DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION

INDEX

Topic Name Page No.

 Chapter at a Glance 63-83

 Multiple Choice Questions

 Level - I 84-92

 Level – II 92-100

 Assertion & Reason Questions 101-102

 Previous Year’s Questions 102-107

 Answers Key 108-108

This Chapter Includes:

 Proximate and Protective Component of Food  Types of Nutrition
 Types of Teeth  Mouth Part and its Function
 Histology of Alimentary Canal  Glands of Gastrointestinal Tract
 Glands and Related Digestive Enzyme  Process of Digestion
 Mechanism of Absorption  Vitamins
 Gastrointestinal Disorders
 Digestion and Absorption Rg-Zol. XI-2018-20

DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION

ANIMAL NUTRITION
The process of conversion of complex food substances to simple absorbable form is called digestion and
it is carried out by our digestive system by mechanical and biochemical methods. It is of two types:
(i) Intracellular digestion: Digestion within cells e.g. Amoeba.
(ii) Extracellular digestion: Digestion outside the cells. e.g. frog, rabbit, man
The chemical substances of food are called nutrients and are mainly used for growth, development and
energy production. These nutrients fall into two categories.
i) Organic Nutrients – Carbohydrates, proteins, fat and vitamins.
ii) Inorganic Nutrients – Minerals and water
The carbohydrates, proteins and fats are three major energy sources and are called Macro
nutrients or Proximate principles of food.
The minerals, water and vitamins do not provide energy but help in energy production and
maintain proper metabolism of the body. They are called Micronutrients or Protective principles
of food. Their deficiency causes various disorders or diseases

Types of nutrition
There are mainly two types of nutrition: autotrophic nutrition and heterotrophic nutrition.

Other modes of Heterotrophic nutrition in animals:

 Holophytic: Plant-like nutrition e.g. Euglena
 Insectivorous: Feed upon insects e.g. wall lizard, frog
 Larvivorous: Feed upon larvae e.g. fish, dragonfly
 Voracious: Continuous feeder, taking huge amount of food in comparison to body size e.g.
dragonfly, Gambusia fish.
 Cannibalism: Feed upon their own species e.g. snakes, cockroach, scorpion, frog, fish.
 Sanguivorous feeder: Feed upon blood e.g. leech, female mosquitoes, vampire bats.

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 Filter feeder: Feed upon micro food particle and reject macro food particle. E.g. Unio
(Freshwater mussel), Paramoecium, Amphioxus, sponges, whale (mammal).
 Mixotrophic feeder: Both holozoic as well as holophytic e.g. Euglena.
 Detritus feeder: Feed upon organic food present in [Link] water e.g. Earthworm ,sponges
 Coprophagus: Feed upon their own faeces (excreta). Coprophagy, also known as Reingestion
takes place for complete digestion of cellulose in rabbit.

Digestive System in Human
It includes two main components
I. Alimentary canal or gut
II. Digestive glands
I. ALIMENATRY CANAL
It comprises of the following organs:
Mouth  Buccal cavity  Pharynx  Oesophagus  Stomach  Small intestine
(Duodenum + Jejunum + Ileum)  Large intestine (Caecum + Colon + Rectum) Anal tube
 Anus

The human digestive system

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1. Mouth and its Functions – The buccal cavity is lined with stratified squamous epithelium and
contains the following structures:
Part Location Function
Cheeks Form lateral walls of mouth Hold food in mouth: muscles function in chewing
Lips Surround mouth opening Contain sensory receptors used to judge characteristics of
food. Attached on inner side with gums by thin transparent
fold called labial frenulum.
Tongue Occupies floor of mouth Aids in mixing food with saliva; moves food towards
pharynx; contains taste receptors
Palate Forms roof of mouth Holds food in the mouth; directs food to the pharynx. Consists
of hard palate anteriorly and soft palate posteriorly.
Teeth In sockets of mandibular and Break food particles into smaller pieces; help mix food with
maxillary bones saliva during chewing
Uvula Terminal part of soft palate Closure of internal nostrils during swallowing

Tonsils At four locations in buccal cavity Lymphoid tissue. Play a role in immunity.
in the form of a ring.

Tongue
 Freely movable muscular organ.
 It is attached to the floor of oral cavity by the
lingual frenulum.
 Sulcus terminalis is an inverted v-shaped furrow
that divides the tongue into anterior oral part and
posterior pharyngeal part.
 The upper surface has projections called papillae,
which bear taste buds.
 Papillae are 4 types:
(i) Vallate papillae: (8-12) About 100
taste buds.
(ii) Fungiform papillae: Smaller than
vallate. Has about 5 taste buds.
(iii) Filiform papillae: Smallest, most numerous. Have touch receptors, no taste buds
(iv) Foliate papillae: Not developed in human tongue.

