. my mentor and teacher.
Proverbs 16:3
This logo is a registered trademark of Mike
Holt Enterprises, Inc. •
Print Date: July 2, 2023
 ABOUT THIS PDF
This free PDF is extracted from Mike Holt’s Illustrated Guide to Under- Unit 11—Trigonometry
standing Electrical Theory. In order to construct a building that will last
Trigonometry is the mathematical study of triangles, particularly right
into the future, a strong foundation is a prerequisite. Math and basic
triangles. Trigonometry is used to determine three-phase voltage
electrical concepts are very similar to the foundation of a building.
systems, size power factor correction capacitors, and determine
They are the essential basics that you must understand, because alternating-current wire impedance. In this unit you will learn:
you’ll build upon them as you study electrical circuits and systems.
} what right triangles are
As your studies continue, you’ll find that a good foundation in elec-
trical theory, and especially math, will help you understand why the } what the Pythagorean Theorem is
NEC contains certain provisions. } what sines, cosines, and tangents are

You’ll be amazed at how often your electrical studies return to the

basics of math. Ohm’s law and the electrical formulas related to it Unit 12—Ohm’s Law
are the foundation of all electrical circuits.
To understand electrical circuits, you must understand electrical
Every student begins at a different level of understanding, and you terminology. In this unit you will learn:
may find this unit an easy review, or you may find it requires a high
} what electromotive force, intensity, and resistance are
level of concentration. Our goal with this PDF extract is to introduce
you, or re-introduce you, to the very basics. } what voltmeters, ammeters, and ohmmeters are
} how to use the Ohm’s Law formula
The following are the topics covered with a brief description:

Unit 10—Basic Math Unit 13—Watt’s Law

Understanding math is the foundation to becoming a successful elec- Wattage is a measure of the amount of power that is being used in a
trician. Many people fear math, but as you work through this material circuit. In this unit you will learn:
you will see there is nothing to fear. In this unit you will learn:
} what Watt’s Law is
} the difference between whole numbers and fractional } how to use Watt’s Law
numbers
} what a wattmeter is
} how to convert a percentage into a decimal to use as a
multiplier
} the differences between a reciprocal, a square root, and
squaring a number

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 ADDITIONAL PRODUCTS
TO HELP YOU LEARN
The topics in this textbook will help you understand what electricity
Mike Holt’s Illustrated Guide to Electrical Theory
is, how it’s produced and how it’s used. You’ll learn to perform basic
Why is it important? Whether you’re a first-year apprentice still strug- electrical calculations necessary for everyday work, what those calcu-
gling to understand the difference between a volt or ampere, or a lations tell you about how electricity flows in a circuit, and why it’s
veteran journeyman trying to sharpen your troubleshooting skills, always trying to return to its source.
electrical theory is critical. Once you know the principles behind This textbook explains why blinking lights, buzzing relays, hot wires
how electricity works, you will be ready to correctly apply the rules and tripping breakers, all have one thing in common—they are the
in the National Electrical Code® correctly to the work you do every visible result of science and some basic math applied to an installa-
day. Many people in the trade don’t have the information they need tion. If you don’t understand how and why these things are happening,
to be successful; it’s a mix of math, science, mechanics, the National you’re at a big disadvantage when it comes to troubleshooting and
Electrical Code, problem solving, and electrical safety that are all you may unintentionally place yourself or someone else in danger of
required to complete a successful installation. injury or possibly even death. This makes it important for every elec-
For over 140 years, electricians have been installing electrical wiring trician to learn the fundamentals of electricity to take themselves from
in buildings to deliver power for convenience, safety, and productivity. being an installer who doesn’t understand what’s happening, to an
Technology has changed a lot since Edison, Brush, and Westinghouse electrician who can understand even the most complex situations.
started installing lighting in the 19th century. Wiring systems have In addition to the theory, Code topics will be introduced along the
become more complex and every aspect of our daily life requires power way, so that you understand why following Codes and standards is
to be accessible and reliable. In the business of progress some elec- so important and when to apply different rules. For any references to
tricians may have lost sight of the fundamental concepts that make the National Electrical Code, always compare what’s being explained
the electrical equipment we use work. in this textbook to what the Code book says. This textbook is to be
Recognizing a need to return to the basics, Mike’s Understanding used along with the NEC, and not as a replacement for it.
Electrical Theory textbook will take you on a journey that begins with This textbook, Mike Holt’s Illustrated Guide to Electrical Theory teaches
the physics behind how electricity works all the way through topics and students everything they need to know about how electricity behaves.
concepts that are relevant to everyone working in the electrical industry. Starting from basic scientific principles, it explains the following:
The installation practices of the electrical industry are controlled by } Basics of matter and the origin of modern electricity
the National Electrical Code so that people are protected from the } How electricity is made
hazards that arise from the use of electricity. The goal of this book } Circuit types
is to bridge the gap between science, math, mechanics and Code } Electrical formulas and basic electrical math
to allow you to understand what you see and hear and also to read, } Magnetism and electromagnetism
understand and apply the National Electrical Code in the situations } Practical applications of electricity (wiring systems and
you encounter each day. equipment)
The writing style of this textbook, as with all of Mike Holt’s products, } Motors, generators, and transformers
is informative, practical, easy to read, and applicable for today’s elec- } Grounding and bonding
trical professional. Also, just like all of Mike’s textbooks, it contains } How science and math apply to the National Electrical
hundreds of detailed graphics that support difficult concepts, facili- Code rules
tate understanding, and help in applying those concepts to real-world } Electrical safety
situations. To get the most out of this book you should answer the
questions at the end of each unit.

