Fundamentals of

Plant Pathology
[Document subtitle]

Dr. [Link]
Department of Plant Pathology
Q1) Define plant pathology and write down its scope and objective with
importance of plant pathology?
ANS- Definition- Plant pathology is the branch of biological, botanical and agricultural science
which deals with the systemic study of plant diseases, their causes, symptomatology, etiology,
pathogenesis, mode of recurrence and their economic management.

Plant pathology or it is also called as phytopathology is derived from Greek words

Phyton=Plant

Pathos= Ailments or sufferings or disease

logus= Discourse or knowledge

Objectives of plant pathology

1. To study the importance of plant disease epidemics and its economic impact on crops.

2. To study biotic (living), mesobiotic (viruses/viroid) and abiotic (non-living and

environmental) causes of disease/ disorders.

3. To study the different types of symptoms, cause and pathogens characteristics and its
reproduction.

4. To study the epidemiology of diseases.

5. To study and apply methods of management of plant diseases.

Scope of plant pathology

Scope and responsibility of plant pathology is unlimited. Its ultimate goal is to prevent and
control plant diseases of economic importance. Responsibilities of the science of plant
pathology may be summarized as follows.

1) Survey of field, orchards and areas in order to find out prevalence of disease and their
incidence.
2) Recording new disease of economic importance if any, with their identification and
extent of incidence.
3) Assessment of losses caused by different diseases of economic importance
4) Study of etiology, symptoms, predisposing factors and recurrence of such diseases.
5) Find out suitable and economic method of management of economically important
plant diseases.
 6) Assisting in breeding of diseases resistant varieties.
7) To train the extension workers and subject matter specialist in order to bridge in gap
between pathologist and farmers for better crop production.
Importance of plant pathology
1) Plant pathology has advanced the knowledge to protect the crop from losses due to
diseases.
2) The science of plant pathology has contributed diseases free certified seed production
3) Most of the disease with known disease cycle can now be avoided by the modification
of cultural practices and adoption of crop rotation
4) Crop improvement and varietal resistance have been achieved against many diseases
through the joint efforts of breeder and plant pathologist
5) With the knowledge of mode of disease spread, many diseases of economic importance
can now be checked, minimized or controlled.
6) Plant pathology has made possible to restrict the spread of disease from one place to
another and one country to other through suitable measures and quarantine legislation.
7) With the knowledge of plant pathology various prophylactic measures are adopted for
successful management of diseases. These measures are seed treatment in seed borne
diseases and soil treatment and crop rotation in soil borne plant diseases.
8) Diseases can be avoided in cold storage by the application of plant pathological
measures as per recommendation made for a different disease for protection of fruits
and vegetables in storage
9) Plant pathology has made possible to recognize, discard or utilize toxic substances
causing food poisoning produced by the [Link] ergot of rye
10) Plant pathology has contributed the art and science of mushroom cultivation for better
health and food sufficiency.
Different disciplines of plant pathology
The subject of plant pathology is so wide. Therefore, it is desirable to study by dividing it in to
following disciplines.
Plant mycology- The science which deals with systemic studies of fungi their evolutionary
processes, taxonomy, morphology, life cycle and host parasite relationship is called mycology.
Plant bacteriology-the science of bacteriology deals with the study of morphology ,taxonomy,
symptomatology, reproduction, pathogenesis and economic methods of management of plant
disease caused by bacteria.
Plant virology- the science which includes study of viruses, viroid, phytoplasma and disease
caused by them is called plant virology.
Plant nematology- the scientific study of nematodes and diseases caused by them to plants is
called as plant nematology.
General terms in plant pathology
Abiotic - Nonliving, or caused by a nonliving agent; e.g.,abiotic disease.
Acervulus -A subepidermal, saucer-shaped, asexual fruiting body producing conidia on short
conidio-phores.
Acquired resistance- Plant resistance to disease activated after inoculation of the plant with
certain microorganisms or treatment with certain chemical compounds.
Active defense -Defenses induced in the plant after attack by a pathogen.
Aecium - A cup-shaped fruiting body of rust fungi that produces aeciospores.
Aerobic -A microorganism that lives, or a process that occurs, in the presence of molecular
oxygen.
Aflatoxin- A mycotoxin produced by the fungus Aspergillus flavus and by some other fungi.
Agar - A gelatin-like material obtained from seaweed and used to prepare culture media on
which microorganisms are grown and studied.
Abiotic- Nonliving, or caused by a nonliving agent; e.g., abiotic disease.
Acervulus- A subepidermal, saucer-shaped, asexual fruiting body producing conidia on short
conidio-phores.
Acquired resistance-Plant resistance to disease activated after inoculation of the plant with
certain microorganisms or treatment with certain chemical compounds.
Active defense-Defenses induced in the plant after attack by a pathogen.
Aecium-A cup-shaped fruiting body of rust fungi that produces aeciospores.
Aerobic -A microorganism that lives, or a process that occurs, in the presence of molecular
oxygen.
Aflatoxin- A mycotoxin produced by the fungus Aspergillus flavus and by some other fungi.
Agar-A gelatin-like material obtained from seaweed and used to prepare culture media on
which microorganisms are grown and studied.
Agroterrorism Terroristm caused by scaring consumers away from buying certain agricultural
products such as vegetables, milk, and meat, by contaminating them on the farm or in the
market with human pathogens. Also, scaring people for future shortages of food by spreading
plant pathogens on crops so that terrorists reduce the amount of food produced.
Alarm signal- A chemical compound, presumably produced by a host plant, in response to
infection, and sent out to host cell proteins and genes that the plant activates to produce
substances inhibitory to the pathogen.
Alternate host- One of two kinds of plants on which a parasitic fungus (e.g., rust) must develop
to complete its life cycle.
Anaerobic- A microorganism that lives, or a process that occurs, in the absence of molecular
oxygen.
Anamorph- The imperfect or asexual stage of a fungus.
Anastomosis-The union of a hypha with another, resulting in intercommunication of their
genetic material.
Antheridium- The male sexual organ found in some fungi.
Anthracnose- A disease that appears as black, sunken, leaf, stem, or fruit lesions, caused by
fungi that produce their asexual spores in an acervulus.
Antibiotic- A chemical compound produced by one microorganism that inhibits or kills other
microorganisms.
Antibody A protein produced in a warm-blooded animal in reaction to an injected foreign
antigen and capable of reacting specifically with that antigen.
Antigen A substance, usually a protein, that, when injected into a warm-blooded animal, causes
the formation of an antibody.
Antiserum The blood serum containing antibodies possessed by a warm-blooded animal.
Apoplast The area outside the plasma membrane of cells, consisting of cell walls and
conducting cells of the xylem, that contains the aqueous phase of intercellular
solutes.
Apothecium An open cup- or saucer-shaped ascocarp of some ascomycetes.
Appressorium The swollen tip of a hypha or germ tube that facilitates attachment and
penetration of the host by a fungus.
Arbuscule A branched, tuft-like haustorium, produced by certain mycorrhizal fungi inside root
cells.
Area under the disease progress curve (AUDPC) The area of a graph under the line that
depicts the progress of an epidemic.
Ascocarp The fruiting body of ascomycetes bearing or containing asci.
Ascogenous hyphae Hyphae arising from the fertilized ascogonium and producing the asci.
Ascogonium The female gametangium or sexual organ of ascomycetes.
Ascomycetes A group of fungi producing their sexual spores, ascospores, within asci.
Ascospore A sexually produced spore borne in an ascus.
Ascostroma The ascocarp or reproductive structure of certain ascomycetes that bears the spore
sacs within cavities called locules.
Ascus A sac-like cell of a hypha in which meiosis occurs and that contains ascospores (usually
eight).
Asexual reproduction Any type of reproduction not involving the union of gametes or
meiosis.
Autoecious fungus A parasitic fungus that can complete its entire life cycle on the same host.
Auxotroph An organism partly or totally deficient on a substance, the addition of which
significantly promotes the growth of the organism.
Avirulence The inability of a pathogen to infect a certain plant variety that carries genetic
resistance.
Avirulent Lacking virulence.
Avr gene A gene that codes for avirulence.
Avr protein The protein coded for by an Avr gene, acting as an elicitor of defense reactions.
Bacillus A rod-shaped bacterium.
Bactericide A chemical compound that kills bacteria.
Bacteriocins Bactericidal substances produced by certain strains of bacteria and are active
against some other strains of the same or closely related species.
Bacteriophage A virus that infects bacteria and usually kills them.
Bacteriostatic A chemical or physical agent that prevents multiplication of bacteria without
killing them.
Basidiomycetes A group of fungi producing their sexual spores, basidiospores, on basidia.
Basidiospore A sexually produced spore borne on a basidium.
Basidium A club-shaped structure on which basidiospores are borne.
Biological control Total or partial inhibition or destruction of pathogen populations by other
organisms.
Biotechnology The use of genetically modified organisms and/or modern techniques and
processes with biological systems for industrial production.
Biotic Living; associated with or caused by a living organism.
Biotroph An organism that can live and multiply only on another living organism.
Biotype A subgroup within a species or race, usually characterized by the common possession
of a single or a few new characters.
Blight A disease characterized by general and rapid killing of leaves, flowers, and stems.
Blotch A disease characterized by large, irregularly shaped, spots or blots on leaves, shoots,
and stems.
Budding A method of vegetative propagation of plants by implantation of buds from the
mother plant onto a rootstock.
Bunt A disease of wheat caused by the fungus Tilletia in which contents of the wheat grains
are replaced by odorous smut spores.
Canker A necrotic, often sunken, lesion on a stem, branch, or twig of a plant.
Capsid The protein coat of viruses forming the closed shell or tube that contains nucleic acid.
Capsule A relatively thick layer of mucopolysaccha-rides that surrounds some kinds of
bacteria.
Chemotherapy Control of a plant disease with chemicals (chemotherapeutants) that are
absorbed and translocated internally.
Chitin A complex, N-containing carbohydrate, derived from N-acetyl-D-glucosamine, forming
the hard outer shell of insects, crustaceans, arthropods, fungi, and some algae.
Chlamydospore A thick-walled asexual spore formed by the modification of a cell of a fungus
hypha.
Chlorosis Yellowing of normally green tissue due to chlorophyll destruction or failure of
chlorophyll formation.
Chronic symptoms Symptoms that appear over a long period of time.
Circulative viruses Viruses that are acquired by their vectors through their mouthparts,
accumulate internally, and then are passed through tissues of the vector and introduced into
plants again via the mouthparts of the vectors.
Cleistothecium An entirely closed ascocarp.
Clone A group of genetically identical individuals produced asexually from one individual.
within a certain area of RNA determines the sequence of
amino acids in the synthesis of the particular protein.
genera, species, strains, etc.
Conidiophore A specialized hypha on which one or more conidia are produced.
Conidium An asexual fungus spore formed from the end of a conidiophore.
Conjugation A process of sexual reproduction involving the fusion of two gametes. Also, in
bacteria, the transfer of genetic material from a donor cell to a recipient cell through direct cell-
to-cell contact.
Cork An external, secondary tissue impermeable to water and gases. It is often formed in
response to wounding or infection.
Cross protection The phenomenon in which plant tissues infected with one strain of a virus
are protected from infection by other, more severe, strains of the same virus.
Culture To artificially grow microorganisms or plant tissue on a prepared food material; a
colony of microorganisms or plant cells artificially maintained on such food material.
Cuticle A thin, way layer on the outer wall of epidermal cells consisting primarily of wax and
cutin.
Cutin A waxy substance comprising the inner layer of the cuticle.
Cyst An encysted zoospore (fungi); in nematodes, the carcass of dead adult females of the
genus Heterodera or Globodera, which may contain eggs.
Damping-off Destruction of seedlings near the soil line, resulting in the seedlings falling over
on the ground.
Dieback Progressive death of shoots, branches, and roots, generally starting at the tip.
Dikaryotic Mycelium or spores containing two sexually compatible nuclei per cell. Common
in the basidiomycetes.
Disease Any malfunctioning of host cells and tissues that results from continuous irritation by
a pathogenic agent or environmental factor and leads to development of symptoms.
Disease cycle The chain of events involved in disease development, including the stages of
development of the pathogen and the effect of the disease on the host.
Disinfectant A physical or chemical agent that frees a plant, organ, or tissue from infection.
Disinfestant An agent that kills or inactivates pathogens in the environment or on the surface
of a plant or plant organ before infection takes place.
Downy mildew A plant disease in which the sporangiophores and spores of a fungus appear as
a downy growth on the lower surface of leaves and stems, fruit, etc., caused by fungi in the
family Peronosporaceae.
Ectoparasite A parasite feeding on a host from the exterior.
Elicitors Molecules produced by a pathogen that induce a defense response by the host.
ELISA A serological test in which one antibody carries with it an enzyme that releases a
colored compound.
Enation Tissue malformation or overgrowth, induced by certain virus infections.
Endoparasite A parasite that enters a host and feeds from within.
Enzyme A protein produced by living cells that can catalyze a specific organic reaction.
Epidemic A disease increases in a population; usually a widespread and severe outbreak of a
disease.
Epidemic rate- The amount of increase of disease per unit or time in a plant population.
Epidemiology The study of factors affecting the outbreak and spread of infectious diseases.
Epidermis The superficial layer of cells occurring on all plant parts.
Epiphytically Existing on the surface of a plant or plant organ without causing infection.
Epiphytotic A widespread and destructive outbreak of a disease of plants; epidemic.
Eradicant A chemical substance that destroys a pathogen at its source.
Eradication Control of plant disease by eliminating the pathogen after it is established or by
eliminating the plants that carry the pathogen.
Etiology of disease The determination and study of the cause of a disease.
Facultative parasite Having the ability to be a parasite.
Fermentation Oxidation of certain organic substances in the absence of molecular oxygen.
Fertilization The sexual union of two nuclei, resulting in doubling of chromosome numbers.
Filamentous Thread like; filiform.
Fission Transverse splitting in two of bacterial cells; asexual reproduction.
Fitness The ability of a pathogen to survive and reproduce.
Flagellum A whip-like structure projecting from a bacterium or zoospore and functioning as
an organ of locomotion; also called a cilium.
Forma specialis (f. sp.) A group of races and biotypes of a pathogen species that can infect
only plants within a certain host genus or species.
Free-living Of a microorganism that lives freely, unattached, or a pathogen living in the soil,
outside its host.
Fructification Production of spores by fungi; also, a fruiting body.
Fruiting body A complex fungal structure containing spores.
Fumigant A toxic gas or volatile substance that is used to disinfest soil or certain areas from
various pests.
Fumigation The application of a fumigant for disinfestation of an area or soil.
Fungicide A compound toxic to fungi.
Fungigation Application of fungicides to foliage or roots through the irrigation system.
Fungistatic A compound that prevents fungus growth without killing the fungus.
Gall A swelling or overgrowth produced on a plant as a result of infection by certain pathogens.
Gametangium A cell containing gametes or nuclei that act as gametes.
Gamete A male or female reproductive cell or nuclei within a gametangium.
Gene A linear portion of the chromosome that determines or conditions one or more hereditary
characters; the smallest functioning unit of the genetic material.
Gene for gene The concept that for each gene for virulence in a pathogen there is a
corresponding gene for resistance in the host toward that pathogen.
Genetic engineering Alteration of the genetic composition of a cell or organism by various
procedures (transformation, protoplast fusion, etc.).
Germ theory The proposal that infectious and contagious diseases are caused by germs
(microorganisms).
Germ tube The early growth of mycelium produced by a germinating fungus spore.
Gum Complex polysaccharidal substances formed by cells in reaction to wounding or
infection.
Gummosis Production of gum by or in a plant tissue.
Guttation Exudation of water from plants, particularly along the leaf margin.
Habitat The natural place of occurrence of an organism.
Haploid A cell or an organism whose nuclei have a single complete set of chromosomes.
Haustorium A simple or branched projection of hyphae into host cells that acts as an absorbing
organ.
Hectare An area of land equal to 2.5 acres.
Hemibiotrophic An organism that lives part of its life as a parasite on another organism and
the other part as a sarophyte.
Hermaphrodite An individual bearing both functional male and female reproductive organs.
Heteroecious Requiring two different kinds of hosts to complete its life cycle, pertaining
particularly to rust fungi.
Heterokaryosis The condition in which a mycelium contains two genetically different nuclei
per cell.
Heteroploid A cell, tissue, or organism that contains more or fewer chromosomes per nucleus
than the normal 1N or 2N for that organism.
Heterothallic fungi Fungi producing compatible male and female gametes on physiologically
distinct mycelia.
Homothallic fungus A fungus producing compatible male and female gametes on the same
mycelium.
Horizontal resistance Partial resistance, equally effective against all races of a pathogen.
Host A plant that is invaded by a parasite and from which the parasite obtains its nutrients.
Host range The various kinds of host plants that may be attacked by a parasite.
Hyaline Colorless; transparent.
Hybrid The offspring of two individuals differing in one or more heritable characteristics.
Hybridization The crossing of two individuals differing in one or more heritable
characteristics.
Hybridoma A hybrid animal cell produced by the fusion of a spleen cell and a cancer cell and
able to produce monoclonal antibodies and to multiply.
Hydathodes Structures with one or more openings that discharge water from the interior of a
leaf to its surface.
Hydrolysis The enzymatic breakdown of a compound through the addition of water.
Hyperparasite A parasite parasitic on another parasite.
Hyperplasia A plant overgrowth due to increased cell division.
Hypersensitivity Excessive sensitivity of plant tissues to certain pathogens. Affected cells are
killed quickly, blocking the advance of obligate parasites.
Hypertrophy A plant overgrowth due to abnormal cell enlargement.
Hypha A single branch of a mycelium.
Hypovirulence Reduced virulence of a pathogen strain as a result of the presence of
transmissible double-stranded RNA.
Immune Cannot be infected by a given pathogen.
Immunity The state of being immune.
Imperfect fungus A fungus that is not known to produce sexual spores; also known as a