Teeth
 Tooth is differentiated into three parts –
i) Crown: The exposed part of the tooth
ii) Neck: The part of the tooth embedded in the gums
iii) Root: Embedded in the sockets of jaw bones
 The enamel, (helps in mastication of food) which forms the
covering over crown, is the hardest substance in the body and
is secreted from Ameloblast layer (ectodermal).
 The dentine forms the bulk of tooth. It is secreted by
Odontoblast layer, forming the covering around pulp cavity. This layer is mesodermal in origin
 Caries: Decay of teeth due to degeneration of enamel and formation of cavities
 Pyorrhoea: Infected gums and tooth sockets

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Heterodont teeth: 4 types

An adult human has 32 permanent teeth which are of four different types (Heterodont dentition), namely:
(i) Incisors: for cutting, have one root.
(ii) Canines: for tearing, have one root
(iii) Premolars: for crushing, grinding and chewing, in upper premolar 2 roots and lower premolar 1
root.
(iv) Molars: for chewing, in upper molar 3 roots and lower molar 2 roots.

Arrangement of different types of teeth in the jaws on one side and the sockets on the other side

 Majority of mammals including human being forms two sets of teeth during their life, a set of
temporary milk or deciduous teeth replaced by a set of permanent or adult teeth. This type of
dentition is called diphyodont. In human, 20 teeth are diphyodont (2102/2102) whereas 12 teeth (8
premolars and last 4 molars) appear only once i.e. Monophyodont (0021/0021) (Toothed whales
and marsupials are monophyodont)

Dental formulae:
(i) Adult human:
Upper jaw IC Pm M 2123 2  1  2  3 (8)  2 16
      32
Lower jaw IC Pm M 2123 2  1  2  3 (8)  2 16
212 (5)  2 10
(ii) Milk dentition:    20
212 (5)  2 10

(iii) Rabbit:

Classification of teeth according to position:

(a) Acrodont : Teeth are attached to the tree surface or summit of the jaw bone. e.g., fishes,
amphibians and reptiles.
(b) Pleurodont: Teeth fixed to lateral surface of jaw ridge e.g., fangs of snakes.
(c) Thecodont: Embedded in sockets and have well-developed roots (mammals & crocodiles).

Classification according to arrangement of enamel and dentine:

(a) Bunodont: Small, blunt and rounded cusps e.g.. human
(b) Lophodont: Intricate folding of enamel and dentine is present and cusps are connected by
several transverse ridges (lophos) e.g., elephants.
(c) Selenodont: Vertical crescent shaped cusps of hard enamel enclosing softer areas of dentine e.g.,
sheep, cattle.

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(d) Secodont: Pointed cusps e.g., carnivores.
(e) Hypsodont: High crowned teeth, with enamel extending past gum line. Eg cows, horses
(f) Brachydont: Having short crowns e.g. human
 Types of teeth in Mammals: Thecodont, Diphyodont, Heterodont
 Types of teeth in human: Thecodont, Diphyodont (with few monophyodont teeth), Heterodont,
Bunodont, Brachydont
Tonsils
These are lymphoid tissues of pharynx and includes;

(i) Nasopharyngeal/pharyngeal tonsils/adenoids

(ii) Palatine/faucial tonsils
(iii) Lingual tonsils
(iv) Tubal tonsils
(v) These are arranged in a ring like manner -
Waldeyer's ring

Pharynx
 In humans the buccal cavity and pharynx are separated by a soft palate (Uvula). During
swallowing (simple reflex) the tongue blocks the mouth, the soft palate closes the internal
nostrils and the epiglottis closes glottis due to rising of the larynx.
2. Oesophagus
 The opening of oesophagus is called gullet.
 It has both voluntary (upper 1/3rd) and involuntary muscles (lower 2/3rd) and runs through
neck and thorax to reach abdominal cavity by piercing the diaphragm. It is a straight,
collapsible tube about 25 cm long and provides a passageway for food from pharynx to the
stomach.
 Its lining does not secrete digestive enzymes.
 The mucus, secreted from goblet cells/glands is added into the food.
 A muscular sphincter (gastro-oesophageal/cardiac sphincter) regulates the opening of
oesophagus into the stomach.
 Absence of visceral peritoneum

3. Stomach (J – Shaped)
 Located in the upper left portion of the Anatomical regions of human stomach
abdominal cavity, has four major parts – a
cardiac portion into which the oesophagus
opens, a fundic region, a main body and a
pyloric portion which opens into the first
part of small intestine, the opening of which
is guarded by pyloric sphincter.
 The stomach stores food for 4 to 5 hours
 The wall of Cardiac stomach has three layers
of muscles. Outermost longitudinal layer,
middle circular layer and innermost oblique
layer. Mucosa has folds called rugae and
cardiac, fundic and pyloric glands.