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 CHAPTER

4 MATHEMATICS
Chapter 4—Mathematics
Unit 10—Basic Math
Understanding math is the foundation to becoming a successful electrician. Many people fear math, but as you work through this mate-
rial you will see there is nothing to fear. In this unit you will learn:
} the difference between whole numbers and fractional numbers
} how to convert a percentage into a decimal to use as a multiplier
} the differences between a reciprocal, a square root, and squaring a number

Unit 11—Trigonometry
Trigonometry is the mathematical study of triangles, particularly right triangles. Trigonometry is used to determine three-phase voltage
systems, size power factor correction capacitors, and determine alternating-current wire impedance. In this unit you will learn:
} what right triangles are
} what the Pythagorean Theorem is
} what sines, cosines, and tangents are

| 1 |
Free PDF—Electrician's Math and Basic Electrical Formulas   [Link] • 888.632.2633
 UNIT

10 BASIC MATH
10.1 Introduction

Understanding mathematics is the foundation to becoming a successful electrical professional. As you work through this material you
will see how easy math is. In this unit you will learn:
} the difference between whole numbers and fractional numbers
} how to convert a percentage into a decimal to use as a multiplier
} the differences between a reciprocal, a square root, and squaring a number

10.2 Whole Numbers 10.4 Decimal Numbers

Whole numbers are exactly what the term implies; these numbers do (A) General. A decimal number is a number that is a fractional part
not contain any fractions, decimals, or percentages. of a number separated by a decimal point.
(B) Fractions Converted to Decimal Numbers. A fraction represents
10.3 Fractional Numbers part of a whole number. If you use a calculator for adding, dividing,
subtracting, or multiplying fractions, you need to convert the frac-
Parts of a whole number are called “fractions” from the Latin word tion to a decimal or whole number. To change a fraction to a decimal
“fractus,” meaning broken into parts. }Figure 10–1 or whole number, divide the top number of the fraction by its bottom
number. }Figure 10–2

}Figure 10–1
}Figure 10–2

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 10.5 | Basic Math

(C) Number of Decimal Places. The decimal system places numbers (B) Convert a Percentage to a Decimal. For convenience in multi-
to the right of a decimal point to indicate values that are a fraction of plying or dividing by a percentage, convert the percentage value to
“one.” For example, the first digit on the right of the decimal is one-tenth a whole number or whole number with a decimal, and then use that
of a whole number, the second is one-hundredth of a whole number, value for the calculation.
and the third digit is one-thousandth of a whole number. }Figure 10–3
When changing a percent value to a decimal or whole number with
a decimal, drop the percentage symbol and move the decimal point
two places to the left. }Figure 10–5

}Figure 10–3

If the decimal number is greater than “one,” the whole number will be }Figure 10–5
to the left of the decimal point such as 1.25, 1.732, and 2.50.