deuteromycete or a mitosporic fungus.
Imperfect stage The part of the life cycle of a fungus in which no sexual spores are produced;
the anamorph stage.
Incubation period The period of time between penetration of a host by a pathogen and the
first appearance of symptoms on the host.
Indexing A procedure to determine whether a given plant is infected by a virus or a xylem- or
phloem-infecting fastidious bacterium. It involves the transfer of a bud, scion, sap, etc. from
one plant to one or more kinds of (indicator) plants that are sensitive to the virus or other
pathogen.
Indicator A plant that reacts to certain viruses or environmental factors with production of
specific symptoms and is used for detection and identification of these factors.
Induced systemic resistance A systemic resistance in plants that is triggered by certain strains
of nonpathogenic root-colonizing bacteria; its signaling requires jasmonic acid and ethylene.
Infection The establishment of a parasite within a host plant.
Infectious disease A disease that is caused by a pathogen that can spread from a diseased to a
healthy plant.
Infested Containing great numbers of insects, mites, nematodes, etc. as applied to an area or
field. Also applied to a plant surface, soil, container, or tool contaminated with bacteria, fungi,
etc.
Injury Damage of a plant by an animal, physical, or chemical agent.
Inoculate To bring a pathogen into contact with a host plant or plant organ.
Inoculation The arrival or transfer of a pathogen onto a host.
Inoculum The pathogen or its parts that can cause infection; that portion of individual
pathogens that are brought into contact with the host.
Integrated control An approach that attempts to use all available methods of control of a
disease or of all the diseases and pests of a crop plant for best control results but with the least
cost and the least damage to the environment.
Integrated pest management The attempt to prevent pathogens, insects, and weeds from
causing economic crop losses by using a variety of management methods that are cost effective
and cause the least damage to the environment.
Intercalary Formed along and within the mycelium, not at the hyphal tips.
Intercellual Between cells.
Intracellular Within or through the cells.
Invasion The spread of a pathogen into the host.
In vivo In culture, outside the host.
In vivo In the host.
Isolate A single spore or culture and the subcultures derived from it. Also used to indicate
collections of a pathogen made at different times.
Isolation The separation of a pathogen from its host and its culture on a nutrient medium.
Latent infection The state in which a host is infected with a pathogen but does not show any
symptoms.
Latent virus A virus that does not induce symptom development in its host.
Leaf spot A self-limiting lesion on a leaf.
Lectins A group of plant proteins that bind to specific carbohydrates.
Lenticel An opening in the stem of woody plants that has spongy cells at its base and allows
for the exchange of gases between the plant and the atmosphere.
Life cycle The stage or successive stages in the growthand development of an organism that
occur between the Appearance and reappearance of the same stage (e.g., spore) of the organism.
Local lesion A localized spot produced on a leaf upon mechanical inoculation with a virus.
Macroscopic Visible to the naked eye without the aid of a magnifying lens or a microscope.
Masked symptoms Symptoms of a virus-infected plant that are absent under certain
environmental conditions but appear when the host is exposed to certain conditions of light and
temperature.
Meiospore A spore produced through meiosis, a sexual spore.
Micrometer (mm) A unit of length equal to 1/1000 of a millimeter.
Microscopic Very small; can be seen only with the aid of a microscope.
Middle lamella The cementing layer between adjacent cell walls; it generally consists of
pectinaceous materials, except in woody tissues, where pectin is replaced by lignin.
Mildew A fungal disease of plants in which the mycelium and spores of the fungus are seen as
a whitish growth on the host surface.
Millimeter (mm) A unit of length equal to 1/10 of a centimeter (cm) or 0.03937 of an inch.
Mitosporic fungi Producing spores only through mitosis (imperfect fungi or deuteromycetes).
Mold Any profuse or woolly fungus growth on damp or decaying matter or on surfaces of plant
tissue.
Monocyclic Having one cycle per season.
Mosaic Symptom of certain viral diseases of plants characterized by intermingled patches of
normal and light green or yellowish color.
Mottle An irregular pattern of indistinct light and dark areas.
Mummy A dried, shriveled fruit.
Mutation An abrupt appearance of a new characteristic in an individual as the result of an
accidental change in a gene or chromosome.
Mycelium The hypha or mass of hyphae that make up the body of a fungus.
Mycoplasma-like organisms Microorganisms found in the phloem and phloem parenchyma
of diseased plants and assumed to be the cause of the disease; they resemble mycoplasmas in
all respects except that they cannot yet be grown on artificial nutrient media. Now called
phytoplasmas or spiroplasmas.
Mycoplasmas Pleomorphic prokaryotic microorganisms that lack a cell wall.
Mycorrhiza A symbiotic association of a fungus with the roots of a plant.
Mycotoxins Toxic substances produced by several fungi in infected seeds, feeds, or foods; and
capable
Nanometer (nm) A unit of length equal to 1/1000 of a micrometer.
Necrotic Dead and discolored.
Nectrotroph A microorganism feeding only on dead organic tissues.
Nematicide A chemical compound or physical agent that kills or inhibits nematodes.
Nematode Generally microscopic, worm-like animals that live saprophytically in water or soil,
or as parasites of plants and animals.
Nonhost resistance Inability of a pathogen to infect a plant because the plant is not a host of
the pathogen due to lack of something in the plant that the pathogen needs or to the presence
of substances incompatible with the pathogen.
Noninfectious disease A disease that is caused by an abiotic agent, i.e., by an environmental
factor, not by a pathogen.
Obligate parasite A parasite that in nature can grow and multiply only on or in living
organisms.
Oogonium The female gametangium of oomycetes containing one or more gametes.
Oomycete A fungus-like chromistan that produces oospores; a water mold.
Oospore A sexual spore produced by the union of two morphologically different gametangia
(oogonium and antheridium).
Ostiole A pore-like opening in perithecia and pycnidia through which the spores escape from
the fruiting body.
Paraphysis A sterile hypha present in some fruiting bodies of fungi.
Parasexualism A mechanism whereby recombination of hereditary properties occurs within
fungal heterokaryons.
Parasite An organism living on or in another living organism (host) and obtaining its food
from the latter.
Parenchyma A tissue composed of thin-walled cells that usually leave intercellular spaces
between them.
Pathogen An entity that can incite disease.
Pathogenicity The capability of a pathogen to cause disease.
Pathogenicity factors These factors are produced by pathogenicity genes, are essential, and
are involved in all crucial steps in disease induction and development.
Pathogenicity genes Genes that are essential for a pathogen to be able to cause disease.
Pathovar In bacteria, a subspecies or group of strains that can infect only plants within a certain
genus or species.
Penetration The initial invasion of a host by a pathogen.
Perfect stage The sexual stage in the life cycle of a fungus; The teleomorph.
Perithecium The globular or flask-shaped ascocarp of the Pyrenomycetes, having an opening
or pore (ostiole).
Phage A virus that attacks bacteria; also called bacteriophage.
Phloem Food-conducting tissues, consisting of sieve tubes, companion cells, phloem
parenchyma, and fibers.
Phyllody Excessive production of leaves in place of shoots and blossoms.
Phytoalexin A substance that inhibits the development of a fungus on hypersensitive tissue
formed when host plant cells come in contact with the parasite.
Phytopathogenic Term applicable to a microorganism that can incite disease in plants.
Phytoplasmas Mollicutes that infect plants and cannot yet be grown in culture, as contrasted
to spiroplalsmas, which can be cultured.
Phytotoxic Toxic to plants.
Plasmid A self-replicating, extrachromosomal, hereditary circular DNA found in certain
bacteria and fungi, generally not required for survival of the organism.
Polycyclic Completes many (life or disease) cycles in one year.
Polyetic Requires many years to complete one life or disease cycle.
Primary infection The first infection of a plant by the overwintering or oversummering
pathogen.
Primary inoculum The overwintering or oversummer-ing pathogen, or its spores that cause
primary infection.
Prokaryote A microorganism whose genetic material is not organized into a membrane-bound
nucleus, e.g.,bacteria and mollicutes.
Promycelium The short hypha produced by the teliospore; the basidium.
Propagative virus A virus that multiplies in its insect vector.
Protectant A substance that protects an organism against infection by a pathogen.
Protozoa Individual organisms of the kingdom Protozoa or of the phylum Protozoa of the
kingdom Protista. Among the plant pathogens, it includes Myxomycetes,
Plasmodiophoromycetes, and Flagellate protozoa.
Purification The isolation and concentration of virus particles in a pure form, free from cell
components.
Pustule Small blister-like elevation of epidermis created as spores form underneath and push
outward.
Pycnidium An asexual, spherical, or flask-shaped fruiting body lined inside with
conidiophores and producing conidia.
Pycniospore Also called a spermatium. A spore produced in a pycnium (spermagonium).
Pycnium Also called a spermagonium. In some basidiomycetes, it contains spermatia and
receptive hyphae.
Quarantine Control of import and export of plants to prevent spread of diseases and pests.
Resistance The ability of an organism to exclude or overcome, completely or in some degree,
the effect of a pathogen or other damaging factor.
Resistant Possessing qualities that hinder the development of a given pathogen; infected little
or not at all.
Resting spore A sexual or other thick-walled spore of a fungus that is resistant to extremes in
temperature and moisture and which often germinates only after a period of time from its
formation.
Rhizoid A short, thin hypha growing in a root-like fashion toward the substrate.
Rhizosphere The soil near a living root.
Rickettsiae Microorganisms similar to bacteria in most respects but generally capable of
multiplying only inside living host cells; parasitic or symbiotic.
Ring spot A circular area of chlorosis with a green center; a symptom of many virus diseases.
Rosette Short, bunchy habit of plant growth.
Rot The softening, discoloration, and often disintegration of a succulent plant tissue as a result
of fungal or bacterial infection.
Russet Brownish roughened areas on skin of fruit as a result of cork formation.
Rust A disease giving a “rusty” appearance to a plant and caused by one of the Uredinales (rust
fungi).
Sanitation The removal and burning of infected plant parts, decontamination of tools,
equipment, hands, etc.
Saprophyte An organism that uses dead organic material for food.
Scab A roughened, crust-like diseased area on the surface of a plant organ; a disease in which
such areas form.
Sclerotium A compact mass of hyphae with or without host tissue, usually with a darkened
rind, and capable of surviving under unfavorable environmental conditions.
Scorch “Burning” of leaf margins as a result of infection or unfavorable environmental
conditions.
Secondary infection Any infection caused by inoculum produced as a result of a primary or a
subsequent infection; an infection caused by secondary inoculum.
Secondary inoculum Inoculum produced by infections that take place during the same
growing season.
Septate Having cross walls.
Septum A cross wall (in a hypha or spore).
Sexual Participating in or produced as a result of a union of nuclei in which meiosis takes
place.
Shock symptoms The severe, often necrotic symptoms produced on the first new growth
following infection with some viruses; also called acute symptoms.
Shot hole A symptom in which small diseased fragments of leaves fall off and leave small
holes in their place.
Sign The pathogen or its parts or products seen on a host plant.
Slime molds Formerly fungi, now protozoa of the class Myxomycetes; also, superficial
diseases caused by these pseudofungi on low-lying plants.
Smut A disease caused by smut fungi (Ustilaginales) characterized by masses of dark, powdery
and sometimes odorous spores.
Soft rot A rot of a fleshy fruit, vegetable, or ornamental in which the tissue becomes macerated
by the enzymes of the pathogen.
Soil inhabitants Microorganisms able to survive in the soil indefinitely as saprophytes.
Soil solarization Attempt to reduce or eliminate pathogen populations in the soil by covering
the soil with clear plastic so that sun rays will raise the soil temperature to levels that kill the
pathogen.
Sooty mold A sooty coating on foliage and fruit formed by dark hyphae of fungi that live in
the hon-eydew secreted by insects such as aphids, mealybugs, scales, and whiteflies.
Sorus A compact mass of spores or fruiting structure found especially in rusts and smuts.
Spermagonium (formerly pycnium) A fruiting body of rust fungi in which gametes or
gametangia are produced.
Spermatium (formerly pycniospore) The male gamete or gametangium of rust fungi.
Sporagiophore A specialized hypha bearing one or more sporangia.
Sporagiospore Nonmotile, asexual spore borne in a sporangium.
Sporangium A container or case of asexual spores. In some cases, it functions as a single spore.
Spore The reproductive unit of fungi consisting of one or more cells; in function, it is analogous
to the seed of green plants.
Sporidium The basidiospore of smut fungi.
Sporodochium A fruiting structure consisting of a cluster
of conidiophores woven together on a mass of hyphae.
Sporophore A hypha or fruiting structure bearing spores.
Sporulate To produce spores.
Stem pitting A symptom of some viral diseases characterized by depressions on the stem of
the plant.
Sterigma A slender protruberance on a basidium that supports the basidiospore.
Sterile fungi A group of fungi that are not known to produce any kind of spores.
Sterilization The elimination of pathogens and other living organisms from soil, containers,
etc., by means of heat or chemicals.
Strain The decendants of a single isolation in pure culture; an isolate. Also a group of similar
isolates; a race. In plant viruses, a group of virus isolates having most of their antigens in
common.
Stroma A compact mycelial structure on or in which fructifications are usually formed.
Substrate The material or substance on which a microorganism feeds and develops; also a
substance acted upon by an enzyme.
Suppressive soils Soils in which certain diseases are suppressed because of the presence in the
soil of microorganisms antagonistic to the pathogen.
Suscept Any plant that can be attacked by a given pathogen; a host plant.
Susceptibility The inability of a plant to resist the effect of a pathogen or other damaging
factor.
Suseptible Lacking the inherent ability to resist disease or attack by a given pathogen;
nonimmune.
Symbiosis A mutually beneficial association of two or more different kinds of organisms.
Symptom The external and internal reactions or alterations of a plant as a result of a disease.
Symptomless carrier A plant that, although infected with a pathogen (usually a virus),
produces no obvious symptoms.
Systemic Spreading internally throughout the plant body; said of a pathogen or a chemical.
Systemic acquired resistance Systemically activated resistance after primary infection with a
necrotizing pathogen accompanied by increased levels of salicylic acid and pathogenesis-
related proteins.
Teleomorph The sexual or so-called perfect growth stage or phase in fungi.
Teliospore The sexual, thick-walled resting spore of rust and smut fungi.
Telium The fruiting structure in which rust teliospores are produced.
Tissue A group of cells of similar structure that perform a special function.
Tolerance The ability of a plant to sustain the effects of a disease without dying or suffering
serious injury or crop loss; also the amount of toxic residue allowable in or on edible plant parts
under the law.
Toxicity The capacity of a compound to produce injury.
Toxin A compound produced by a microorganism; being toxic to a plant or animal.
Transcription Copying of a gene into RNA; also copying of a viral RNA into a complementary
RNA.
Transduction The transfer of genetic material from one bacterium to another by means of a
bacteriophage.
Transformation The change of a cell through uptake and expression of additional genetic
material.
Transgenic (or transformed) plants Plants into which genes from other plants or other
organisms have been introduced through genetic engineering techniques and are expressed, i.e.,
produce the expected compound or function.
Translation Copying of mRNA into protein.
Translocation Transfer of nutrients or virus through the plant.
Transmission The transfer or spread of a virus or other pathogen from one plant to another.
Transpiration The loss of water vapor from the surface of leaves and other aboveground parts
of plants.
Tumor An uncontrolled overgrowth of tissue or tissues.
Tylosis An overgrowth of the protoplast of a parenchyma cell into an adjacent xylem vessel or
tracheid.
Uredium The fruiting structure of rust fungi in which uredospores are produced.
Variability The property or ability of an organism to change its characteristics from one
generation to the other.
Vascular Term applied to a plant tissue or region consisting of conductive tissue; also a
pathogen that grows primarily in the conductive tissues of a plant.
Vector An animal able to transmit a pathogen. In genetic engineering, vector (or cloning
vehicle), a selfreplicating DNA molecule, such as a plasmid or virus, used to introduce a
fragment of foreign DNA into a host cell.
Vegetative Asexual; somatic.
Vegetative incompatibility Failure of the hyphae of strains of the same species of a fungus to
fuse and form anastomoses.
Vertical resistance Complete resistance to some races of a pathogen but not to others.
Vesicle A bubble-like structure produced by a zoosporangium in which zoospores are released
or are differentiated.
Vessel A xylem element or series of such elements whose function is to conduct water and
mineral nutrients.
Virescent A normally white or colored tissue that develops chloroplasts and becomes green.
Virion A virus particle.
Viroids Small, low-molecular-weight RNA that can infect plant cells, replicate themselves, and
cause disease.
Virulence The degree of pathogenicity of a given pathogen.
Virulent Capable of causing a severe disease; strongly pathogenic.
Viruliferous Said of a vector containing a virus and capable of transmitting it.
Virus A submicroscopic obligate parasite consisting of nucleic acid and protein.
Virusoid The extra-small circular RNA component of some isometric RNA viruses.
Xylem A plant tissue consisting of tracheids, vessels, parenchyma cells, and fibers; wood.
Wilt Loss of rigidity and drooping of plant parts, generally caused by insufficient water in the
plant.
Witches’ broom Broom-like growth or massed proliferation caused by the dense clustering of
branches of woody plants.
Yellows A plant disease characterized by yellowing and stunting of the host plant.
Zoosporangium A sporangium which containing or producing zoospores.
Zoospore A spore bearing flagella and capable of moving in water.
Zygospore The sexual or resting spore of zygomycetes produced by the fusion of two
morphologically similar gametangia.
Zygote A diploid cell resulting from the union of two gametes.
 Topic-2
Importance of Plant Diseases- (Crop losses, food security, environmental impact, health
hazards, environmental sustainability).
Question – Write down the economic importance of plant diseases?
Ans-
Plant diseases, by their presence, prevent the cultivation and growth of food plants in some
areas; or food plants may be cultivated and grown but plant diseases may attack them, destroy
parts or all of the plants, and reduce much of their produce, i.e., food, before they can be
harvested or consumed. In the pursuit of its goal, plant pathology is joined by the sciences of
entomology and weed science. It is conservatively estimated that diseases, insects, and weeds
together annually interfere with the production of, or destroy, between 31 and 42% of all crops
produced worldwide.