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Stomach of Ruminants:

The stomach of ruminants is known as compound

stomach. It has 4 well defined chambers or
compartments. viz., rumen, reticulum, omasum
and abomasum. Rumen is the first and the largest
chamber mainly meant for the storage of food. In
camel and deer, omasum is absent and water cells
project from rumen. Digestion of cellulose takes
place by fermentation, with the help of symbiont
bacteria and protozoans. Abomasum is the true
stomach, which secretes gastric juices. Rumen
and reticulum harbour large populations of
anaerobic cellulolytic bacteria like Rumenococcus
which secrete the cellulase enzyme for the
fermentation of cellulose. Cellulose is simplified
into small chain fatty acids.

4. Small Intestine
 The small intestine is a tubular organ that extends from the pyloric sphincter to the beginning of the
large intestine. With its many loops and coils, it fills much of the abdominal cavity. Although it is
5.5–6.0 meters (18–20 feet) long in a cadaver when the muscular wall lacks tone, the small intestine
may be only half of this length in a living person.
 The pH value in small intestine is 8.00
 The small intestine receives secretions from the pancreas and liver. It also completes digestion of the
nutrients in chyme, absorbs the products of digestion, and transports the remaining residues to the
large intestine.

Parts of the Small Intestine

 The small intestine consists of three portions: the duodenum, the jejunum, and the ileum.

 The duodenum is about 25 centimeters, long and 5 centimeters in diameter. It is the shortest and
most fixed portion of the small intestine. The duodenum follows a C-shaped path as it passes in front
of the right kidney and the upper three lumbar vertebrae. It receives the opening of hepatopancreatic
duct (Bile duct + Pancreatic duct). A small swelling is present at the opening of hepatopancreatic
duct and is called 'Ampulla of Vales' or Hepatopancreatic ampulla and the opening is regulated by
Sphincter of Oddi.

 The proximal two-fifths of this portion is the jejunum and the remainder is the ileum. There is no
distinct separation between the jejunum and ileum, but the diameter of the jejunum is usually greater,
and its wall is thicker, more vascular, and more active than that of the ileum. Digestion is completed
in the ileum of small intestine

 The intestinal mucosal epithelium has goblet cells which secrete mucus. The secretions of the brush
border cells of the mucosa along with the secretions of the goblet cells constitute the intestinal juice
or succus entericus. This juice contains a variety of enzymes like disaccharidases (e.g., maltase),
dipeptidases, lipases, nucleosidases, etc.

 Diffused patches of lymphoid tissues are present throughout the small intestine and are aggregated in
ileum to form Peyer's patches.

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5. Large Intestine
 The large intestine is so named because its diameter is greater than that of the small intestine. This
portion of the alimentary canal is about 1.5 meters long, and it begins in the lower right side of the
abdominal cavity where the ileum joins the caecum.
Bowel Movements
Stomach Small Intestine Large Intestine Migrating Motor complex Peristaltic rush
 Churning  Segmentation  Haustrations  During fasting between  Not seen in
movement contraction/mixing or propulsive period of digestion at normal
contraction movements intervals of 90 min. individuals
called as
(most common  stopped by ingestion of food  Only present
mass
type of intestinal in cases of
movement  clear the stomach and small
contraction) intestinal
intestine of luminal contents obstruction
 Helps in mixing of in preparation for next meals.
chyme with
digestive juices

Parts of the Large Intestine

 The large intestine consists of caecum, colon, rectum and anal canal.
 The caecum, which represents the beginning of the large intestine, is a dilated, pouch like structure
that hangs slightly below the ileocaecal opening. Projecting downward from it is narrow tube with a
closed end called the vermiform (wormlike) appendix. The human appendix has no known
digestive function. It contains lymphatic tissue.
 The colon is divided into four portions – the ascending, transverse, descending, and sigmoid colons.
The ascending colon begins at the cecum and travels upwards against the posterior abdominal wall
to a point just below the liver. There it turns sharply to the left (as the right colic, or hepatic, flexure)
and becomes the transverse colon. The transverse colon is the longest and most movable part of the
large intestine. As the transverse colon approaches the spleen, it turns abruptly downward (as the left
colic, or splenic, flexure) and become the descending colon. At the brim of the pelvis, the
descending colon makes an S-shaped curve, called the sigmoid colon, and then becomes the rectum.
The wall of colon has sac like haustra and 3 bands of longitudinal muscles called Taeniae coli.
Another characteristic of colon surface is the presence of small fat filled projections called epiploic
appendages.
 The rectum lies next to the sacrum and generally follows its curvature. It is firmly attached to the
sacrum by the peritoneum, and it ends about 5 centimeters below the tip of the coccyx, where it
becomes the anal canal.
 The anal canal is formed by the last 2.5 to 4.0 centimeters of the large intestine. The mucous
membrane of the canal is folded into a series of six to eight longitudinal anal columns. At its distal
end, the canal opens to the outside as the anus. Two sphincter muscles guard the anus – an internal
anal sphincter muscles composed of smooth muscle under involuntary control, and an external anal
sphincter muscles composed of skeletal muscle under voluntary control.