10.5 Percentages 10.6 Parentheses

(A) General. A percentage is another method used to display the In a math problem, parentheses are used to group steps of mathe-
value of a number. One hundred percent means the entire value; 50 matical functions together. Whenever numbers are in parentheses,
percent means one-half of a value, and 25 percent means one-fourth complete the mathematical function within the parentheses before
of a value. }Figure 10–4 proceeding with the remaining math functions.

f Parentheses Example
Question: What is the sum of 3 and 15 added to the product of 4 and 2?
Note: A “sum” is the result of adding numbers, and a “product” is the
result of multiplying numbers.
(a) 6 (b) 12 (c) 16 (d) 26
Solution:
(3 + 15) + (4 × 2)
18 + 8 = 26
Answer: (d) 26

}Figure 10–4

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 10.7 | Basic Math

10.7 Squaring a Number f Square Root Example 2

Question: What is the square root of 3?
Squaring (2) a number is the process of multiplying a number by itself.
(a) 1.255 (b) 1.55 (c) 1.732 (d) 1.935

f Squaring a Number Example 1 Answer: (c) 1.732

82 = 8 × 8
8 2 = 64
10.9 Kilo
f Squaring a Number Example 2
The letter “k” is the abbreviation for “kilo” which means “1,000.” To
12 2 = 12 ×12 convert a number that includes the “k,” multiply the number by 1,000.
12 2 = 144 To convert a number to a “k” value, divide the number by 1,000 and
add “k” after the number.
10.8 Square Root
f Kilo Conversion Example 1
The square root (√) of a number is the number that, if squared (multi-
Question: What is the value of 8k?
plied by itself), would equal the original number. You must use the
square root key (√) on your calculator to perform this function. (a) 8 (b) 800 (c) 4,000 (d) 8,000
Solution:
f Square Root Example 1 8 × 1,000 = 8,000
Question: What is the square root of 100? }Figure 10–6 Answer: (d) 8,000
(a) 1 (b) 10 (c) 21.52 (d) 31.62

f Kilo Conversion Example 2

Question: What is the “k” value of 3,000?
(a) 0.30k (b) 3k (c) 30k (d) 300k
Solution:
k = 3,000/1,000
k = 3k
Answer: (b) 3k

10.10 Rounding
}Figure 10–6
(A) General. There is no specific rule for rounding numbers, but;
Answer: (b) 10 rounding to two or three “significant digits” should be sufficient for
most electrical calculations. When rounding is desired, numbers below
five are rounded down, while numbers five and above are rounded up.
}Figure 10–7

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 10.11 | Basic Math

10.11 Surface Area of a Rectangle or Square

The surface area for a rectangle or square is calculated using the

formula: Area = Length (L) × Width (W)

f Surface Area—Rectangle or Square Example 1

Question: What is the surface area of a bedroom that is 10 ft wide
and 12 ft long? }Figure 10–8
(a) 10 sq ft (b) 50 sq ft (c) 80 sq ft (d) 120 sq ft

}Figure 10–7

(B) Rounding Answers for Multiple-Choice Questions. When

selecting an answer for a multiple-choice question, you need to round
your answers in the same manner as the multiple-choice selections
are given.

f Rounding Answers for Multiple-Choice

Questions Example
Question: The sum of 12, 17, 28, and 40 is approximately equal }Figure 10–8
to _____.
Solution:
(a) 70 (b) 80 (c) 90 (d) 100
Area = L × W
Solution:
Area = 12 ft × 10 ft
12 + 17 + 28 + 40 = 97 Area = 120 sq ft
The multiple-choice selections in this case are rounded off to the Answer: (d) 120 sq ft
nearest “tens,” so the answer is 100.
Answer: (d) 100