The losses are usually lower in the more developed countries and higher in the
developing countries, i.e., countries that need food the most. It has been estimated that of the
36.5% average of total losses, 14.1% are caused by diseases, 10.2% by insects, and 12.2% by
weeds. Considering that 14.1% of the crops are lost to plant diseases alone, the total annual
worldwide crop loss from plant diseases is about $220 billion.

Estimated Annual Crop Losses Worldwide

Attainable crop production (2002 prices) $1.5 trillion
Actual crop production (-36.5%) $950 billion
Production without crop protection $455 billion
Losses prevented by crop protection $415 billion
Actual annual losses to world crop production $550 billion
Losses caused by diseases only (14.1%) $220 billion
Importance of plant diseases

1) Plant diseases cause by microorganism are of paramount importance to humans because

they damage plant and plant product on which humans depend for food, clothing,
housing and furniture.
2) Millions of peoples over the world still depend on their own plant produce for their
survival.
3) Plant disease reduces the quantity and quality of plant produce for their survival.
4) Increased prizes of product to consumer
5) Results in severe pathological effects on human and animal that eat plant product.
6) Destroy beauty of environment by damaging plant around home, parks, streets and
forest
7) The pesticides used to control diseases polluted the water and environment
8) Reduce crop yield
9) Causes financial losses that meant the money spent for plant protection chemicals.
10) Changes in agricultural pattern
11) Influence the industries that mean lack of raw material
12) Some plant diseases even change food habits of human population.
Plant disease epidemics that cause economic imbalance over the years;
Historical and Present examples of losses caused by plant diseases

2) Question- Write down about different epidemics occurs in the world?

Ans-

Wheat rust- 1) In the fourth century B.C.; the Romans suffered so much from hunger caused
by the repeated destruction of cereal crops by rusts and other diseases that they created a
separate god, whom they named Robigus.

2) To please Robigus, the Romans offered prayers and sacrifices in the belief that he would
protect them from the dreaded rusts.

3) The Romans even established a special holiday for Robigus, the Robigalia, during which
they sacrificed red dogs, foxes, and cows in an attempt to please and pacify Robigus so he
would not send the rusts to destroy their crops.

4) Wheat rust epidemics occurred from time to time in many countries. Wheat rusts forced
farmers to change their cropping pattern and wheat was replaced by corn or maize or rye.
Irish famine 1) Late blight of potato caused by Phytophthora infestans was responsible for
causing Irish famine in 1845 by destroying the potato crop, the staple food of the people.

2) Hundreds of thousand people died of hunger and disease, and there was a large-scale
migration of the population to other countries including North American continent.

3) The population of Ireland was 8 million in 1940, which was reduced to 4 million after the
famine.

4)This single disease forced man to realize the importance of plant diseases, and brought the
science of Plant Pathology to lime light.

Victims of Ireland's Great Famine (1845–49) emigrating to North America by ship; wood
engraving c. 1890.
Bengal famine- 1) Brown spot of rice caused by Helminthosporium oryzae was responsible
for Bengal famine in 1943, which many people think one of the reasons for the division of
Bengal.

2) Death of 3.5 millions of people due to unavaibility of food because rice is staple food crop
of Bengal.

Coffee rust 1) coffee rust caused by Hemileia vastatrix forced to cut down the coffee plants in
Sri Lanka in 1867 due to the disease farmers of srilanka replace the coffee plantation to tea
bushes.

Chestnut blight – chestnut blight caused by Endothia parasitica. In 1904 it devasted American
chestnut. Furniture, flooring, poles, tannins industry was lost due to this disease.

Powdery mildew of grapewine- caused by uncinula necator by 1854 reduced the French wine
production by 80 percent.
Downy mildew of grape wine- (1878) caused by Plamopara viticola ultimately led to the
discovery of boreaux mixture.

3) Question- Write down about the discovery of Bordeaux mixture?

Ans
- Discovery of Bordeaux mixture-
“Bordeaux mixture, a fungicide, was accidentally discovered by French botanist Pierre
Marie Alexis Millardet in 1882 while studying vine diseases in the Bordeaux region of
France.”
The introduction from America into Europe of the fungus causing the aggressive
downy mildew disease of grape in the late 1870s stimulated a search by several investigators,
especially in France, for chemicals that could control the disease.
In 1885, Millardet observed that vines near the road were unaffected by downy
mildew, a common fungal disease, and discovered that winemakers were spraying them with a
copper sulfate and lime mixture as a deterrent for thieves, making the grapes bitter whereas the
leaves of untreated vines were killed by the disease. After trying several combinations,
Millardet concluded in that same year that a mixture of copper sulfate and hydrated lime could
effectively control the downy mildew of grape marking the first successful use of a synthetic
fungicide.
This mixture, which became known as Bordeaux mixture, was soon shown to
be equally effective against the late blight of potato, other downy mildews, and many other leaf
spots and blights of many different plants. For more than 100 years, Bordeaux mixture was
used more than any other fungicide against a wide variety of plant diseases in all parts of the
world, and even today it is one of the most widely used fungicides worldwide. The discovery
of Bordeaux mixture proved that plant diseases can be controlled chemically and gave great
encouragement and stimulus to the study of the nature and control of plant diseases.
 Discovery of Bordeaux mixture

History and Development of Plant Pathology

1) Homer, c. 1000 B.C Plant pathology was mentioned in the oldest book available eg h
(Homer, c. 1000 B.C., Old Testament, c. 750 B.C.) and were feared as much as human
diseases and war.
2) Bible750 B.C. Occurrences of mildews,blasts and blights on cereals and legumes are
mentioned in numerous passages of books of the Old Testament (about 750 B.C.) of the
Bible
3) Democritus, who, around 470 B.C., Mention of plant diseases is found again in the
writings of the Greek philosopher Democritus, who, around 470 B.C., noted plant
blights and described a way to control them.
4) Theophrastus (300 B.C.)-
• Wrote two books on plants. One, called “The Nature of Plants,” included chapters
on the morphology and anatomy of plants.
• The other book, called “Reasons of Vegetable Growth,”
• Theophras-tus has been considered the “father of botany”
• He belived that the plant disease is the wrath of god.
 • “Enquiry into Plants”, Theophrastus (286 BC), a Greek philosopher, recorded his
experiences about plant diseases in a book. His experiences were based on
imagination and not on experimentation.
5) Albertus Magnus 1200 A.D recognized the mistletoe as a plant parasite. Although
mistletoe is the first plant pathogen to be recognized as such and the first pathogen for
which a cultural control (by pruning affected branches) was recommended, a great deal
more has been fantasized, said, written, and practiced about it than its importance as a
pathogen would indicate.
6) Cause of wheat rust - the mid-1600s, however, a group of French farmers noted that
wheat rust was always more severe on wheat near barberry bushes than away from
them. The farmers thought that the rust was produced by the barberry plants from which
it moved to wheat. They, therefore, asked the French government to pass the first plant
disease regulatory legislation that would force towns to cut and destroy the barberry
bushes to protect the wheat crop.
7) Dutchman Antonius van Leeuwenhoek - improved significantly the lenses and the
structure of the microscope and began to examine not only the anatomy of plants, but
also the body of filamentous fungi and algae, protozoa, sperm cells, blood cells, and
even bacteria. All of these microorganisms, of course, were considered to be produced
by whatever organism (animal or plant) or medium they happened to be found in and
were not thought of as independent, autonomous organisms.
8) Robert Hooke, in England, invented the double-lensed (compound) microscope with
which he examined thin slices of cork and called its units “cells.”
9) Carl von Linne’ Swedish philosopher–botanist’ In 1735 - published his main work
“Systema Naturae,” by which he established the diagnosis of plant species and the
binomial nomenclature of plants. Linne’s species, however, were rigid and were
supposed to have remained unchanged since creation.
10) Charles Darwin the Englishman 1859, published his book “The Origin of Species by
Means of Natural Selection” and showed that species of all organisms, plants and
animals, evolve over time and adapt to changes in their environment for survival.
11) Pier Antonio Micheli 1729,
• The Italian botanist described many new genera of fungi and illustrated their
reproductive structures.
 • He also noted that when placed on freshly cut slices of melon, these structures
grew and produced the same kind of fungus that had produced them. He
proposed, therefore, that fungi arise from their own spores.
• In 1729 he published a book “Nova Plantarum Genera” in which he gave
descriptions about 1900 species in Latin out of which 900 were fungi. The
important genera are Aspergillus niger, Botrytis sps., Polyporus sps. etc.
12) Tillet 1755, Frenchman
• He published a paper on bunt or stinking smut of wheat by well-planned
experiments he proved that wheat seeds that contained black powder on their
surface produced more diseased plants than clean seeds.
• He emphasized that bunt was an infectious disease and it was closely related
with fungus. However, he believed that the disease was caused by some toxin
produced by the black powder. He did not know that the black powder contained
the spore mass of the fungus.
13) BENEDICT PREVOST (French)
• He proved that diseases are caused by micro-organisms
• He studied wheat bunt disease for about 10 years and in 1807, he published his
findings in the paper “memoir on the immediate cause of bunt or smut of wheat
and of several other diseases of plants and on preventives of bunt”
• He proved that the bunt of wheat was caused by the fungus Tilletia caries
• Studied and observed the germination of bunt species. He confirmed the
findings of Tillet by mixing the spores of fungus with clean seeds.
• Discovered the life cycle of bunt fungus
• He showed that the solution containing copper sulphate prevented the
germination of bunt spores and can be used for control of bunt diseases.
• He mentioned the fungicidal and fungistatic properties of chemical treatments
• He reported that the chemical treatment of seeds with common salt and lime
inhibited the contagious activity
14) Louis Pasteur. Proved that microorganisms were produced from preexisting
microorganisms and that most infectious diseases were caused by germs. The latter
established the “germ theory of disease,” which changed the way of thinking of
scientists and led to tremendous progress.