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Parts of the large intestine

LAYERS OF GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT

The GI tract (from oesophagous to rectum)

contains four layers: the innermost layer is
the mucosa, underneath this is the
submucosa, followed by the muscularis
propria and finally, the outermost layer - the
adventitia. The structure of these layers
varies, in different regions of the digestive
system, depending on their function.

1. Mucosa:
It is so named because it secretes mucus to lubricate the inner lining of the gut. It is composed of
3 layers:
(i) Innermost epithelium, which forms gastric glands in stomach and intestinal glands in small
intestine
(ii) An underlying layer of loose connective tissue called the lamina propria, which provides
vascular support for the epithelium, and often contains mucosal glands. Products of digestion
pass into these capillaries. Lymphoid follicles and plasma cells are also often found here.
(iii)Finally, a thin double layer of smooth muscle is often present - the muscularis mucosa for
local movement of the mucosa.

This layer forms irregular folds (rugae) in the stomach and circular folds called Plicae circulare
(folds of Kerkerings or Valvulae conniventes) and villi towards lumen of the intestine. Mucosa
also forms crypts in between the bases of villi in the intestine, called Crypts of Lieberkuhn.
(Mucus secreting intestinal glands). Also present in the mucosa within the crypts are Paneth
cells (secrete digestive enzymes) and Argentaffin cells (probably secrete hormones).

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2. Submucosa:
A loose connective tissue layer, with larger blood vessels, lymphatics, nerves, and can contain
mucous secreting glands. Submucosa of duodenum possesses mucous secreting Brunner’s
glands. Their mucus rich alkaline secretions protect the duodenum from acidic chyme, inhibit
parietal and chief cells of gastric glands from secreting acid, activate intestinal enzymes and
lubricate intestinal walls. It has autonomic nerve supply in the form of Submucosal plexus
(Plexus of Meissner) which controls secretion of glands of Alimentary canal.

3. Muscularis propria (externa): smooth muscle layer.

There are usually two layers; the inner layer is circular, and the outer layer is longitudinal. These
layers of smooth muscle are used for peristalsis (rhythmic waves of contraction), to move food
down through the gut. Rapid peristaltic movement of stomach is also known as churning
movement. (Stomach has an additional inner oblique layer for churning movements)
It has Myentric plexus (Plexus of Auerbach) located in between circular and longitudinal
muscle fibres. It controls motility (Peristalsis) of gastrointestinal tract.

4. Adventitia layer (or serosa)

It is the outermost layer of loose connective tissue - covered by the visceral peritoneum. It contains
blood vessels, lymphatics and nerves.

II. DIGESTIVE GLANDS

1. Salivary Glands
There are three pairs of salivary
gland in human being, i.e. Parotid
gland, Submaxillary or
submandibular gland and
Sublingual gland.
(Infra Orbital salivary glands
found below eyes in Rabbit)

Parotid gland Submaxillary Sublingual Gland

(submandibular) gland
 It is present below
 It is present near the ear (pinna)  It is present in the lower
tongue
side of upper jaw.
 It is the largest salivary gland but produces only
 It is the smallest salivary
20% of saliva.  It produces 70% of
gland and produces only
saliva secretion.
 It contains the enzyme – Ptyalin ( - amylase). 5% of the secretion
Ptyalin is lacking in carnivores, e.g. Lion & Tiger.  Its secretion reaches
buccal cavity through  Its secretion passes
 The secretion of these glands is poured into buccal through the Duct of
Wharton’s duct.
cavity through Stensen’s duct. Rivinus

Both serous and mucus

Only serous

Saliva – 1.5 lit/day

 pH – 6.7-6.8 (slightly acidic for ptyalin action)
5. Has starch/glycogen digesting enzyme called α-salivary amylase/ Ptylin (so called because it cleaves
α-1,4 linkages of starch).
 Mucus of saliva helps in lubrication.

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 Thiocyanate ions and lysozyme present in saliva, act as anti microbial agent to prevent infection by
the microbes that often enter along with the food.
 Rich in K+& HCO3–, lesser levels of Na+ and Cl– (Cl– required for ptylin activation)
6. At lower temperatures, the enzyme Ptylin is deactivated and at higher temperatures, it is denatured.
7. Mumps is viral infection of salivary glands (mainly Parotid)

2. Gastric/ Oxyntic/ Fundic glands:

Out of Cardiac, fundic and pyloric glands of the stomach, only fundic glands secrete gastric juice.
Pyloric and Cardiac glands contain mucous cells and Gastrin hormone secreting cells. Gastric juice
secretion is stimulated by Vagus nerve and hormones like Gastrin.
Semisolid food mixed with gastric juices in stomach is known as chyme (highly acidic).