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 10.12 | Basic Math

f Surface Area—Rectangle or Square Example 2 f Surface Area—Circle Example 1

Question: What is the surface area of a house that is 30 ft wide and Question: What is the surface area of an 8-in. pizza? }Figure 10–10
40 ft long? }Figure 10–9
(a) 25 sq in. (b) 50 sq in. (c) 64 sq in. (d) 75 sq in.
(a) 1,000 sq ft (b) 1,200 sq ft (c) 1,800 sq ft (d) 2,000 sq ft

}Figure 10–10
}Figure 10–9
Solution:
Solution:
Area of a Circle = 𝛑 × r2
Area = L × W 𝛑 = 3.14
Area = 40 ft × 30 ft Radius = ½ the diameter
Area = 1,200 sq ft
Area = 3.14 × (8 in. × 0.50)2
Answer: (b) 1,200 sq ft Area = 3.14 × 4 in.2
Area = 3.14 × (4 in. × 4 in.)
Area = 3.14 × 16 sq in.
Area = 50 sq in.
10.12 Surface Area of a Circle
Answer: (b) 50 sq in.
The surface area of a circle is calculated using the formula: Area
Note: If you prefer to use a calculator, then follow these steps:
of a Circle = 𝛑 × r2
Step 1: Find the radius (1/2 the diameter) of the circle by multiplying
Use 3.14 for 𝛑 (pi).
8 in. by 0.50:
The radius (r2) is equal to one half the diameter of the circle.
8 in. × 0.50 = 4 in.
Step 2: Press the square “×2” key = 16 sq in.
Step 3: Multiply 16 sq in. (Step 2) by 3.14.
16 sq in. × 3.14 = 50.26 sq in.
Step 4: Round to match the answer choices: 50 sq in.
Answer: (b) 50 sq in.

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 10.13 | Basic Math

f Surface Area—Circle Example 2

Question: What is the surface area of a 16-in. pizza? }Figure 10–11
(a) 100 sq in. (b) 150 sq in. (c) 200 sq in. (d) 256 sq in.

}Figure 10–12

f Volume Example
}Figure 10–11
Question: What is the volume of a 6 in. × 6 in. × 4 in. box? }Figure
10–13
Solution:
Area of a Circle = 𝛑 × r2 (a) 134 cu in. (b) 144 cu in. (c) 154 cu in. (d) 164 cu in.
𝛑 = 3.14
Radius = 1/2 the diameter
Area = 3.14 × (16 in. × 0.50)2
Area = 3.14 × 8 in.2
Area = 3.14 × (8 in. × 8 in.)
Area = 3.14 × 64 sq in.
Area = 200 sq in.
Answer: (c) 200 sq in.

Author’s Comment:

} As you can see, if you double the circle’s diameter (an 8-in.
}Figure 10–13
pizza versus a 16-in. pizza), its area is increased by a factor
of four. By the way, a large (or extra-large) pizza is always
cheaper per square inch than a small one! }Figure 10–12 Solution:
Volume = Length (L) × Width (W) × Depth (D)
Volume = 6 in. × 6 in. × 4 in.
10.13 Volume Volume = 144 cu in.

The volume of an enclosure is expressed in cubic inches (cu in. or Answer: (b) 144 cu in.
in3), and is determined by multiplying the enclosure’s length, width,
and depth together: Volume = Length (L) × Width (W) × Depth (D).