15) ANTON De BARY (Germany):

 • He was the father and founder of modern Mycology.
• He was the founder of modern experimental plant pathology
• In 1863, he studied the epidemics of late blight and renamed the casual organism
as Phytophthora infestans.
• He discovered heteroecious nature of rust fungi (1865).
• He gave detailed account on life cycles of downy mildew genera.
• He studied about vegetable rotting fungi and damping off fungi.
• He wrote a book named “Morphology and Physiology of fungi, lichens and
Myxomycetes” (1866).
• He reported the role of enzymes and toxins in tissue disintegration caused by
Sclerotinia sclerotiorum.
15) Robert Petri- who developed artificial nutrient media for culturing the microorganisms
(Petri dishes),
16) Marshal Ward (UK) - Studied coffee rusts and its epidemics
17) M.S. Woronin (USSR) - Studied about life cycle of club root fungi, i.e,
Plasmodiophora brassica
18) Farlow - Fungi and bibliography. He established Farlow cryptogamic herbarium.
Farlow, first introduced independent course of plant pathology at Harward University.
19) Millardet - Discovered Bordeaux mixture for the control of downy mildew of
grapevine
20) Oscar Brefeld- a colleague of De Bary (Germany) -Pioneer in pure culture techniques.
21) E. J. Butler (Edwin John Butler):
• He was the father of modern plant pathology and father of Indian Mycology.
• He worked at IARI for 20 years from 1901 to 1920. 3) He was the founder and
first director of imperial Mycological institute, Kew, England (1920-35).
• Monograph: Pythiaceous and allied fungi.
• Books: 1) Fungi and Disease in Plants (1918)
2) Fungi in India (with [Link]) and
3) Plant Pathology (with [Link]).
• He studies the variability in rust fungus. Contributed valuable information on
physiological races of pathogen
 • He concluded that due to continuous evolution of races and biotypes in the
species of the rust fungus its pathogenic capability goes on changing and as a
result the resistant capability of the host also changes.
22) T. J. BURRUILL (USA): He proved for the first time that fire blight of apple and pear
was caused by a bacterium (now known as Erwinia amylovora)
23) [Link] (U.S.A)
• He gave the final proof of the fact that bacteria could be incitants of plant
diseases.
• He also worked on the bacterial wilt of cucurbits and crown gall disease.
He is also called as "Father of Phytobacteriology".
• In 1981, he demonstrated for the first time that budding or grafting could
be another method of transmission of plant viruses.
• He showed the contagious nature of peach yellows.
24) DOI AND ISHIE (JAPANESE)
• They found that mycoplasma like organisms (MLO) could be responsible for
the disease of the yellows type.
• Doi observed that MLO's are constantly present in phloem while Ishie observed
MLO's temporarily disappeared when the plants are treated with tetracycline
antibodies.

25) BEIJERINCK (Dutch)

• Founder of virology
• He proved that the virus inciting tobacco mosaic is not a living microorganism. ¾
He believed it to be contagium vivum fluidum (infectious living fluid)
26) W.H. STANLEY
• In 1935, he proved that viruses can be crystallised. He got Nobel Prize. ¾ He
treated the sap from diseased leaves of tobacco with ammonium sulphate and
obtained a crystalline protein which, when placed on healthy tobacco leaves,
could reproduce the disease.
• He finally proved that viruses are not living micro-organisms because no living
form can be chemically treated and crystallized and still remain viable.
27) BAWDEN F.E. and PIRIE (Britain): They found that the crystalline nature of the
virus contains nucleic acid and protein.
 28) DIENER and RAYMER -Discovered the potato spindle tuber was caused by small
naked ssRNA which he called viroid.
29) Robert Koch (1876) - who was a Germen Physician and co-worker of Pasteur
established that for proving that a certain microorganism was the cause of some
infectious disease, certain necessary steps (Koch‟s postulates) must be carried out and
certain conditions must be satisfied.
30) J.G. Kuhn-
• Who was a contemporary of de Bary and his countryman, was, initially a farm
manager. He contributed significantly to the studies on infection and
development of smut in wheat plant and development and application of control
measures, particularly seed treatment for cereals.
• He wrote the first book on Plant Pathology “Diseases of Cultivated Crops,
Their Causes and Their Control” in 1858 in which he recognized that plant
diseases are caused not only by an unfavourable environment, but can also be
caused by parasitic organisms such as insects, fungi and parasitic plants.

INDIAN SCIENTISTS

In India, the information on plant diseases is available in ancient literature such as rigveda,
atharveda (1500-500BC), Arthasashtra of Kautilya (321-186 BC), Sushruta sanhita (200-
500AD), Vishnupuran (500AD), Agnipuran (500-700AD), Vishnu dharmottar (500-700AD),
etc. In Rigveda, not only the classification of plant diseases has been given but the germ theory
of disease was also advocated.

Vriksha ayurveda by Surpal in ancient India is the first book in which lot of information
on plant diseases is available. In this book, plant diseases were categorized into two groups,
internal (probably physiological diseases) and external (probably infectious diseases). External
diseases were supposed to be due to attack of microorganisms and insects. In this book, a
mention of treatments for different diseases caused by different agencies was prescribed which
were based on superstition as well as scientific observation. Hygiene, tree surgery, protective
covering with pastes and special culture of plants are practices which are still recommended.
In chemical treatments, use of honey, ghee, milk, barley flour, pastes made from herbs, plant
extracts, etc., were recommended. For the control of root diseases, oilcakes of mahuva,
mustard, sesame, castor, etc., were used. Symptoms of plant diseases such as rust, downy
mildew, powdery mildew and blight are often mentioned in the bible, Shakesphere’s poems
and dramas of other Christian literature.

Jataka of Buddhism, Raghuvansh of Kalidas there was also a mention about different
symptoms of plant diseases.

1) B.B MUNDKUR:
• He worked on the control of cotton wilt diseases.
• He is responsible for the identification and classification of large number
of Indian smut fungi
• He started Indian Phytopathological Society in 1948 and published a
journal Indian Phytopathology. ¾ His book – Fungi and Plant diseases.
2) [Link]:
• First Indian plant pathologist who was credited for his detailed studies
on fungi and plant diseases.
• He studied the characters of Phytophthora and Phytophthora diseases
of potato and castor.
• He established Phytophthora parasitica from castor.
3) K.C. MEHTA – Life cycle of cereal rusts in India
4) T.S. SADASIVAN
• Started the studies on bio-chemistry of host-parasite
relationship at University of Madras
• Contributed to the concept of vivotoxins
• Studied on mechanism of wilting in cotton by Fusarium
vasinfectum. The production of fusaric acid by this fungus
outside the host was demonstrated.
5) Luthra and Sattar (1953) developed the solar heat treatment of wheat seed for
the control of loose smut.
6) SN Dasgupta carried out exhaustive studies on black tip of mango.
7) M.K. Patel, V.P. Bhide and G. Rangaswami pioneered the work on bacterial
plant pathogens in India.
8) M.J. Thirumalachar conducted exhaustive studies on rusts and smuts, and
developed a number of antibiotics for controlling plant diseases in India.
Topic- Definition and Concept of Plant Disease: Plant Disease; Conditions necessary for
disease development; Disease triangle, disease tetrahedron/ pyramid concepts.

Question 4- -Write down the Concept of plant disease?

Ans-

Ans - Because it is not known whether plants feel pain or discomfort and because, in any case,
plants do not speak or otherwise communicate with us, it is difficult to pinpoint exactly when
a plant is diseased. It is accepted that a plant is healthy, or normal, when it can carry out its
physiological functions to the best of its genetic potential. The meristematic (cambium) cells
of a healthy plant divide and differentiate as needed, and different types of specialized cells
absorb water and nutrients from the soil; translocate these to all plant parts; carry on
photosynthesis, translocate, metabolize, or store the photosynthetic products; and produce seed
or other reproductive organs for survival and multiplication. When the ability of the cells of a
plant or plant part to carry out one or more of these essential functions is interfered with by
either a pathogenic organism or an adverse environmental factor, the activities of the cells are
disrupted, altered, or inhibited, the cells malfunction or die, and the plant becomes diseased. At
first, the affliction is localized to one or a few cells and is invisible. Soon, however, the reaction
becomes more widespread and affected plant parts develop changes visible to the naked eye.
These visible changes are the symptoms of the disease. The visible or otherwise measurable
adverse changes in a plant, produced in reaction to infection by an organism or to an
unfavorable environmental factor, are a measure of the amount of disease in the plant. Disease
in plants, then, can be defined as the series of invisible and visible responses of plant cells and
tissues to a pathogenic organism or environmental factor that result in adverse changes in the
form, function, or integrity of the plant and may lead to partial impairment or death of plant
parts or of the entire plant. The kinds of cells and tissues that become affected determine the
type of physiological function that will be disrupted first (Fig1). For example, infection of roots
may cause roots to rot and make them unable to absorb water and nutrients from the soil;
infection of xylem vessels, as happens in vascular wilts and in some cankers, interferes with
the translocation of water and minerals to the crown of the plant; infection of the foliage, as
happens in leaf spots, blights, rusts, mildews, mosaics, and so on, interferes with
photosynthesis; infection of phloem cells in the veins of leaves and in the bark of stems and
shoots, as happens in cankers and in diseases caused by viruses, mollicutes, and protozoa,
interferes with the downward translocation of photosynthetic products; and infection of flowers
and fruits interferes with reproduction. Although infected cells in most diseases are weakened
or die, in some diseases, e.g., in crown gall, infected cells are induced to divide much faster
(hyperplasia) or to enlarge a great deal more (hypertrophy) than normal cells and to produce
synthesized

(Fig1). Schematic representation of the basic functions in a plant (left) and of the kinds of
interference with these functions (right) caused by some common types of plant diseases.
Question - Define plant disease and write down about disease triangle?
Or
What is the mechanism of disease development in plant?
Plant Disease: Any malfunctioning of host cells and tissues those results from continuous
irritation by a pathogenic agent or environmental factor that leads to development of
symptoms.
»A plant is said to be ‘diseased’ when there is a harmful deviation from normal functioning of
physiological process
» Dis and ease - uneasiness » Any abnormal condition that alters the normal appearance or
physiochemical function of a plant.
Mechanism of disease development in plant
Or
Disease triangle, disease tetrahedron/ pyramid concepts
A plant becomes diseased in most cases when it is attacked by a pathogen or when it is affected
by an abiotic agent. Therefore, in the first case, for a plant disease to occur, at least two
components (plant and pathogen) must come in contact and must interact. If at the time of
contact of a pathogen with a plant, and for some time afterward, conditions are too cold, too
hot, too dry, or some other extreme, the pathogen may be unable to attack or the plant may be
able to resist the attack, and therefore, despite the two being in contact, no disease develops.
Apparently then, a third component, namely a set of environmental conditions within a
favourable range, must also occur for disease to develop. Each of the three components can
display considerable variability; however, as one component changes it affects the degree of
disease severity within an individual plant and within a plant population. For example, the plant
may be of a species or variety that may be more or less resistant to the pathogen or it may be
too young or too old for what the pathogen prefers, or plants over a large area may show genetic
uniformity, all of which can either reduce or increase the rate of disease development by a
particular pathogen. Similarly, the pathogen may be of a more or less virulent race, it may be
present in small or extremely large, it may be in a dormant state, or it may require a film of
water or a specific vector. Finally, the environment may affect both the growth and the
resistance of the host plant and also the rate of growth or multiplication and degree of virulence
of the pathogen, as well as its dispersal by wind, water, vector, and so on.
The interactions of the three components of disease have often been visualized as a triangle
generally referred to as the “disease triangle.” Each side of the triangle represents one of the
three components. The length of each side is proportional to the sum total of the characteristics
of each component that Favor disease. For example, if the plants are resistant, the wrong age,
or widely spaced, the host side — and the amount of disease — would be small or zero, whereas
if the plants are susceptible, at a susceptible stage of growth, or planted densely, the host side
would be long and the potential amount of disease could be great. Similarly, the more virulent,
abundant, and active the pathogen, the longer the pathogen side would be and the greater the
potential amount of disease. Also, the more favourable the environmental conditions that help
the pathogen (e.g., temperature, moisture, and wind) or that reduce host resistance, the longer
the environment side would be and the greater the potential amount of disease. If the three
components of the disease triangle could be quantified, the area of the triangle would represent
the amount of disease in a plant or in a plant population. If any of the three components is zero,
there can be no disease. The disease triangle is also represented as a triangle with the words of
the three components (host plant, pathogen, environment) placed at the peaks of the triangle
rather than along its sides.

Total of conditions favouring susceptibility HOST

Fig. 2
Disease Pyramid: The disease triangle can be expanded to include two more components, time
and humans. The amount of each of the three components of disease and their interaction in
the development of the disease are affected by fourth component, time. Thus, addition of time
component to the disease triangle results into a tetrahedron or disease pyramid. The effect
of time on disease development becomes apparent when we consider the importance of time of
year, the duration and frequency of favourable temperature and rain, the time of appearance of
the vector, the duration of the cycle of a particular disease. If the four components of disease
pyramid could be quantified, its volume would be proportional to the amount of disease on a
plant or in plant population. Humans affect disease development in various ways. They affect
the type of plants grown in an area, their level of resistance, time of planting, density of
planting, etc.
Question- Write down conditions necessary for disease development?
Ans- Conditions necessary for disease development
1. Host factors 2. Pathogen factors 3. Environmental factors
1. Host factors
i) Distance of susceptible plants from the source of primary inoculum: Longer the
distance from the source of survival of the pathogen, longer will be the time required for
the buildup of an Epiphytotic in a susceptible crop.
ii) Abundance and distribution of susceptible hosts: Continuous cultivation of a
susceptible variety over a large contiguous area helps in the buildup of the inoculum and
improves the chances of epiphytotics.
iii) Disease proneness in the host due to environment: Susceptibility is genetically
controlled but the disease proneness in the plant to get infected can be induced by environment
and other factors (Host nutrition, excessive application of nitrogenous fertilizers, etc).
iv) Presence of suitable alternate or collateral hosts: These host plants help in the
survival of inoculum of different pathogens in off season. Presence of Barbery which is
an alternate host to Puccinia graminis tritici helps in the heterogenous infection chain.
Presence of grass hosts helps in the survival of Pyricularia oryzae in the off-season.
2. Pathogen factors:
i) Presence of virulent/aggressive isolate of a pathogen: For any epiphytotic, rapid
cycle of infection is essential, and successful infection can be caused only by virulent isolates
of the pathogen.
ii) High birth rate: The fungi that assume epiphytotic form invariably have the
capacity to produce enormous quantity of spores that are adapted to long distance dissemination
in a short time.
iii) Low death rate of the pathogen: Epiphytotics is attributed to low death rate of the
pathogens in those in which the causal agent is systemic and protected by the plant tissues.
iv) Easy and rapid dispersal of the pathogen: The ability of a pathogen to cause
epiphytotics is much more dependent on its dispersal rate. The units of propagation need
to be dispersed by external agencies, if epiphytotics are to develop. Ex: Fungal spores
disseminated by wind, water, etc Viruses disseminated by insect vectors Bacteria dispersed
through rain splashes and water
v) Adaptability of the pathogen: Most of the pathogens causing epiphytotics adapt
themselves to various adverse conditions.
3. Weather factors: Assuming that a particular fungus meets all the above requirements for
causing an epidemic, the infection, invasion and development of epidemic may not occur if
weather is not favourable for the germination of spores. Congenial environmental conditions,
viz., optimum weather conditions for sporulation, dispersal, infection and survival of pathogen,
are very important. Weather conditions such as, optimum temperature, moisture, light, etc., are
very essential for the development of an epidemics.
Classification of diseases based on causal organism/ agent, symptoms, plant
organs they affect and type of host plant affected and mode of spread &
severity.

Q- Write down the classification of plant diseases on different basis?