Source Secretions Function

Chief cells/ Zymogenic clls/ Pepsinogen Inactive form of pepsin
Peptic cells (Peptic cell’s secretion is dependent on Vagus stimulation
which releases Neurotransmitters like Acetylcholine. Vagus
also triggers gastric cells to release histamine which works
synergistically with Ach)
Parietal cells/ Oxyntic cells Hydrochloric Provides the acid environment needed for the conversion of
acid pepsinogen into pepsin and for the action of pepsin
Also kills bacteria and other organisms ingested through
food.

Intrinsic factor of Aids in absorption of vitamin B12

Castle

Mucous neck cells Mucus Provides a viscous, alkaline protective layer on the stomach
wall

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3. Liver
 The liver (1.2 to 1.5 kg), the largest internal organ, is located in the upper right and central portions
of the abdominal cavity, just below the diaphragm. It is reddish brown in colour and well supplied
with blood vessels.

Liver Structure
 A fibrous capsule encloses the liver, and connective tissue divides the organ into a large right lobe
and a smaller left lobe. The falciform ligament is a fold of visceral peritoneum that separates the
lobes. The liver also has two minor lobes, the quadrate
lobe near the gallbladder, and the caudate lobe close to
the vena cava.

 Each lobe is separated into many tiny hepatic lobules,

which are the functional units of the gland. A lobule
consists of many hepatic cells that radiate outward
from a central vein. Each lobule is covered by a thin
connective tissue sheath called the Glisson’s capsule.
Vascular channels called hepatic sinusoids separate
plate like groups of these cells from each other. Blood
from the digestive tract, which is carried in the hepatic
portal vein, brings newly absorbed
nutrients into the sinusoids. At the
same time, oxygenated blood from
the hepatic artery mixes freely with
the blood containing nutrients, then
flows through the liver sinusoids
and nourishes the hepatic cells.

 Often blood in the portal veins

contains some bacteria that have
entered through the intestinal wall.
However, large Kupffer cells,
which are fixed to the inner lining
(endothelium) of the hepatic
sinusoids, remove most of the
bacteria from the blood by
phagocytosis. Then the blood passes into the central veins of the hepatic lobules and move out of the
liver.
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 Within the liver lobules are many fine bile canals (or canaliculi), which receive secretions from the
hepatic cells. The canals of neighboring lobules unite to form larger ducts, and then converge to
become the hepatic ducts. These ducts merge, in turn, to form the common hepatic duct.

Functions of the liver:

The liver performs several important functions:
 It acts as an exocrine gland for the secretion of bile.
 It plays a prominent role in the metabolism of carbohydrates, proteins and fats. The metabolic
functions include synthesis of plasma proteins-fibrinogen and prothrombin and regulation of
blood glucose level and lipids.
 It acts as a store house for various substances like glucose (as glycogen), lipids, vitamins and
iron.
 It plays a protective role by detoxifying substances including drugs and alcohol.
 It helps in the removal of unwanted particulate matter from the blood through the mediation of
macrophages.

4. Gallbladder
 The gallbladder is a pear-shaped sac located in a depression on the inferior surface of the liver. It is
connected to the cystic duct, which, in turn, joins the hepatic duct. The gallbladder has a capacity of
30-50 milliliters, is lined with columnar epithelial cells, and has a strong muscular layer in its wall. It
stores bile between meals, concentrates bile by reabsorbing water, and releases bile into the
duodenum when stimulated by cholecystokinin from the small intestine. Fats in the duodenum lumen
stimulate gallbladder contraction.
 The common bile duct (Ductus choledoccus) is formed by the union of the common hepatic and
cystic ducts. It leads to the duodenum through the ampulla of Vater (hepatopancreatic ampulla)
where the hepatopancreatic sphincter muscle (Sphincter of Oddi) guards its exit. This sphincter
normally remains contracted, so that bile collects in the common bile duct and backs up into the
cystic duct. When this happens, the bile flows into the gallbladder, where it is stored. The sphincter
of Boyden surrounds the opening of bile duct into pancreatic duct.

The duct systems of liver, gall bladder and pancreas

Bile Juice
 Bile is a yellowish, green, alkaline liquid (pH about 8). It consists of (i) water (98%), (ii) sodium
carbonate (NaHCO3) in large quantity which neutralizes the acid of the chyme (semi digested food)
received from stomach; makes it alkaline, and(iii) bile salts (sodium glycocholate and sodium
taurocholate) which emulsify fats.
 The bile released into the duodenum contains bile pigments (bilirubin and biliverdin), bile salts,
cholesterol andphospholipids but no enzymes.

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 Bile helps in emulsification of fats, i.e., breaking down of the fats into very small micelles. Bile also
activates lipases.