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 10.14 | Basic Math

10.14 Reciprocal 10.15 Testing Your Answer

A reciprocal is the value of 1 divided by the number. All whole numbers Never assume a mathematical calculation you have done is correct.
shown as a fraction are over 1, a reciprocal flips the top number and Always do a “reality check” to be sure your answer makes sense. Even
puts it on the bottom for the mathematical function. the best of us makes mistakes. You may have part of the problem
jotted down incorrectly, or perhaps you pressed the wrong key on
the calculator. Always examine your answer to see if it makes sense.
f Reciprocal Example
Question: What is the reciprocal of 0.80?
(a) 0.80 (b) 1.10 (c) 1.25 (d) 1.50
Solution:
1/0.80 = 1.25
Answer: (c) 1.25

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 UNIT

11 TRIGONOMETRY
11.1 Introduction

Trigonometry is the mathematical study of triangles. Trigonometry is used to determine three-phase voltage systems, size power factor
correction capacitors, and determine alternating-current wire impedance. In this unit you will learn:
} what right triangles are
} what the Pythagorean Theorem is
} what signs, cosines, and tangents are

11.2 Triangles 11.3 Right Triangle

The basic things to remember when dealing with trigonometry, A right triangle is a triangle that contains a right angle. Important
and specifically with math problems involving triangles, are that: concepts concerning right triangles include: }Figure 11–2
}Figure 11–1

}Figure 11–2
}Figure 11–1
(1) One angle of the triangle is 90° and is called the right angle.
(1) A triangle has three sides: a = adjacent, b= opposite, and
(2) The sum of the other two angles in the triangle equals 90°.
c = hypotenuse.
(3) The side of a right triangle that is opposite the right angle is called
(2) A triangle has three angles.
the “hypotenuse,” which is the longest side of a right triangle and
(3) The total degrees of all angles in a triangle equals 180°. is represented by “c.”

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 11.4 | Trigonometry

(2) You can calculate the length of the Opposite side using:
11.4 Pythagorean Theorem
b = √(c2 - a2)
The Pythagorean Theorem describes the mathematical relationship
between the sides and angles of right triangles.
(1) You can calculate the length of the Hypotenuse side using: f Example 2
c = √(a2 + b2) Question: What is the length of the opposite (b) side of a right triangle
where the adjacent side (a) has a length of 24 ft, and the hypotenuse
f Example 1 (c) has a length of 40 ft? }Figure 11–4

Question: What is the length of the hypotenuse (c) of a right triangle (a) 20 ft (b) 24 ft (c) 32 ft (d) 40 ft
where the opposite side (b) has a height of 32 ft, and the adjacent
side (a) has a length of 24 ft? }Figure 11–3
(a) 20 ft (b) 24 ft (c) 32 ft (d) 40 ft

}Figure 11–4

Solution:

}Figure 11–3 b = √(c2 - a2)

a = Adjacent Side = 24 ft
Solution: b = Opposite Side?
c = √(a2 + b2) c = Hypotenuse = 40 ft

a = Adjacent side = 24 ft Opposite Side = √(402 – 242)

b = Opposite Side = 32 ft Opposite Side = √(1,600 – 576)
c = Hypotenuse? Opposite Side = √1,024
Opposite Side = 32 ft
Hypotenuse = √(242 + 322)
Hypotenuse = √(576 + 1,024) Note: To solve for the square root of a number, use the square root
Hypotenuse = √1,600 key on your calculator.
Hypotenuse = 40 ft Answer: (c) 32 ft
Note: To solve for the square root of a number, use the square root
key on your calculator.
Answer: (d) 40 ft

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 11.5 | Trigonometry

(3) You can calculate the length of the Adjacent side using:
11.5 Practical Use of Trigonometry
a = √(c2 - b2)
Trigonometry can be used to find the height of a structure with just
f Example 3 a carpenter’s speed square and a calculator.

Question: What is the length of the adjacent side (a) of a right triangle
where the opposite side (b) has a height of 32 ft, and the hypotenuse Speed Square Method of Measuring Height
(c) has a length of 40 ft? }Figure 11–5
Step 1: Walk away from the structure until you can see the top without
(a) 20 ft (b) 24 ft (c) 32 ft (d) 40 ft titling your head up.

Step 2: Hold a speed square at eye level in your line of sight with the
bottom of the speed square level with the ground.

Step 3: Note the angle mark on the speed square that lines up with
the top of the structure.

Step 4: Measure (in feet) the distance you are standing away from the
structure.