A) Classification of diseases based on causal organism/ agent
I. Infectious, or biotic, plant diseases
1. Diseases caused by fungi
2. Diseases caused by prokaryotes (bacteria and mollicutes)
3. Diseases caused by parasitic higher plants and green algae
4. Diseases caused by viruses and viroids
5. Diseases caused by nematodes
6. Diseases caused by protozoa
II. Noninfectious, or abiotic, plant diseases
1. Diseases caused by too low or too high a temperature
2. Diseases caused by lack or excess of soil moisture
3. Diseases caused by lack or excess of light
4. Diseases caused by lack of oxygen
5. Diseases caused by air pollution
6. Diseases caused by nutrient deficiencies
7. Diseases caused by mineral toxicities
8. Diseases caused by soil acidity or alkalinity (pH)
9. Dis eases caused by toxicity of pesticides.
10. Diseases caused by improper cultural practices

B) Classification of plant disease on mode of spread & severity

1) Endemic diseases -Which are more or less constantly present from year to year in
a moderate to severe form in a particular geographical region, i.e. country, district
or location. Eg wart disease of potato
2) Epidemic or epiphytotic diseases -Which occur widely but periodically
particularly in a severe form. They might be occurring in the locality every year but
assume severe form only on occasions due to the favourable environmental
conditions occurring in some years. Eg cereal rust and powdery mildew.
3) Sporadic diseases occur at irregular intervals and locations and in relatively few
[Link] Angular leaf spot, blotches.
4) Pandemic diseases: A disease may be endemic in one region and epidemic in
another. When epiphytotic become prevalent throughout a country, continent or the
world, the disease may be termed as pandemic. Eg late blight of potato.

C) Classification of plant disease on symptoms

1) Hypoplasia-In these diseases there is under development of host tissues due to
infection of pathogen eg bunchy top of banana, yellow vein mosaic of bhendi
2) Hyperplasia- -In these diseases there is over development of host tissues due to
production of toxins or growth regulating substances. Eg root gall, club root of
cabbage and leaf curl
3) Necrotic- under such symptoms the host tissue is destroyed and killed eg blight,
wilt and rots.

D) Classification of plant disease on plant organs they affect.

1) Localised – affected only a part of plant eg leaf spot, root rot.
2) Systemic – affecting the entire plant.

E) Classification of plant disease on type of host plant affected

1) They can be classified as cereal crop diseases, forage crop diseases,
flax diseases, millet diseases, plantation crop diseases, fruit crop
diseases, vegetable crop diseases, flowering plant diseases, etc.

F) Classification of plant disease based on perpetuation and spread

1) Soil borne- Pathogen perpetuate through soil. Eg wilt
2) Seed borne- Through seed, propagation material.
3) Air borne- when they disseminated through wind
Question – Write down the causes of plant diseases?
ANS-
Causes of Plant Disease with examples:
i) Biotic causes:
Eukaryotic- Fungi, Protozoa, Algae, Nematode and Flowering parasites);
Prokaryotic- Bacteria, Fastidious vesicular bacteria, Phytoplasmas, Spiroplasmas,
Actinomycetes.
ii) Mesobiotic causes: Virus, viroids
iii) Abiotic causes- Temperature, oxygen, soil moisture, pesticide toxicity and mineral
toxicity and nutrient deficiency
i) Biotic causes:
Eukaryotic- 1) Fungi,
2) Protozoa,
3) Algae,
4) Nematode
5) Flowering parasites
Prokaryotic- 1) Bacteria,
2) Fastidious vesicular bacteria,
3) Phytoplasmas,
4) Spiroplasmas,
5) Actinomycetes.
• Fungi- Fungi are microorganism which are unicellular multicellular, achlorophyllous,
heterotrophic, parasitic absorptive type of nutrition reproduce by asexually and sexually
whose somatic structure are usually filamentous branched and being surrounded by wall
containing cellulose chitin or both.

Eg –Wheat stem rust (Puccinia graminis tritici)

Protozoa – 1) They are single celled, eukaryotic protist differentiated on the basis of
morphological nutritional and physiological characteristics.
3) They lack rigid cell wall and do not contain chlorophyll
4) They are distributed in nature mostly in aquatic and moist
5) Reproduce sexually and asexually
6) Protozoa is a eukaryote, either free-living or parasitic plant pathogens
which causes diseases in plants. Eg – Club root of cabbage –
Plasmodiophora brassicae

Eg – Club root of cabbage – Plasmodiophora brassicae

Nematode – 1) The typical nematode shape is a long and slender worm-like animals
which causes diseases in plants and produce galls and tumours in pants.
2) They resemble like round worm and are natural soil and water fauna
3) Nematodes are free living found in desert hot spring lakes.
4) Plant parasitic nematodes are soil borne
Eg Root knot nematode – Meloidogyne

Eg. Root knot nematode – Meloidogyne

Phanerogamic plant parasites- depend upon another vascular plant for food and water. There
are few seeds plants called flowering parasites (Phanerogams) which are parasitic on living
plants. Some of these attack roots of the host, while some parasites on stem. Some are devoid
of chlorophyll and entirely dependent on their host for food supply, while other have
chlorophyll and obtain only mineral constituents of food from host by drawing nutrition and
water they are called as Holoparasites or complete or total parasite. They have haustoria as
absorbing organs, which are sent deep into the vascular bundle of the host to draw nutrients,
water and minerals.

Cuscuta Loranthus

Orobanche Striga
6)Algae- Algae are eukaryotic, unicellular or multicellular organisms and mostly occur in
aquatic environments. They contain chlorophyll and are photosynthetic. Orange colour is due
to the presence of Chematochrome. They are not true plant. Eg. red rust of mango

Eg. red rust of mango

Prokaryotic-
• Bacteria
Bacteria are prokaryotic, unicellular, microscopic, achlorophyllous
microorganisms in which whole body is surrounded by cell wall, reproduced chiefly by
binary fission.
Prokaryotic: - Contains a primitive type of nucleus and lacking of well-defined
membrane. Morphologically the bacteria are rod shaped (bacilli), spherical (cocci),
spiral (spirilli), comma shaped (vibrios) or thread like (filamentous).
Eg – Citrus canker caused by Xanthomonas campestris pv citri.
Fastidious vascular bacteria
These are previously called as rickettsia like organism cause plant disease and can be
grown on artificial media in the absence of host cell. Almost all of them are limited to
xylem and phloem.
A) Phloem inhibited fastidious bacteria-
• Phloem limited bacteria was first observed in 1970 in the phloem of clover
and periwinkled affected with clover club disease later citrus plant affected
with citrus greening disease.
• They are mostly rigid rod non motile gram negative 0.2-0.5x 1.2micron
meter in size bounded by double membrane or a cell wall and cytoplasmic
membrane or plasma membrane both membrane are tripled layered and are
separated by an electron lucent zone peptidoglycan is absent
• They are transmitted by leaf hopper dodder and by grafting Eg citrus
greening clover club leaf etc.
B) Xylem inhabiting fastidious bacteria –
• In 1973 fastidious xylem inhabiting bacteria was observed in the xylem of
grape plant affected with pierces disease of grape and alfa alfa affected with
alfalfa dwarf.
• They are gram negative rod shaped, have well defined cell wall and plasma
membrane both tripled layered in structure the cell wall consisted of outer
membrane and intermediate lucent zone and inner dance peptidoglycan
layer which separate from plasma membrane. Non spore forming and non-
motile.
 Phytoplasma
• Phytoplasma are prokaryotic unicellular, gram +ve, pleomorphic and non-motile

• They lack cell wall but bounded by a membrane & have cytoplasm, ribosomes and
strands of nuclear materials.
• Phytoplasmas are mollicutes comes under the division Tenericutes of kingdom Protista.
• Discovered by Doi et al. (1967) in the phloem of mulberry plants and named as MLO
(mycoplasma like organism), later name changed to Phytoplasma in 10th international
congress of mycoplasmology.
• They belonging to the order Acholeplasmatales, and genus Phytoplasma, is at
Candidatus stage.
• Contains both DNA, RNA along with ribosomes as genetic material.
• Generally, present in sap of phloem sieve tubes. It cannot be cultured on nutrient agar
medium, that why it referred called as ‘Candidatus Phytoplasma’ (candidatus means
cannot be cultured), but phytoplasma can grow in alimentary canal, haemolymph,
salivary glands and different body parts of their insect vectors.
• Phytoplasma have no flagella, and produce no spores. Cells can be differentiated
through bacteriological filter and Koch postulated have not been proved.
• Two common symptoms of phytoplasma infection are Phyllody (floral parts are
converted into leaflike structure), yellowing of leaves (colour of leaves due to disrupt
of transport of carbohydrates)
• Phytoplasma is mainly transmitted by leafhopper (family - Cicadellidae), but plant
hoppers (family - Fulgoridae) and psyllids are also been reported as vectors.
• Detected by using PCR (based on 16sr DNA) and fluorescent staining with either the
DNA -specific stain 4,6-diamidino-2-phenylindole (DAPI) or the callose specific stain
aniline blue or Dienes’ stain.
Eg. Little leaf of brinjal (Leaf hopper - Hishimonus phycitis, Amrasca biguttula)
Sesame phyllody (Leaf hopper -Orosius albicinctus)

Phyllody of sesamum
Spiroplasma
• Spiroplasma are cell wall less, helical, motile prokaryotic organism bounded
by a triple layer membrane, movement is through rapid rotary motion.
• First discovered by “Davis et al” in 1972

• Spiroplasma can be cultured on nutrient media and culture colonies are

appeared as fried egg or poached egg and it requires sterols and cholesterol
for their growth.

• Spiroplasma cell size ranges from 100-240 nm, and the genome size ranges
from 780-2,200 kb.

• Transmitted mostly by leaf hoppers.

• Saglio et al. cultured Spiroplasma citri for the 1st time

• They grow well at 30oC, but completely inhibited at 37oC

• Cell is surrounded by triple layer unit membrane

• Resistant to Penicilliun and susceptible to tetracycline

• Ex - Citrus stubborn (Leaf hopper – Circulifer tenellus, Scaphytopius nitridus)

Corn stunt (Leaf hopper – Dalbus maidis) Periwinkle yellowsis

Corn stunt
ii) Mesobiotic causes:
• Virus
Plant viruses are sub-microscopic, infectious, obligate intracellular
parasites, which do not replicate without a living host. ‘A virus is a virus’, it is neither
a living organism nor a non-living chemical, but something between and betwixt.
Eg – Tobacco mosaic virus (TMV)

• Viroids
Viroids are small, covalently closed, circular, single standard RNA (ssRNA)
molecule without protein coat (nucleic acid devoid of protein coat). That is
approximately ten times smaller than that of DNA and RNA of viral genomes (All
viroid’s contains RNA as genetic material, no other). Eg Potato spindle tuber

• Virusoids
virusoids are circular single-stranded RNAs dependent on plant viruses
for replication and encapsidation.
 iii) Abiotic Factors

1) Nutrients Abnormalities 2) Pesticide exposure 3) Environment pollution

4)Temperature 5) Moisture 6) Light.
iii) Abiotic Factors

1) Nutritional abnormalities

Often nutrient abnormalities show up as discoloration of foliage

Common discoloration symptoms include:

• Yellowing
• Chlorosis

Two types

➢ Nutrient deficiencies
➢ Mineral toxicity

Nutrient deficiencies

• Plants require several major (N,P,Ca,Mg) and minor (iron,copper,Zn) elements for
normal growth.
• Deficiency or lack of any of these essential nutrients results in disease symptoms in the
plant.
• The symptoms in this photo occur due to a lack of molybdenum (minor plant nutrient)

Mineral Toxicity

• Presence of excessive available amounts of certain minerals in the soil can lead to
mineral toxicity to the plants.
• The extent of injury depends on the mineral, its concentration & species of the plant.
• The plant in this photo has received excess manganese, which has proved toxic and
led to yellowing.

2) Pesticide Exposure

• Some pesticides, if improperly used can cause serious damage to plants.

 • However, the most common type of chemical injury to plants is due to soil residue or
spray drift of herbicides.
• Examples of pesticide toxicity are:
⎯ 2,4-D damage to beans and tomatoes
⎯ Glyphose (Roundup) damage to fruit trees

The common symptoms of herbicide exposure are curling and cupping

This plant was exposed to the herbicide 2,4-D

3) Environmental Pollutants

• High level of fluoride in water or fluorine gas in the air can cause symptoms like this.
• The damage is concentrated towards the margins of the leaf where fluorine tends to
accumulate.
• E.g. Air pollution

Air pollution

• Certain chemicals such as O3, SO2 and NO2 are released into the air from factories,
power plants and automobile exhausts.
• These chemicals can accumulate in the atmosphere insufficient concentration to cause
damage to plants.
• Ozone damage appears in the form of chlorosis, spots and bleaching of young leaves.
• This common in certain regions of the country where there is a high ozone
concentration in smog

(Ozone damage on morning glory) ( Ozone damage or marijuana leaves )

4) Extreme Weather Conditions

Extreme of weather can also lead to plant injury.

Cold injury

➢ Low temperature, like frost or freeze can damage the exposed or sensitive organs (buds,
flowers, young fruits) or may kill the entire plant.
➢ As the new branch tips began to expand, a period of cold was severe enough to kill the
growing tips.

Heat injury

➢ In this case the temperature was high enough and damage the plant tissue
➢ When plants or plant parts are exposed to high temperature for prolonged periods,
symptoms of scorching or scalding may develop.

5) High/low soil moisture

• Due to excessive watering poor drainage or flooding may cause plants to turn yellow
and be stunted.
• Potted indoor plants may show poor development or root rots.
• At the other extreme, low moisture or drought conditions can lead to poor development,
wilting and death of plants.