5. Pancreas
 The pancreas is closely associated with the small intestine. It extends horizontally across the
posterior abdominal wall, with its head in the C-shaped curve of the duodenum and its tail against the
spleen.
 The cells that produce pancreatic juice, called pancreatic acinar cells, make up the bulk of the
pancreas. These cells cluster around tiny tubes, into which they release their secretions. The smaller
tubes unite to form larger ones, which, in turn, give rise to a pancreatic duct (duct of Wirsung)
extending the length of the pancreas. An accessory duct is also present (duct of Santorini) which
opens into the duodenum directly.
 The lobules also consist of islets of Langerhans (which secrete insulin and glucagon hormones)
 The pancreatic juice (pH about 8.6) contains inactive enzymes – trypsinogen, chymotrypsinogen,
procarboxypeptidases, amylases, lipases and nucleases.
 The bile duct and the pancreatic duct open together into the duodenum as the common hepato-
pancreatic duct which is guarded by a sphincter called the sphincter of Oddi

PROCESS OF DIGESTION
I. Digestion of Carbohydrates:
In the process of digestion of carbohydrates, all polysaccharides (like starch) and disaccharides (like
sucrose) are broken down to monosaccharides (like glucose, fructose)

In buccal cavity:
 Ptyalin of saliva acts on boiled starch and converts it into maltose (a disaccharide). About 30-35%
starch is hydrolysed.
P t y a lin

S t a r c h ( b o ile d ) M a lt o s e + I s o m a lt o s e + L im it D e x t r in
p H 6 . 8 , C l–

In the small intestine

 Pancreatic juice contains pancreatic amylase that acts on starch to digest it to maltose,
isomaltose and dextrin.
A m ylo p sin

S t arc h (a m ylo se ) M a lt o se + Iso m a lto se + L im it D e x trins

(B o ile d /u nb o ile d )

 Succus entericus also contains enzymes like maltase, lactase, sucrose (collectively called as
disaccharidases)
Maltase
Maltose   Glu cos e  Glu cos e
(Diasaccharide) (two molecules of monosaccharides)

Lactase
Lactose   Glu cos e  Galactose
(Diasaccharide) ( two molecule of monosaccharides)

 The children having lactose intolerance (inability to secrete lactase) are advised to take milk free
diet.
Sucrase
Sucrose   Glu cos e  fructose
( two molecule of monosaccharides)

 Sucrose is cane sugar or table sugar and is also known as invert sugar
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II. Digestion of Proteins

 All proteins are broken down to amino acids. Protein digesting enzymes are collectively known
as proteases or peptidases. Many of these enzymes are secreted in their inactive form or
proenzymes/zymogens, as their active form would hydrolyze cellular and extracellular proteins
of the organism itself.
In stomach
 The gastric glands produce gastric juice which contains water, HCl (0.3%) and inactive enzymes
prorennin and pepsinogen. HCl makes the medium highly acidic (pH 1 or 2), which activates
pepsinogen and prorennin to produce Pepsin and Rennin respectively and also enables their
action on proteins.
 Pepsin can digest many proteins including collagen. It provides 10-20% of total protein digestion.
HCl

P e p s in o g o n P e p sin
(P ro enzym e) ( A c t iv e )

P r o t e in s P ro t e o s e s a n d P e p t o n e s

 Pepsin is absent in invertebrates.

 Rennin acts on casein protein of milk and converts it into paracasein which in the presence of
calcium ions forms calcium paracaseinate (curdling of milk), which is further acted upon by
pepsin.

In small intestine

 Pancreatic juice and intestinal juice are poured into the small intestine; these contain various
proteases.
Functions of Pancreatic enzymes

 Proteases of pancreatic juice are trypsinogen, chymotrypsinogen, procarboxypeptidases.

Enterokinase
Trypsinogen Trypsin
(Proenzyme) (Active)

Proteins or proteoses and peptones Polypeptides

(The Enterokinase is secreted from ileum).

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 Trypsin is present throughout the animal kingdom whereas Pepsin is present only in Vertebrates.
It cannot cause curdling of milk but can coagulate blood protein in sanguivorous animals. It
cannot digest collagen protein.

Trypsin
Chymotrypsinogen Chymotrypsin
(Proenzyme) (Active)

Proteins or proteoses and peptones Polypeptides

 Chymotrypsinogen, like pepsin, can cause curdling of milk, but does it in alkaline medium

Trypsin
Pro-carboxypeptidases Carboxypeptidases
(Proenzyme) (Active)

Polypeptides Oligopeptides and dipeptides

 Carboxypolypeptidases cleave the polypeptide chain from the side of carboxylic group

Functions of Intestinal enzymes

 Intestinal juice contains two proteases; aminopeptidase and dipeptidase. (Enterokinase
activates Trypsinogen)
 Aminopeptidase cleave the polypeptide chain from the side of amino group to release short
chain peptides and dipeptides..
Aminopolypeptidase

Polypeptides Oligopeptides + Dipeptides

 Dipeptidase acts on dipeptides to release individual amino acids.
Dipeptidase

Dipeptides Amino Acids

(2)
III. Digestion of Lipids
 Starts in stomach by lingual lipase secreted by Ebners gland on dorsal part tongue – (acid stable and
active in stomach). Gastric lipase is also present which is of little importance except in pancreatic
insufficiency.
In small intestine
 Bile juice contains bile salts that break down bigger molecules of fat globules into smaller
droplets by reducing the surface tension of fat droplets. This process is called Emulsification.