Step 5: Find the approximate height of the structure using the formula:
Height = [Distance from Structure × (Tan of the Angle)]
+ Eye Height
}Figure 11–5
f Example
Solution: Question: What is the height of a structure if you are standing 52 ft
a = √(c2 - b2) away from the structure, the angle on the speed square is 30°, and
your eyes are 5 ft above the ground? }Figure 11–6
a = Adjacent Side?
b = Opposite Side = 32 ft (a) 25 ft (b) 35 ft (c) 45 ft (d) 55 ft
c = Hypotenuse = 40 ft Solution:
Adjacent Side = √(402 – 322) Height = [Distance from Structure × (Tan of the Angle)] +
Adjacent Side = √(1,600 – 1,024) Eye Height
Adjacent Side = √576
Adjacent Side = 24 ft Distance = 52 ft (given)

Note: To solve for the square root of a number, use the square root Tan of 30° is equal to 0.58 (from calculator)
key on your calculator. Eye Height = 5 ft (given)

Answer: (b) 24 ft Height of Structure = [52 ft × (Tan of 30°)] + 5 ft

Height of Structure = (52 ft × 0.58) + 5 ft
Height of Structure = 30 ft + 5 ft
Height of Structure = 35 ft
Answer: (b) 35 ft
•••

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 11.5 | Trigonometry

}Figure 11–6

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 CHAPTER

5 OHM’S LAW AND

WATT’S LAW
Chapter 5—Ohm’s Law and Watt’s Law
Unit 12—Ohm’s Law
To understand electrical circuits, you must understand electrical terminology. In this unit you will learn:
} what electromotive force, intensity, and resistance are
} what voltmeters, ammeters, and ohmmeters are
} how to use the Ohm’s Law formula

Unit 13—Watt’s Law

Wattage is a measure of the amount of power that is being used in a circuit. In this unit you will learn:
} what Watt’s Law is
} how to use Watt’s Law
} what a wattmeter is

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 UNIT

12 OHM’S LAW
12.1 Introduction

To understand electrical circuits, you must understand electrical terminology. In this unit you will learn:
} what electromotive force, intensity, and resistance are
} what voltmeters, ammeters, and ohmmeters are
} how to use the Ohm’s Law formula

(1) Residential Voltage. In the United States, circuits for residen-

12.2 The Electrical Circuit
tial lights and receptacles operate at 120V, while large demanding
All electrical circuits contain a power source necessary to produce loads like ranges, dryers, and air-conditioning equipment operate at
the pressure to move electrons through the circuit wires to supply 120/240V or 240V. }Figure 12–2
the load. }Figure 12–1

}Figure 12–2

}Figure 12–1
(2) Commercial Voltage. In commercial and industrial occupancies,
the voltage is often 277V for lighting and 480V for commercial loads
12.3 Electromotive Force (Pressure) like motors, air-conditioning units, and other equipment. }Figure 12–3

(A) General. In a circuit, the electrical pressure necessary for current

flow is called “electromotive force” and is measured in the unit called
a “volt” (V). Electromotive force is abbreviated as “EMF.”

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 12.4 | Ohm’s Law

}Figure 12–3 }Figure 12–5

(B) Voltmeter. Voltmeters are connected in parallel with the load and (B) Ohmmeters. Ohmmeters are used to measure resistance in the
are used to measure the difference of potential between the two test unit called an “ohm” (Ω). }Figure 12–6
leads. }Figure 12–4

}Figure 12–6
}Figure 12–4

12.5 Circuit Intensity

12.4 Circuit Resistance
(A) General. In an electrical circuit, the intensity of the current flow
(A) General. In a circuit, resistance is the opposition to current flow. is measured in the unit called an “ampere,” which is represented by
Every component of an electrical circuit contains resistance, which the letter “I” for intensity. }Figure 12–7
includes the power source, the circuit wiring, and the load. Resistance
is represented by the letter “R” or “Ω,” which is the ancient Greek
letter Omega capitalized as “O,” in honor of Georg Simon Ohm (1787–
1854). }Figure 12–5

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 12.6 | Ohm’s Law

}Figure 12–7 }Figure 12–9

(B) Current Measurement.