6) high/low intensity

• High light intensity is usually not a problem but low light conditions, especially for
indoor plants, lead to etiolation (tissue are yellowish)
• A normal and etioled shoot under sun and artificial lighting.
Symptoms and Signs; Hypoplasia, Hyperplasia, Hypertrophy and Necrotic
symptoms caused by Fungi, Bacteria, Viruses, Phytoplasmas.
Question- Write down the symptoms and sign produced by fungi bacteria
and virus?
Ans-
Symptoms –
• Visible effects of disease on plants are called symptoms.
• Expression of disease condition in plants
• Any detectable changes in colour, shape, and/or functions of the plant in response to a
pathogen or disease‐causing agent is a symptom.
Eg- Leaf spots or blights, discoloration of plant tissue, stunting, and wilting etc.
Symptoms can occur throughout the plant or they can be confined to localized areas.
Although certain symptoms are characteristic of a particular disease, a number of
pathogens may produce the same or similar symptoms. Furthermore, symptoms often
change over time and their expression is influenced by environmental conditions
Symptoms can be divided in to three type 1) Hypoplasia
2) Hyperplasia
3) Necrotic
1) Hypoplasia- (Hypo=under +plasia=formation)
These symptoms are due under development or subnormal development of the
tissuesmor reduction in the chlorophyll content resulting in dwarfing and chlorosis. It
may be due to virus infection and non parasitic agencies such as deficiencies, excesses
of minor elements in soil etc.
a) Chlorosis- it means destruction of chlorophyll from the tissue. Different terms are
used for describing chlorosis
1) Yellowing
2) Pallar
3) Mosaic
4) Yellow mosaic
5) Yellow vein mosic
6) Mottling
 b) Dwarfing – general under development of entire plant brought about by reduction
of internodes resulting of stunted growth or appearance
1) Little leaf
2) Bunchy top
2) Hyperplasia- (Hyper=over +plasia=formation)
It means over development or a abnormal development of the affected tissue this over
development may take place in two forms either increase in size of the individual cell
of the affected tissue or increase in number of cells.
1) Tumours and galls
2) Hairy roots
3) Witches broom
4) Leaf curl
5) Phyllody
3) Necrotic – They involve death or destruction of the affected tissue either entire plant
or plant part may be affected involving decaying of rotting of the epidermis,
collenchyma, cambium and vascular tissue.
1) Blight
2) Wilts
3) Rots
4) Damping off
5) Cankers
6) Blast
7) Dieback
8) Exudation
9) Anthracnose
10) Black heart
11) Scab
12) Shot hole
13) Mummification
14) Smuts
Signs –
• Sign is of plant disease are physical evidence of the pathogen,
• Fungal fruiting bodies, bacterial ooze, or cyst nematode these are the structure present
in affected plant parts.
• Signs can help with plant disease identification.
Eg – powdery mildew, rust, smut and ergot etc.
GENERAL SYMPTOMS OF FUNGAL DISEASES
1. Damping off
• Rotting of seeds and radicle before the seedling emerge out of the soil (pre-emergence
damping off)
• Rotting of emerged seedlings at ground level resulting in toppling down of seedlings.
(Post – emergence damping off).
Eg: Damping off of Vegetable - Pythium aphanidermatum P. debaryanum P. ultimum
2. Club root
Modification of roots and rootlets of plant into small or large spindle like spherical,
knoby or club shaped swellings are called as club root.
Eg: club root of cabbage : Plasmodiophora brassicae
3. Root rot
Disintegration or decay of roots
Eg: Root rot of pulses Macrophomina phaseoina
4. Foot rot
Disintegration of basal part of the stem
Eg: Foot rot in pepper Phytophthora palmivora
4. Collar rot
The Collar region of the seedlings rot
Eg: Collar rot of groundnut – Aspergillus niger [Link]
5. Stem rot : leads to rotting
Disintegration of the tissues of the stem.
Eg : Stem rot of paddy – Sclerotium oryzae
6. Wilt
Loss of turgidity and dropping of leaves and shoots
Eg: Red gram wilt – Fusarium oxysporum [Link]. udum
7. White rust
White or creamy, shiny irregular pustules seen on the lower surface of the leaves.
Eg: White rust of amaranthus - Albugo bliti
8. Downy mildew
• Mildew growth seen on the lower surface of the leaf
• Corresponding upper surface are chlorotic
Eg: Cumbu downy mildew – Sclerospora graminicola
9. Powdery mildew
* Small irregular powdery pathches are seen on the upper surface of the leaves.
Eg: Powdery mildew of blackgram –Erysiphe polygoni.
10. Leaf spot
* Localized necrotic lesions on host leaves.
* The spots vary in size, shape and colour
11. Leaf blight
Rapid browning and death of leaves giving a burnt appearance
Eg: Leaf blight of sorghum – Exerohilum tursicum
12. Blast
* Appearance of spindle shaped spots with grey centre and brown margin on leaf (leaf
blast)
* Blackening of node of the plant (node blast) and neck of the panicle (neck blast)
Eg: Blast of paddy – Pyricularia grisea
13. Anthracnose
* Black sunken lesion circular to angular are seen on leaves, cotyleons, stem, fruits,
flowers and pods of plants.
* Acervuli the asexual fruiting body is produced in the sunken lesion.
Eg: Anthracrose of bean – Colletotrichum lindemuthianum.
14. Rust
* Raised reddish brown (rusty) pustul appear on both surface of leaf, stem etc
Eg: Sunflower rust - Puccinia helianthe :
15. Scab
Slightly raised or sunken lesion with cracks on petiole, pedicel, blossom, fruit, leaves
and gives a scabby appearance.
Eg. Scab of apple - Venturia inaequalis
16. Sooty Mould
Superficial dark black sooty growth found on leaf, stem and fruits.
Eg: Sooty mould in mango – Capnodium mangiferae
17. Gummosis
* Exudation of gummy substances from infected bank.
* The bark completely rots, and three dries due to girdling
Eg: glummosis of citrus – Phytophthora citrophthora
18. Sugary disease or Ergot
* Exudation of creamy, sticky honey dew like secretion from the infected floret (Sugar
disease).
* Long, straight or curved cream to dark brown hard sclerotia replaces the grain in the
ear head (Ergot)
(Eg) Cumbu – Claviceps fusiformis
19. Smut
Seeds in the infected ear head or entire earhead is replaced by a gall (or) sori contain
large number of black colour , smut spores or spore bolls.
(eg) Loose smut of wheat – Ustilago nudo tortice
20. Fruit rot
* Rotting of fruit.
* The infected portion is converted with moudy growth.
(Eg) Fruit of citrus : Penicillium expansum
21. Die back
Drying of twigs fro the tip downward (eg) die-back of mango Botrydeplodia
themobromae.
22. Bunt
* The infected grain are found to be full of sooty black powdery manes of bunt spores
decayed fishy odour and emits a 9eg) Bunt of wheat Tilletia caries.
23. Wart
Wart like protuberances on tubers and stem (eg) wart of potato Synchytrium
endobioticum.
24. Soft rot
Maceration and disintegration of root, bulbs, tubers, fruits and fleshy leaves.
 25. Gall
Enlared sac like growth on stem, leaves, blossoms etc.(eg) Stem gall in coriander
(Protomyces macrosporus).
26. Leaf curl
Distortion, thickening and curling of leaf.
(eg) Leaf curl of peach – Taphrina deformans.
27. Chlorosis
Loss of chlorophyll giving pale green appearance is the green plant parts.

GENERAL SYMPTOMS OF BACTERIAL DISEASES

1. Leaf spot
Symptom include the appearance of water soaked, circular or irregular, necrotic spot
on leaves. Some time the spots are encircled with a spot on leaves. Some time the spots are
encircled with a yellow halo. In case of dicots, the development of such spot is restricted by
intermediate or large veins and that spots become angular. However in monocots, the spots
usually appears as streaks or stripes.
(eg) Bacterial leaf spot in tomato : X.c. pv. vesicatoria
Argular leaf spot in cotton : X.c. pv. malvacearum
Bacterial leaf spot in pepper : X.c. pv. betlicoal
Bacterial leaf stripe in arecanut : X.c.. pv. arecae
Bacterial leaf streak in paddy : X.c. pv. Oryzicola
2. Leaf blight
Development of rapid and extensive necrosis of affected leaves resulting in
scorched appearance. (eg) Bacterial blight in paddy : X.c. pv. Oryzae Bacterial blight
in beans : X.c. pv. Phaseoli.
3. Soft rot
Softening of tissues due to dissolution of middle lamella by enzyme and disintegration
tissues and very often a dirty liquid oozes out of the affected part. Affected area is soft, watery,
discoloured and somewhat depressed, or wrinkled or blistered. There will be a well-defined
demarcation between the sound and decayed tissues.
(eg) Soft rot of tomato, egg plant, crucifers, oncon, carrot, celery, lettuce is caused by
Erwinia carotovora pv. carotovora.
 4. Canker
Formation of corky outgrowth on the surface of leaves, twigs and fruits as a result of
necrosis of host tissues and reaction of undamaged tissues to produce corky cells. These
cankerous growths are usually localized deep seated and confined to the parenchymatous
tissues of the host plant. The cankers involve the cambium layer and entail the destruction of
woody tissues in case of citrus, mango and many forest trees.
(eg) Citrus canker : X.c. pv. citre
Bacterial canker in mango : X.c. pv. mangiferae indica In citrus canker, symptoms,
initially appear as small, watery, translucent spots of yellow colour which later mature to
become white or greyish and finally rupture in the centre giving a rough, hard, corky an craker
like appearance.
5. Scab
The infected area become rough, corky, slightly raised with rusty surface and pitted due
to the abnormal proliferation of tissues in the epidermis. When compared to canker, scab are
also corky out growth but formed only by epidermal infection and are not deep seated.
(eg) Potato scab :Streptomyces scabies
6) Galls and tumours
Development of glucose, elongated (or) irregular targe sized outgrowth on the affected
plant part due to the hypertrophy and hyperplasia of cell. Hypertrophy means abnormal
increase in size of individual cells and hyperplasia means abnormal increase in number of cells
as a result of cell division (eg) crown gall in apple – Agrobacterium tumefaciens. This bacteria
contains tumous inducing (T1) plasmid induce crown gall. This bacterium enters into the plants
through wounds and stimulate the cells to divide and enlarge abnormally.
7. Wilt
Yellowing, dropping, welting and death of the above ground parts of the plant.
In general, bacteria enter and multiply inside the xylem vessels of host plant. The
occlusion of vessels by bacterial cells and their polysaccharides interfere with translocation of
water and nutrients and Wilt symptom develops. Bacteria often destroy the cell wall of xylem
vessels during disease development where as in case of fungal wilt, the cells of vascular bundles
remain intact until the death of the plant.
(eg) Bacterial with in cucumber : Erwinia tracheiphila
Bacterial wilt in solanaceous plants : Pseudomonas solanacearum
The wilted plants show brown to black colour discolouration in vascular bundle. This
may be due to the oxidation of phenolics to quinones by phenol oxidase enzyme
 secreted by bacterial cells. This oxidized phenolics are inturn polymerized to form
melorium which actually impart the colour to the vascular bundles.

GENERAL SYMPTOMS OF PHYTOPLASMAL DISEASES

1. Gingelly (sesame) phyllody
Vein clearing, reduction in size of leaves, shortening of internode, stimulation of
auxillary buds lead to profuse branching and convertion of floral parts into green leafy
structures (Phyllody/virescence) are some of the characteristic symptoms. Diseased plants
become completely sterile. This disease was transmitted with the help of leaf hopper, orosius
albicinetius.
2. Brinjal (egg plant) little leaf
Diseased plants produce small, narrow, then, sessile, soft, glabrous and pale green
colour leaves in a shortened internode. The plants look bushy due to the stimulation of auxillary
buds to grow into shoot branches and are sterile. The leaf hopper, Hishimonas phycitis and
Empoasca devastans transmit the from plant to plant.
3. Sugarcane grassy shoot
The disease is otherwise called as new chlorotic disease or albino disease or yellowing
disease or bushy disease or leaf tuff. Profuse tillering and grassy appearance of the shoot are
the main symptoms. Leaves become narrow, yellow or entirely devoid of any pigments
(albinism or white leaf), small like grass leaves and canes re then with short internode gives a
bushy or grassy appearance to the clump. The vector responsible for the transmission is aphid,
Rhopalosiphum maidis and R. sacchari.
4. Coconut lethal yellowing
The first symptom is the dropping of prematured coconuts of any size followed by
blackening of inflorescence tip and all male flowers. Then the lower leaves exhibit yellowing
which progress upward to the young one. later lower leaves die prematurely, turn brown and
cling to the tree while the young one are becoming yellow. Finally all the leaves and vegetative
buds die, fall way and left only the trunk which looks like a telephone pole. This disease is
transmitted by plant hoppers, Myndus crudus.
5. Sandal spike
This disease was first reported from coorg district of Karnataka state in India. The
diseased plants exhibit 2 kinds of symptom.
i. Rosette spike
 Symptoms include the reduction of leaf size, shortening of internode and attenuation of
branches into stiff pointed structures resembling like spike either in isolated branches or in the
whole tree. Later the leaves become yellowish and finally reddish brown before the death of
the plant.
ii) Pendulous spike
It is quite rare. Here in this type, the auxillary buds remain dormant and the individual
infected shoots show continuous apical growth and assume a dropping habit.
This disease is transmitted by grafting, dodder and also by insect vectors Moonia
albimaculata, Jasus indicus and Nephotettix virescence.

GENERAL SYMPTOMS OF VIRAL DISEASES

1) Chlorosis
Symptoms of chlorosis usually start as interveinal chlorosis and spread through the
entire leaf lamina. Eg-Wheat yellow leaf, Potato yellow dwarf ,Barley yellow dwarf
2) Epinasty
Downward twisting of leaves. Eg-Pea mosaic,Potato super wild mosaic
3) Enation
Abnormal small hair like outgrowth from the surface of astemorleaf associated with
mosaic symptoms. Eg–Tobacco enation
4) Etch (etching)
Affected leaves and fruits become stunted. Pale colour discolouration can also be
observed. eg-TSWV
5) Leaf curling
Distortion of leaves resulting from unequal growth or expression of leaf tissues and
folding of leaf tissues backward. Eg–Papaya leaf curl virus
6) Leaf rolling
Leaves roll up and become chlorotic or discolouring of leaves Eg Potato leaf roll virus
7) Mosaic
Mixed light green and yellow patches on the leaves. The infected areas are usually
pale green or chlorotic due to loss or reduced production of chlorophyll.
Eg–TMV(Tobaccomosaicvirus),Tomatomosaic,Cucumbermosaic
8) Mottling- interveinal area becomes and yellow and midlle lamella become green
is called mottling of leaf. Eg. Mottle leaf of citrus.
9) Ringspot
Prominent mosaic and chlorosis on leaf lamina and distortion of young leaves
results in the development of shoestring appearance. Eg-Papaya ring spot virus
10) Vein clearing
Yellowing of veins and veinlet’s, vein becomes translucent, while the interveinal
area is in green. Eg-Bhendi vein clearing Lettuce vein clearing
11) Vein banding
In the infected plant, the area adjacent to the vein s of the leaf remain green, in contrast
to the remaining area of the leaf, which may be chlorotic.
Eg-Chilli vein banding caused by Tobacco etchyvirus
12) Yellowing
Uniform chlorosiss of the l eaves Eg-Rice yellows
13) Yellow mosaic
The leaves of infected plants develop more of irregular yellow patches than the green
portion and the infected plants are stunted. Eg-Turnip yellow mosaic Clover yellow
mosaic and Bean yellow mosaic and Barley yellow mosaic.
General Characteristics of Plant pathogens: Classification of Prokaryotes according
to Bergey’s Manual of Systemic Bacteriology, Classification of Fungi, Viruses and Mollicutes
(Outlines).
Question- Write down the general characteristics of Fungi.
ANS-Fungi is the plural of word fungus which is derived from the latin word fungour.
Definition- Fungi are eukaryotic, achlorophyllous, , unicellular or multicellular organism,
non motile which reproduce by means of asexual or sexual spores
1. Fungi are eukaryotic organisms means they have true nucleus which are enclosed in
membranes.
2. Fungi are unicellular and multicellular eg Yeasts are unicellular fungi that do not
produce hyphae.
3. Fungi are achlorophyllous, which means they lack the chlorophyll pigments present in
the chloroplasts in plant cells and which are necessary for photosynthesis.
4. They are non-vascular organisms. They do not have vascular system. Xylem and
Phloem are absent.
5. Fungi have cell walls are composed of chitin (C8H13O5N) cellulose in
Oomycota)
6. There is no embryonic stage for fungi.
7. Reproduce by both asexually and sexually.
8. They reproduce by means of spores. There are sexual and asexual spores. Sexual spores
are Oospores, Zygospores, Ascospores, Basidiospores, etc. and Asexual spores are
Sporangiospores, Aplanospores, Zoospores, Conidia, etc. Reproduction in fungi is both
by sexual and asexual means.
9. Sexual state is referred to as teleomorph (fruiting body), asexual state is referred to as
anamorph (mold like).
10. Reproduction occurs by both asexual (Anamorph) and sexual (Teliomorph)
mode:Asexual methods: fragmentation,budding, fission, asexual spore formation
11. Sexual methods: gametic copulation, gamate-gametangium copulation, gametangium
copulation, somatic copulation and Spermatization.
12. Pheromone is a chemical substance produced by fungi, which leads to the sexual
reproduction between male and female fungi cells.
13. They are typically non-motile.
14. Fungi exhibit the phenomenon of alteration of generation. They have both haploid and
diploid stage.
15. The vegetative body of the fungi may be unicellular or composed of microscopic
threads called hyphae.
16. Hyphae can grow and form a network called a mycelium.
17. Thallus – Unicellular, filamentous, septate or non-septate typically non motile
(protoplasmic flow) but motile stages (Zoospores) may occur
18. The cell membrane of a fungus has a unique sterol and ergosterol.
19. Fungi grow best in acidic environment (tolerate acidic pH).
20. Fungi digest the food first and then ingest the food, to accomplish this the fungi produce
exoenzymes like Hydrolases, Lyases, Oxidoreductase, Transferase, etc.
21. Fungi store their food as starch
22. Fungi are heterotrophic organisms. They obtain its food and energy from organic
substances, plant and animal matters.
23. Habitat – Ubiquitous as saprobes, symbionts, parasites or hyperparasites
24. Nutrition in fungi – they are saprophytes (gets energy from dead and decaying matters),
or parasites (lives in a host, attack and kill) or symbionts (mutually beneficial).
25. Optimum temperature of growth for most saprophytic fungi is 20-30°C while (30-37)°C
for parasitic fungi.
26. Growth rate of fungi is slower than that of bacteria.
27. Some fungi are macroscopic and can be seen by naked eyes. Mold or mushrooms are
examples of macroscopic form of fungi.
28. Life cycle – Simple or complex
29. The majority of fungi belonging to the phylum Ascomycota, basidiomycota,
zygomycota etc. Eg - Mushrooms, moulds, yeast
 ULTRA STRUCTURE OF FUNGAL CELL AND GROWTH

Cross Section of fungal cell

Cell walls
➢ The main identifying characteristics of fungi is the make-up of their cell walls.
➢ The composition of the fungal cell wall is rather variable.
➢ It gives strength and shape to fungi.
➢ Iit provides protection for the protoplasm from UV RAYS (presence of melanin)
➢ Glucan and Chitin are components of the primary wall, proteins are the components
on the secondary cell.
➢ Ability to resist Lysis by organic solvents such as enzymes, toxins and osmotic
integrity.
➢ They have ability to bind with metal ions.
➢ Except slime moulds (Myxomycetes) ,the fungal cell consist of a rigid cell wall and
cell organelles. The cell wall of Ascomycotina and Basidiomicotina contains chitin (β
1,4 N-acetylglucosamine ).