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 Pancreatic lipase (Steapsin) is the major enzyme involved in fat digestion, Intestinal juice
also contains lipase. Lipase converts emulsified fats into diglycerides and monoglycerides
releasing fatty acids at each step. At the end of fat digestion, all fats are converted to fatty
acidsm glycerol and monoglycerides.

Steapsin

Emulsified Fats Fatty acids + Glycerol

(Boiled/unboiled) (3) (1)

IV. Digestion of Nucleic Acids

 Nucleic acids are digested in the small intestine with the help of pancreatic and intestinal juice.
 Pancreatic juice contains two nucleases (DNAase and RNAase)

Nuclease

Nucleic Acid Nucleotides

(RNA/DNA)

 Intestinal juice contains nucleotidase and nucleosidase.

Nucleotidase
Nucleotides  Nucleosides  Phosphoric acid

Summary of the Major Digestive Glands &Their Enzymes

Source Optimum pH Enzyme Digestive Action
Salivary 6.8 Amylase Carbohydrate digestion by breaking down starch and
glands glycogen to disaccharides
Gastric 1.8-3.2 Pepsin Protein digestion
glands Rennin Milk protein digestion
Lipase Butter fat digestion
Pancreas 7.1-8.3 Amylase (Amylopsin) Breaks down starch and glycogen into disaccharides
Lipase (Steapsin) Breaks down fats into fatty acids and glycerol
Proteinases a. and b. break down proteins or partially digested
a. Trypsin proteins into peptides
b. Chymotrypsin
c. Carboxypeptidase c. breaks down peptides into amino acids
Nucleases Breaks down nucleic acids into nucleotides
Crypts of 7.6 Peptidase Breaks down peptides into amino acids
Leiberkuhn
Sucrase, Break down disaccharides into monosaccharides
Maltase,
Lactase
Lipase Breaks down fats into fatty acids and glycerol
Enterokinase Breaks down trypsinogen into trypsin
Erepsin (Dipeptidase Break down peptones into amino acids.
and aminopeptidase)

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Enzymatic Digestion in the Human Digestive System

Oral Cavity, Pharynx, Stomach Small Intestine
Esophagus Lumen Brush Border
Carbohydrate Salivary Pancreatic
polysac Smaller Poly Amylases Maltose Monosac
digestion Amylase saccharides and other Disaccharidases
charides
charides polysac
(starch, charides, disaccharides
glycogen) maltose

Protein Small Trypsin, Smaller small Dipeptidases Amino

Pepsin poly Poly
digestion Proteins Chymotrypsin poly peptides acids
peptides
peptides peptides

Aminopeptidase,
Carboxypeptidase Amino
acids
Nucleic acid DNA, Nucleases Nucleotidases
digestion RNA Nucleotides Nucleosides

Nucleosidases
Nitrogenous
bases, sugars,
phosphates
Fat Fat Flat
Digestion globules Bile Salts droplets
(emulsified
Lipase
Glycerol, fatty
acids, glycerides

NEURAL AND HORMONAL CONTROL OF DIGESTIVE SYSTEM:

 When we see or smell good food or even think or talk about it, our mouth begins to “water”
(salivation). This happens through stimulation by nerves (Parasympathetic stimulation) coming
from the brain. The secretion of thicker saliva is stimulated by chewing action.

 On reaching the stomach, the presence of food stimulates the stomach lining to secrete gastric
juice. Secondly, the mechanical stimulation of stomach wall stimulates the stomach epithelium to
produce a hormone, Gastrin which again stimulates the secretion of gastric juice. Histamine,
secreted form local endocrine cells of stomach stimulates HCl secretion.

 As the food enters duodenum, due to the acid chyme, the duodenal epithelium is stimulated to
secrete four hormones-Secretin, Pancreozymin, Cholecystokinin, Enterogastrone.
i) Secretin: stimulates the flow of pancreatic juice, which is rich in bicarbonates (to
neutralize acid). This juice is devoid of pancreatic enzymes. It also increases bile acid
secretion and stimulates gastric emptying. It also inhibits gastric motility.
ii) Cholecystokinin (CCK): stimulates flow of bile from gall bladder. It also stimulates
secretion of pancreatic enzyme. Protein present in food acts as a strong stimulus for its
secretion.
iii) Duocrinin: Release of mucus in duodenum.
iii) Pancreozymin: helps in the flow of pancreatic enzymes
iv) Gastric Inhibitory Polypeptide (GIP): Inhibits release of gastric juice.
Secterin, CCK, GIP are collectively called as Enterogastrones;which stop the secretion
of gastric juice, because stomach becomes empty as food now passes from stomach to
duodenum.
(Pancreatic and gall bladder secretion is also stimulated by PSNS nerve fibres)

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 Hormones secreted by epithelium of duodenum and ileum:
i) Enterocrinin: Stimulates the digestive glands of small intestine to release succus entericus.
ii) Motilin: Improves peristalsis in the small intestine and clears the gut to prepare for next meal.