(1) Series-Connected Ammeters. Series-connected ammeters 12.6 Ohm’s Law
measure current in amperes and are connected in series with the
circuit. Handheld series-connected ammeters are typically limited to (A) General. The German physicist Georg Simon Ohm (1787–1854)
a maximum current of 10 amperes. }Figure 12–8 discovered that current is directly proportional to voltage and inversely
proportional to resistance.
(1) Directly Proportional. Ohm’s Law states that current is directly
proportional to voltage. This means that current will increase in direct
proportion to the voltage increase if the resistance of the circuit remains
the same. If the voltage decreases and the circuit resistance remains
the same, the circuit amperes will decrease in direct proportion to
the voltage change. }Figure 12–10

}Figure 12–8

(2) Clamp-On Ammeter. Clamp-on ammeters measure the circuit

current without opening the circuit wires as is required for a series-
connected ammeter. In addition, these meters can measure current
in the thousands of amperes.
A clamp-on ammeter has a sensor that is clamped around the wire
}Figure 12–10
and detects the rising and falling electromagnetic field being produced
due to the ac flow through the wire. }Figure 12–9

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 12.7 | Ohm’s Law

(2) Inversely Proportional. Ohm’s Law also states that current

is inversely proportional to resistance. This means that current will
decrease in direct proportion to the increase in resistance if the voltage
remains the same. If the resistance decreases and the voltage remains
the same, then the circuit amperes will increase in direct proportion
to the change in resistance. }Figure 12–11

}Figure 12–12

f Electromotive Force E = I × R Example

Question: The voltage to a 192Ω resistor carrying 0.625A is
_____. }Figure 12–13
}Figure 12–11
(a) 1V (b) 110V (c) 120V (d) 125V

(B) Ohm’s Law Formula. The Ohm’s Law formula demonstrates

the relationship between the circuit intensity (I) or current measured
in amperes, the electromotive force (E) or pressure measured in
volts, and the resistance (R) measured in ohms as expressed in the
formula: I = E/R.
The Ohm’s Law formula can be transposed as follows:
I = E/R, Intensity = Electromotive Force/Resistance, Measured
in Amperes
E = I × R, Electromotive Force = Intensity × Resistance, Measured
in Volts
R = E/I, Resistance = Electromotive Force/Intensity, Measured
in Ohms }Figure 12–13

Solution:
12.7 Ohm’s Law Formula Circle
The voltage of this circuit is determined by the formula E = I × R.
To determine which formula in the Ohm’s Law Formula Circle to use,
E=I×R
place your finger on the unknown value for which you are looking. The
two remaining variables “show” you the formula to be used. }Figure I = 0.625A
12–12 R = 192Ω
E = 0.625A × 192Ω
Answer: (c) 120V

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 12.7 | Ohm’s Law

f Intensity I = E/R Example f Resistance R = E/I Example

Question: If a 120V source supplies a 192Ω light bulb, the current Question: The resistance of an incandescent light bulb rated 120V
flow in the circuit will be _____. }Figure 12–14 drawing 0.625A is _____. }Figure 12–15
(a) 0.525A (b) 0.625A (c) 1.30A (d) 2.50A (a) 100Ω (b) 175Ω (c) 192Ω (d) 200Ω

}Figure 12–14 }Figure 12–15

Solution: Solution:
Step 1: What is the question? What is “I”? Step 1: What is the question? What is “R”?
Step 2: What do you know? Step 2: What do you know?
Voltage (E) = 120V Voltage (E) = 120V
Resistance (R) = 192Ω Current (I) = 0.625A
Step 3: The formula to use is I = E/R. Step 3: The formula to use is R = E/I.
Step 4: The answer is I = 120V/192Ω. Step 4: The answer is R = 120V/0.625A.
Step 5: The answer is I = 0.625A. Step 5: The answer is R = 192Ω.
Answer: (b) 0.625A Answer: (c) 192Ω 