➢ In the Zygomycotina, the chitin fibres are modified to produce poly-β-

(1,4)glucosamine, which is called chitosan.
➢ The cell walls of oomycetes contain cellulose and lack chitin
Cell membrane
➢ In fungal cells, the living protoplast is enclosed in a cell membrane,also called the
plasma membrane or plasmalemma.
➢ It is delicate, extremely thin semipermeable membrane.
➢ The principal components of plasmalemma are proteins and lipids.
➢ At the surface of plasmalemma ,some membrane structures known as lomasomes and
plasmalomosomes have been reported.
➢ Glucose residues, Glucosamine, sterols(ergosterol), Mannose are present.
➢ Within the plasma membrane ,is the colourless cytoplasm in which sap-filled vacuoles
may occur.
Cytoplasm
➢ Immersed in the cytoplasm are structures known as the organelles and inclusions.
➢ The organelles are living structures, each with a specific [Link] inclusions are
dead,have no specific function and thus are not essential to cell survival.
➢ Among the cell organelles are included the E.R,mitochondria,ribosomes,Golgi
apparatus and vacuoles.
➢ Examples of inclusions are the stored foods (glycogen,oil drops) pigments and
secretory granules.
Necleus
➢ The cytoplasm contains one, two or more globose or spherical nuclei
➢ It measures up to 1-3 µm in diameter.
➢ Structurally the nucleus consists of:
➢ A central dense body(nucleolus).
➢ Chromatin strands.
➢ The whole structures surrounded by a definite nuclear membrane.
➢ Under the electron microscope, nuclear membrane is seen to consist of 2-unit
membranes - inner and outer layers of electron dense material.
➢ It has pores, at certain points and the membrane is continuous with ER.
Endoplasmic reticulum
➢ Presence of endoplasmic reticulum in fungal cytoplasm is observed through electron
microscope.
➢ It is made up of flattened sacs of membrane- cisternae.
➢ It is composed of a system of membranes or micro tubular structures with small
granules (ribosomes)
➢ In many fungi, the E.R is highly vesicular.
➢ It is loose and irregular as compared with cells of green plants.
Ribosomes
➢ Ribosomes is found on the ER , others free floating in the cytoplasm.
➢ They are proteinaceous bodies with high RNA content.
➢ They are concerned with protein synthesis .
➢ They aggregate to form polyribosomes (or polysomes)
Golgi Bodies
➢ Moore and Muhlethaler in 1963 reported 3 flattened sacs in Saccharomyces cells.
➢ Golgi Bodies or dictyosomes are found comparatively rarely in fungi (except
oomycetes).
➢ Not organized as stacks of flattened cisternae .
➢ Instead, the Golgi bodies of fungi appear as single tubular, cisternae that vary in shape
from cup-like to planar bodies.
➢ functionally equivalent to the stacked Golgi bodies.
➢ Major function is to process and package macromolecules (proteins) and
transportation of lipids around the cell.
Mitochondria
➢ Richard Altmann , in 1890, established cell organelles and called them “bioblasts”.
Carl Benda coined the term “mitochondria” in 1898.
➢ The cytoplasm contains small, usually spherical bodies known as the mitochondria.
➢ Each mitochondrion is enveloped by a double membrane.
➢ The inner membrane is infolded to form the cristae which are in the form of parallel
flat plates.
➢ The mitochondria function as the power house of the cell.
➢ Mitochondria has its own machinery for transcription and translation of organelle
specific DNA.
Vacuoles
➢ Vacuoles are essential for cell function in fungi. Fungi are characterized by the
presence of spherical to tubular vacuoles.
Vacuoles are found in the old cells of hyphae. The end of hyphal tip of young hyphae
lacks vacuole.
➢ Vacuoles are surrounded by a membrane known as tonoplast.
➢ The function of the vacuoles is to provide the turgor needed for cell growth and
maintenance of cell shape.
➢ Besides osmotic function,it stores reserve materials(Volutin- polymetsphosphate ; in
yeasts), pigments , amino acids and hydrolases.
Lysosomes
➢ Thornton (1968) described them as “ Autophagic vesicles”.
➢ They have been described only in Botrytis cinerea and Phycomyces.
➢ They are thought to be derived from Golgi cisternae.
➢ Simple lysosomes have a diameter of 400nm and are bound by a unit membrane.
Vesicles
➢ The term vesicle is used for any cell or organ that is inflated by the stuff that is used
to store. (swollen end cells)
➢ This are generally formed by Endomycorrhizal fungi either between root cells or
within the cell wall.
➢ Vesicles are common in fungi, especially in the apical regions and where ever wall
synthesis is in progress.
➢ The apex of hyphae contains a large number of vesicles and is termed Apical
Vesicular Complex (AVC).
➢ They transport the products formed by the secretary action of Golgi apparatus to the
site where these products are to be utilized.
 Microtubules
➢ Discovered by transmission electron microscopy in the late 1950s.
➢ microtubules interfere with the transport of secretory material to the In filamentous
fungi, microtubule is an essential component of tip growth machinery that enables
continuous and rapid growth.
➢ Composed of the protein tubulin which consist of a dimer composed of two protein
subunits.
➢ Microtubules are long, hollow cylinder -25nm in diameter
➢ Involved in the movement of organelles, nuclei and Golgi vesicles containing cell
wall precursor.
➢ Assist in the movement of chromosomes during mitosis and meiosis
➢ The destruction of cytoplasmic e cell periphery, which may inhibit the cell wall
synthesis.
Micro bodies
➢ It was first described by Frederick and commerce workers in 1975.
➢ These organelles are round, oval, 1.5-2.0 I'm in diameter surrounded by single unit
membrane.
➢ Their origin is unknown.
➢ They may be identical to or may be the precursors of peroxisomes or lysosomes,
which contains either catalase or histolytic enzymes.
➢ "Woronin bodies " named after M. S woronin, are generally spherical and highly
refractive bodies and are bound by unit membrane.
➢ These are found associated with septal pores of discomycetes and many
deuteromycetous fungi.
 Growth
➢ Growth is defined as the irreversible constant increase in the dry mass of an organism.
➢ It is brought about by an increase in cell size or number.
➢ It is the fundamental characteristics of living bodies accompanied by various
metabolic processes. (anabolic or catabolic)
➢ Factors effecting growth: External factors - light, temperature, water, nutrients;
Internal factors - hormones.

Optimum condition for growth

➢ Presence of water: 80–90% of the fungi is composed of water by mass, and requires
excess water for absorption due to the evaporation of internally retent water.
➢ Presence of oxygen
➢ Neutral-acidic pH : Optimum pH 5.0
➢ Low-medium temperature: ranges between 1°C and 35°C, with optimum growth at
25 °C.
Growth in fungi can be seen by
➢ unicellular organization
➢ in form of hyphae
Fungal growth phases
➢ From the time a spore or a hyphal fragment germinates to form a colony to the time
the fungus dies, there are a number of growth phases.
➢ Although these phases have been determined under laboratory conditions, it is
possible that the same occur in nature.
➢ The unicellular organisms (Yeast) may present different phases :-
[Link] phase
2. Log phase or exponential phase
[Link] phase
[Link] phase .
 Lag phase
➢ Once the growth conditions become favourable for the fungi to germinate, new
transport systems must be induced before growth starts.
➢ Thus growth starts slowly. This phase is referred to as the lag phase.
Exponential or log phase
➢ Hyphae branches are initiated
➢ The new hypha extends at a linear .
➢ The biomass of the growing fungus doubles per unit time.
➢ As long as the nutrients are in excess growth remains constant during the exponential
phase.
Stationary phase
➢ As soon as the nutrients are depleted or toxic metabolites are produced growth slows
down or is completely stopped.
➢ During the stationary phase, hyphal growth stops and, in some molds, cell
differentiation occurs, resulting in spore formation.
➢ During this process nutrients are transferred from the vegetative mycelium to the
developing spores.
➢ The spores are dispersed by air movement to other areas of the building where they
can start new mold growth once the conditions for growth are favourable.
➢ Different Phases of Growth In filamentous Fungi is due to linear phase of growth
➢ Here Usually exponential Phase is replaced by linear phase of growth.
➢ In linear Phase growth of fungi is limited to terminal portion of the hyphae.
➢ This phenomenon of terminal growth was studied in Fusarium, Aspergillus,
Pencillium, Rhizopus.
➢ Three dimension growth can also be seen in standing liquid cultures , Fungi usually
grow as floating mats.
GENERTION TIME
➢ Generation time is the average time between two consecutive generations in the
lineages of a population.
➢ When growing exponentially by binary fission, the increase in a fungal population is
by geometric progression. If we start with one cell, when it divides, there are 2 cells in
the first generation, 4 cells in the second generation, 8 cells in the third generation,
and so on. The generation time is the time interval required for the cells (or
population) to divide
Calculation of Generation Time
➢ G (generation time) = (time, in minutes or hours)/n (number of generations)
➢ G = t/n
➢ t = time interval in hours or minutes
➢ B = number of cell at the beginning of a time interval
➢ b = number of cell at the end of the time interval
➢ n = number of generations (number of times the cell population doubles during the
time interval) .
 Structure of fungi.

Morphological characters of fungi

Thallus – Entire body of fungus is called thallus (mass of hyphae constitute to form thallus).
Vegetative/ somatic thallus gives rise to reproductive structures, from which spores are
produced either sexuall or sexually.
➢ Holocarpic – whole thallus is converted into one are more reproductive structures
Eg – Synchytrium and Olphidium
➢ Eucarpic – only a portion of thallus become reproductive
Eg – Oomycota, Ascomycota and Basidiomycota
Mycelium – filamentous vegetative body of the fungus is called mycelium/ Single thread of
hyphae (or) The hyphal mass or network of hyphae constituting the body (thallus) of the fungus
is called as mycelium

Mycellium
Mycelium preset in fungi have two types on the basis of presence of hypha
1) Non septate/ Aseptate/ coenocytic mycelium- The mycelium in which hypha have no
cross wall or no septa. Eg – fungi belonging to zygomycotina and mastigomycotina
2) Septate- The mycelium in which hypha have cross wall or septa. Eg fungi belonging to
basidiomycotina ascomycotina and deuteromycotina.
➢ Ectophytic mycelium- the hypha in this case grow on the external surface or on the
epidermal cell. Eg powdery midew of gapes etc.

➢ Endophytic mycelium- the hypha in this case grow inside the epidermal layer of a
plant tissue. Endophytic mycelium have following types.
1) Intercellular mycelium- mycelium is grow in between two cells of plant tissue
without penetrating the cell. Eg yellow rust of wheat
2) Intracellular mycelium- mycelium grows with in the cell of the plant tissue.
Eg smut of jawar, bajra smut
3) Vascular mycelium- mycelium confined to or found to grow in vascular tissue of
plant. Eg wilt of tur.
Hypha - Individual branch of mycelium which are generally uniform in thickness, usually
about 2-10 μm in diameter. The hyphae may be septate or aseptate
➢ Coenocytic hyphae - The aseptate or non-septate hyphae having the nuclei scattered
in the cytoplasm (obscene of septa/ cross walls).
➢ Septate hyphae- The hyphae have septa having perforations through which
cytoplasmic strands, containing nuclei can migrate from one cell to the other. (presence
of septa)

➢ Septa – The cross walls which divide the hypha into cells are called septa
➢ Doipore septa- It is a complex type septum with barrel shaped central pore and hemi
spherical cap is called parenthosome/ pore [Link] septum is formed in
Agaricomycotina certain basidiomycetes.
➢ Spore – minute, simple and basic reproductive unit of fungus, which are capable of
growing into a new thallus. The process of formation of spores are called Sporogenesis/
Sporulation
➢ Sporangia – It is a sac like structure in which spores are formed
➢ Sporangiphore – sporangia are produced at the end of the of the undifferentiated or on
specialized spore bearing structure are called Sporangiphore.