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 UNIT

13 WATT’S LAW
13.1 Introduction

Wattage is a measure of the amount of power that is being used in a circuit. In this unit you will learn:
} what Watt’s Law is
} how to use Watt’s Law
} what a wattmeter is

The formula for Watt’s Law can be transposed as follows:

13.2 Watt’s Law
P = I × E, Power = Intensity × Electromotive Force, Measured
Power is defined as the rate of work measured by the unit called in Watts
the “watt.”
I = P/E, Intensity = Power/Electromotive Force, Measured
(A) Watt’s Law Formula. Watt’s Law states that power (P) in watts in Amperes
is equal to intensity (I) in amperes, times the electromotive force (E)
E = P/I, Electromotive Force = Power/Intensity, Measured in Volts
in volts. }Figure 13–1
(B) Wattmeter. A wattmeter measures power by connecting it in
parallel with the circuit to measure voltage, and in series with the
circuit to measure amperes to calculate watts. }Figure 13–2

}Figure 13–1

}Figure 13–2

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 13.3 | Watt’s Law

f Example f Power (P) Example

Question: A(An) _____ is used to measure power. Question: What is the power consumed by a circuit carrying 24A
having a voltage drop of 7.20V? }Figure 13–4
(a) wattmeter (b) voltmeter (c) ohmmeter (d) megger
(a) 125W (b) 175W (c) 235W (d) 350W
Answer: (a) wattmeter

13.3 Power Formula Circle

The Power Formula Circle demonstrates the relationship between

power, current, and voltage. To apply Watt’s Law using the Power
Formula Circle, place your finger on the unknown value for which you
are looking and the two remaining variables “show” you the formula
to be used. }Figure 13–3

}Figure 13–4

Solution:
Step 1: What is the question asking you to find? What is the wire
power loss? “P.”
Step 2: What do you know about the wires?
I = 24A
E = 7.20 VD
Step 3: The formula is P = I × E.

}Figure 13–3 Step 4: Calculate the answer.

P = 24A × 7.20 VD
P = 172.80W
Answer: (b) 175W

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 13.4 | Watt’s Law

f Intensity (I) Example

Question: What is the current through a 7.50 kW heat strip rated
230V? }Figure 13–5
(a) 25A (b) 33A (c) 39A (d) 230A

}Figure 13–6

f Power Equals the Square (2) of the Voltage

Example 1
}Figure 13–5
Question: What is the power consumed by a 10Ω load operating
Solution: at 120V?

Step 1: What is the question? What is “I”? (a) 1,040W (b) 1,400W (c) 1,440W (d) 1,444W

Step 2: What do you know? Solution:

Heat Strip Power Rating, P = 7.50 kW × 1,000 P = E²/R

Heat Strip Power Rating, P = 7,500W E = 120V (given)
Heat Strip Voltage Rating, E = 230V R = 10Ω (given)
Step 3: The formula is I = P/E. P = (120V × 120V)/10Ω
Step 4: The answer is I = 7,500W/230V. P = 14,400/10Ω
P = 1,440W
Step 5: The answer is 32.61A.
Answer: (c) 1,440W
Answer: (b) 33A

13.4 Power Changes with the

Square of the Voltage

The voltage applied to a load affects the power consumed by that

load. The voltage can dramatically affect the power consumed by a
load because power is a function of the square of the voltage. This
means that if the voltage is doubled, the power will be four times the
original value. If the voltage is decreased to 50 percent, the power
will be 25 percent of its original value. }Figure 13–6

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 13.4 | Watt’s Law

f Power Equals the Square (2) of the Voltage

Example 2
Question: What is the power consumed by a 10Ω load operating
at 240V?
(a) 5,600W (b) 5,660W (c) 5,700W (d) 5,760W
Solution:
P = E²/R
E = 240V (given)
R = 10Ω (given)
P = (240V × 240V)/10Ω
P = 57,600/10Ω
P = 5,760W
Answer: (d) 5,760W
Note: At 240V, the 10Ω resistor consumes four times the power as
compared to the 120V circuit power.

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