➢ Special somatic structures-In mycelial thallus, the differentiation of hyphae may

occur to form specialized structures adapted to particular functions.
The following specialized structures are
• Appresorium – It is the anchoring organ/ attachment organ of fungi. It is simple or
lobed swollen structure to germ tube or infecting hyphae. They adhere/ attach to host
surface and provide strong anchoring to infecting hyphae in penetration. Eg – Rust,
powdery mildews etc.(simply attachment organ or anchoring organ)
• Haustorium – It is a nutrient absorbing organ of fungi from host cells without killing
it. Haustorium is intracellular sac like, filamentous or branched structure and is a
characteristic of obligate parasites(Uredinales, Erysiphales, Pernosporales).
• Rhizoid – A rhizoid is a short, root like filamentous branch of the thallus, generally
formed in turfts at the base of the thallus. Rhizoids function as anchoring and absorbing
organ. (eg – Rhizopus)

➢ Hyphal modifications/ fungal tissues

Mycelium of higher fungi is organised into loosely or compactly woven tissues, called
fungal tissues/ plectenchyma. They are of two types
• Prosenchyma – loosely woven fungal tissues in which the individual hypha lie
parallel to one another
• Pseudoparenchyma: compactly woven fungal tissue with more or less
isometric resembling parenchyma of higher plants.
➢ Modification of Mycellium
• Stromata – Compact matters like structure made up of parenchyma and
pseudoparenchyma usually form fruiting bodies off fungi of various shapes and
sizes Eg – Acervuli (Colletotrichum), Sporodochia (Fusarium
• Rhizomorphs: Thicker root like aggregates. Also called mycelial cords
• Sclerotium: It is a hard and compact vegetative resting structure resistant to
unfavourable conditions. It is mostly made up of pseudoparenchymatous cells
Eg – Sclerotium, Rhizoctonia, Sclerotinia, Claviceps
• Chlamydopsores - Thick walled resting spore formed either single or in chains
from terminal or intercalary cells o the hyphae eg – Fusarium, Saprolegnia It is
thick walled and contains reserve food materials to withstand unfoavorble
conditions
• Gemmae – Chlamydospores dispersed in water currents are called gemmae
• Dormant mycelium- it is the mycelium which is hibernate in the host tissue to
tide over unfavourable environment condition it remains in a dormant condition
for a part of its life cycle and became active when condition are favourable
eg powdery mildew of grapes.
REPRODUCTION IN FUNGI
• Reproduction is the formation of new individuals with all characteristics.
Types
1) Vegetative reproduction
2) Asexual reproduction
3) Sexual reproduction
1) Vegetative reproduction- It does not involve in the the union of nuclei, no sex cells
(gamaates) or sex organs (gametangia) are produced. The asexual spores are also called
as mitospores.
➢ Fragmentation - A bit of broken fragment of hyphae detchd and establishes a new
colony..
➢ Budding – It is the production of a small outgrowth (bud) from a parent cell or spore.
Each bud produces a new individual. As the bud is formed, the nuclei of parent cell
divides and one daughter nucleus migrates into bud. Budding can be observed in yeast.
➢ Fission – The splitting of a cell into two daughter cells by constriction. The nucleus
divides mitotically along with the formation of a cell wall. Although, it is a
characteristic of bacteria and it also occurs in fission yeasts.
2) Asexual reproduction
➢ Production of asexual spores – Spore is a reproductive structure of fungi.
There are two major kinds of asexual spores in fungi.
a. Sporangiospores – Produced within the sporangium. The sporangiospore are two types
➢ Aplanospores – They are non-motile spores having typical cell wall around them. They
ar uni or multinucleate, unicellular, smooth walled, globose or ellipsoid in shape. The
number of aplanospores per sporangium ranges from one to several thousands.
Eg – Zygomycotina (Mucorales)
➢ Zoospores – These are motile spore and are self-propelled by means of flagella. They
lack cell walls and contains cell envelope in a membrane. Eg – Mastigomycotina
b. Conida or condisospores – They are asexual reproductive structure producd by different
groups of fungi especially Ascomycotina and Deuteomycotina. Conidia are produced
exogenously on condiophores.
 ➢ Arthrospores – They are formed by close separation in basipetal succession. Each cell
rouds off and sets free as a thin-walled arthrospores. It is also called as oidia. Eg –
Oidium, Endomyces
➢ Chlamydospores – It is a thick-walled resting spore surrounded by pigmented wall and
is formed from terminal or intercalary cells of hyphae. They contain enormous amount
of food reserves in the form of glycogen or oil. They may be dispersed in water currents
and then known as gemmae.

2) Sexual reproduction
Sexual reproduction – Union of two opposite nuclei. Three phases mainly occurs in the order
of sexual reproduction in fungi
a) Plasmogamy – Sexual reproduction begins with plasmogamy which involves the
union of two protoplasts bringing the opposite nuclei close together within in the
same cell.
b) Karyogamy – Fusion of two opposite nuclei. The process fusion of nuclei is known
as syngamy or diploidizaion.
c) Meiosis – Reduction division where chromosome number become half (diploid
become haploid). Meiosis takes place in gonotoconts.
a) Plasmogamy brings to haploid nuclei togeather in a cell, karyogamy results in a diploid
zygote nucleus and meiosis by reducing the chromosome number restores the haploid
condition.
Types of plasmogamy
1. Gametogamy (Planogametic copulation) – Fusion of morphologically or
physiologically differentiated gamates.
➢ Isogamy - Fusion of isogamates of same size and shape. Eg – Olphidium and
Synchytrium
➢ Anisogamy – Fusion of aniosogametes of morophologically similar but differ
in size. Eg – Allomyces and Blastocladiales
➢ Heterogamy (= oogamy) – Fusion of motile male gamtes with non motile
female gamates. Eg – Monoblephariales (Monoblepharis)

2. Gametangiogamy (Gametangial contact) - Copulation of morphologically or

physiologically differentiated gamatangia. Where gamates are passed form male to
female through fertilization tube developed by male gametangium and trichogyne is
developed by female gametangium. The purpose or fertiziation tube or trichogyne is
to facilitate a passage for fertilization. • Eg – Albugo, Pythium and Phytophthora.
3. Gametangy (Gametagial copulation) – Fusion of entire content of two gametangia.
Fusion takes in different ways
➢ Hologamy - Whole content of one gametangium passes into another
gametangium
Eg – Chytridis and Yeast (Polyphogus and Rhizophidium)
➢ Direct fusion - Fusion of two morphologically similar gametangia and
become a single cell Eg – Mucor and Rhizopus
➢ Anisogametangial population – Fusion between unequal gametangia Eg –
Mucorales
4. Spermatization - This method of sexual reproduction can be observed in rusts. Rust
produce numerous, tiny, uninucleate, non-motile, spore like male sex cells called
spermatia. They form flask shaped organs called spermogonia developed on the upper
surface of leaf of the second host. The spermatia are carried by various agencies,
generally by insects, wind or water to the receptive hyphae of opposite strains produced
in another spermagonium. At the point of contact the wall was dissolved and a pore is
formed, the content of spermatium (male gamates) migrates through the pore into the
receptive hypha and become binucleate. The union of hyphae with the receptive hyphae
is known as spermatization. • Eg – Puccinia graminis and Podospora.
5. Somatogamy - Fusion of vegetative cells/ somatic cells which are not sexully
differentiated (Hyphae or conidia). Fusion takes between somatic hyphae of the primary
mycelia of opposite strains come in contact. Also known as pseudomixis.
 REPRODUCTIVE STRUCTURES AND SPORE FRUITS IN FUNGI
The fungi reproduce by spores. Spore is a minute reproductive or propagative unit
functioning as a seed of fungi. These are produced in three ways.
i) Asexually ii) Sexually iii) Vegetatively.

ASEXUAL SPORES IN FUNGI

Asexual spores develop or form without nuclear fusion or act of breeding and these spores
mainly borne on sporophores. They are not usually resistant to unfavourable conditions. They
are capable of rapid multiplication, and are well adopted for efficient dissemination. They may
be one or many celled, borne on the specialized hyphae or produced in special structures called
as spore fruits.
Endogenous:
These spores are formed internally within enlarged cell or sac (sporangium) by division of
protoplasm. e.g. sporangiospores.
Sporangiospores :
The sporangiospores are produced in a enlarged cell or sac or sporangium and are unicellular.
These spores liberated by breaking the wall of sporangium. When sporangium gives motile
spores it is known as zoosporangium or swarmsporangium and the spores as zoospores, or
swarmspores. These spores are motile by means of the flagella or cilia. A non motile spore
produced in the sporangium is known as aplanospore.
 Exogenous:
These spores are borne externally on sporophores. e.g. conidia, oidia, etc.

Sporangiospores Oidia
Conidia (Sing. Conidium) :
The conidia are produced asexually on a specialized hyphae or stalk known as
conidiophore and spores are called as conidia. Condia differ in their size, shape, colour,
septation and branching within the same species. Conidia may be uni, or multicellular,
e.g. Alternaria, Pyricularia, etc.
Oidia (Sing. Oidium)
These spores are barrel shaped or rectangular in shape and are produced asexually
in chains on the stalk called as oidiophores, e.g. Oidium mangiferae - oidia in powdery
mildew of mango.
Asexual spore fruit
1. Coremium or Synnemata (Pl. Coremia):
The hyphae, which form conidiophores and erect conidiophores, grouped together to
form coremia. Each coremium consists of sterile stalk terminating into fertile hyphae
bearing conidia, e.g. Stysanus thyrosoides.

.
Coremium or Synnemata
 2. Sporodochium (Pl. Sporodochia):
A spore fruit having cushion shaped stroma covered with the conidia formed inside
ooze in sticky mass is known as sporodochium, e.g. genus Nectria (Sporophyte fungus
growing on the trunks).

Sporodochium

2. Pycnidium (Pl. Pycnidia): Spherical or oval shaped spore fruit with short
conidiophores lining inner side, which bear spores or conidia called pycnidiospores
The spore fruit usually have an opening is called ostiole, e.g. Phoma spp., Phomopsis
spp. etc.

Pycnidium
4. Acervulus (Pl. acervuli):
It is compact mass of hyphae giving rise to short, simple, hyaline conidiophores,
closely packed together forming cushion like mass with or without setae. It is also
known as modified open sorus, e.g. genus, Colletotrichum and Pestalotiopsis.
 Acervulus
5. Sorus (Pl. sori):
It is a little heap like compact mass of sporophores and spores, which usually are
covered by epidermis. At maturity, the epidermis breaks and all the spores are
liberated, e.g. smut and rust.

Sorus
6. Aecium (Pl. aecia) :
It is an inverted cup like or bell shaped structure usually formed on lower surface of
the leaf, consisting of binucleate hyphal cells producing yellow or orange coloured
spores, which are usually formed in basipetal manner called aeciospores, e.g. rust
fungi, aecium of Puccinia graminis tritici.

Aecium

7. Pycnium or Spermagonium (Pl. Pycnia) :

It is characteristics of rust fungi. A flask shaped structure containing pycniosproes or
spermatia, e.g. rust fungi.
 Pycnium

SEXUAL SPORES IN FUNGI

The sexual spores are formed by the fusion between two gametes of opposite sex.
These spores are generally produced under adverse conditions. Cell carrying the gamete
is called gametangium and gamete is unisexual or haploid.
Depending upon the manner of formation of spores they are classified as zygote,
zygospore, Oospore, Ascospore and Basidiospore and can resist the unfavourable
conditions.
Zygote : Zygote is formed by the union of two opposite haploid motile gametes, e.g.
lower fungi of the phylum Chytridiomycota, class Chytridiomycetes

Oospores:
It is the result of union between female and male gametes i.e. oogonium and
antheridium, respectively. Oogonium is larger than antheridium and is oval or irregular.
Anthridial nuclei passes to oogonium through fertilization tube. The oospores are thick
walled and may be smooth or rough, dark brown in colour. These spores can resist the
adverse conditions, e.g. phylum Oomycota, class-Oomycetes, order Peronosporales
(e.g. Downy mildew of grape, etc.)

Oospore
Zygospores:
Zygospores are formed by the union of two similar or identical gametes designated as
+ ve and –ve. The resultant spore is thick walled echinulated or spiny. The wall consists
of two layers. Outer one is known as exosporium and inner layer as endosporium. These
sproes resist unfavourable conditions and germinate during favourable season.
e.g. fungi of the phylum Zygomycota, class-Zygomycetes and Trichomycetes, order
Mucorales and Entomophthorales.

Zygospores

Ascospores :
Ascospores are produced in a sac known as ascus which is formed in fruiting body, e.g.
Perithecium and Cleistothecium. Ascospores in the ascus are generally eight in number
but it may vary and always in multiple of ‘2’. The ascospores are produced by union of
male and female gamete, i.e. antheridium and ascogonium through fertilization tube
(Trycogene). Ascospores may be single or many celled, hyaline or coloured and having
various shapes, e.g. fungi belonging to phylum Ascomycota.

Ascospores
Basidiospores:
These are the sexual spores produced on club shaped structure known as basidia
(basidium) on a short tube known as sterigmata. Usually four basidiospores are
produced on each basidium. The basidiospores are exogenously formed spores. In these
fungi sexual organs are absent, except in rust fungi, e.g. phylum – Basidiomycotina.

Basidiospores

SEXUAL SPORE FRUITS

ASCOCARPS:
It is the spore fruit produced by the fungi belonging to the phylum Ascomycota. Sexual
spore produced endogenously are known as ascospores in sac like structure called ascus
(Pl -Asci). The spore fruits are of various forms and shaped viz., spherical, flask, cup,
saucer, pod, etc.
Following are the different types of ascocarps :
1. Cleistothecium (Pl. cleistothecium):
It is closed without ostiole, round to oval ascocarp with irregularly arranged or scattered
asci having dark brown to black colour and provided with appendages to anchor or to
hold host and to help in dissemination. Cleistothecium breaks open at maturity by wear
and tear, e.g. powdery mildew fungi of order Erysiphales.

Cleistothecium
2. Perithecium (Pl. Perithecia):
A flask shaped ascocarp with narrow neck like ostiole through which asci are released.
The sterile structures present in between the asci within the ascocarp are known as
paraphyses, which help asci in nutrition and dispersal, e.g. Claviceps, Glomerella, etc.

Perithecium
3. Apothecium (Pl. Apothecia):
A cup or saucer shaped spore fruit with broad opening is known as apothecium. The
asci are arranged in palisade layer called hymenium. The apothecium is usually fleshy
and leathery in nature, e.g. genus Sclerotinia.

Apothecium
4. Ascostroma:
The asci are formed directly in a locule or cavity within at stroma. The stroma forms
the wall of the ascocarp.
BASIDIOCARPS:
These are the fructifications of phylum Basidiomycota and consist of mushroom,
bracket fungi and puff balls. They are highly developed and have a compound
structures, may be fleshy, leathery, woody or waxy in nature and bear special structures
variously known as gills, pores, needles and chambers. The sexual spores are the
basidiospores, produced exogenously on the tip of enlarged cell of hypha known as
basidium (basidia). The basidiospores are usually 4 in number. The basidia are
intermingled with sterile strucutres called paraphyses. The cells slightly larger than
basidia intermingled in hymenial layer are known as cystidia.
1. Puff balls :
It is round or spherical, very small to big basidiocarp, commonly found on dead organic
matter. The basidiospores are produced in the hymenium which lines the inner surface.
On maturity basidiospores are given off, in the form of puff or smoke. The puff balls
have got small stalk at the base.

Puff balls
2. Bracket fungi :
A compound fruictification growing on dead tree trunks. These are woody and hard
basidiocarps. They are typically bracket, hoof or saddle shaped, and highly coloured
with short stalk. The hymenial layer is found on the honey comb fashioned pores in
which basida and basidiospores are observed.

Bracket fungi
3. Mushrooms :
These are the fleshy or leathery compound fructifications with variously coloured,
commonly found on manure pits, dung heaps and on any rich organic matter. They are
borne on stalk and provided with gills and pores to the underside which contains
hymenial layer. The mushroom may be edible and non-edible or poisonous, e.g.
Agaricus sp. (edible).
 Mushrooms
VEGETATIVE SPROES
Chlamydospores: These sproes are formed from hyphal cells of old mycelium
enveloped by a thick cell wall, which later on separate from parent hyphae and behave
as resting spores. They may be formed terminally or intercalary, e.g. Fusarium,
Phytophthora, etc.

Chlamydospores
Assignment Question
Important questions on above topics as follows
1) Define plant pathology write down the scope and importance of plant pathology?
2) Define plant pathology write down the objectives of plant pathology?
3) Define plant disease write down the importance of plant diseases?
4) Write down the different plant disease epidemics occurs in world.?
5) Write down the different causes of plant disease
6) Write down the classification of plant diseases on the basis of occurrence and
severity.?
7) Define symptoms and write down the symptoms produced by fungi?
8) Write down in brief the discovery of Bordeaux mixture?
9) Write down the concept of plant diseases
10) Write down about disease triangle and disease pyramid?
Do as directed
Write down the contribution of following scientist
1) Antony van Leeuvenhoek
2) Anton de Bary
3) P A Micheli
4) Theophrastus
5) P A Millardet
Define-
1) Sign
2) Symptoms
3) Necrotic
4) Disease
5) Mycology
6) Pathogen
Fill in the blanks
1) Loranthus is an ……..parasite .
2) Mycoplasma or phytoplasma are sensitive to ---------.
Answer in one sentence
1) Bordeaux mixture is used for controlling which diseases?
2) What is the contribution of Anton van leevenhoek?
True or false
1) Enquiry in to plants book was written by Theophrastus.
2) Viruses are self replicating contains either DNA or RNA as a nucleic acid.