 Hormones secreted by intestinal villi:

(i) Villikinin: Stimulates movement of villi to increase absorption.

ABSORPTION OF NUTRIENTS
Absorption is the process by which the end products of digestion pass through the intestinal mucosa into
the blood or lymph. It is carried out by passive, active or facilitated transport mechanisms.
Some absorption occurs in the mouth itself, some in the stomach but most absorption occurs in the
intestine.
In Mouth:
Minute quantities of water, water-soluble vitamins and simple sugars like glucose (as in honey) are
absorbed in the mouth.
In Stomach:
Water, glucose, ethanol (alcohol), certain minerals, vitamins and certain drugs may be absorbed into the
cells lining the stomach. This absorption occurs by osmosis, diffusion (down the concentration gradient)
and active transport (against concentration gradient).

In Small Intestine:

Magnified details of Microscopic structure of a part of the wall of small intestine

Most absorption of digested food occurs in small intestine. For this, the small intestine is adapted in
many ways:
(i) It is very long and therefore provides more surface area for absorption.
(ii) Many folds in its wall called villi (sing. villus) further increase the surface area for absorption.
(iii) Single cell epithelial lining reducing the distance between the food and underlying blood vessels.
(iv) The epithelial cells have microvilli which are projections of plasma membrane to further increase
the absorptive surface.
(v) It is narrow for slow movement of nutrients allowing absorption.
 Small amounts of monosaccharide like glucose, amino acids and some of electrolytes like
chloride ions are generally absorbed by simple diffusion.

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 Some of the substances like fructose and some amino acids are absorbed with the help of the
carrier ions like Na+. This mechanism is called the facilitated transport. It may also be used
for absorption of glucose and bile salts.
 Active transport occurs against the concentration gradient and hence requires energy. Various
nutrients like amino acids, monosaccharide like glucose, electrolytes like Na+ are absorbed
into the blood by this mechanism. (Glucose is the only sugar absorbed by this method).
Absorption of Fats
 The molecules are digested almost entirely by enzymes from the intestinal mucosa and pancreas.
The resulting fatty acid molecules are
absorbed in the following steps:
 Fatty acid and glycerol being insoluble
cannot be absorbed into the blood. They
are first incorporated into small droplets
called micelles which move into the
intestinal mucosa.
 In the intestinal epithelial cells they are
re-formed into very small protein coated
fat globules called chylomicrons which
are transported into lymph vessels
(lacteals) in the villi.
 These lymph vessels ultimately release
the absorbed substances unto the blood
stream.
 Fats are maximally absorbed in the
jejunum.

 Products absorbed into the blood capillaries of the villi are amino acids and monosaccharides
(glucose, fructose, galactose ), carried by veins into the liver.
 Products absorbed into the lacteals (lymph vessels) of the villi are fatty acids and glycerol, which
enter the lymphatic system

In Large Intestine:

Most of the water present in the food is absorbed in the colon by diffusion. Some mineral
ions/electrolytes like Na+ are absorbed by the colon through active transport.

Resident bacteria like [Link] of the colon lives on the undigested material and produces Vitamin B12,
Vitamin K, Vitamin D, Thiamine and Riboflavin, amino acids, short chain fatty acids that are absorbed
across the wall of the colon.

Digestion of fiber/roughage:
Dietary fiber is rich in cellulose and pectin. We do not produce enzymes to digest it, however colonic
bacteria like [Link] partly digest fibre to produce Butyrate. Although fibre has no nutritive value, it is still
essential in diet as it provides bulk to the food and reduces stool transit time.

ASSIMILATION
Utilization of absorbed substances by tissues.

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EGESTION
The digestibve wastes, solidified into coherent faeces in the rectum initiate a neural reflex causing an
urge or desire for its removal. The egestion of faeces to the outside through the anal opening
(defaecation) is a voluntary process and is carried out by a mass peristaltic movement.
Breakdown of bile pigments occurs forming stercobilin pigment which provides brownish colour to it.
Foul smell of the faecal matter is because of microbial gases like skatole (3-methyl indole), Indole,
Mercaptans.
Vitamin Requirement of Humans
Vitamin Major Dietary Sources Functions in the Body Possible Symptoms of Deficiency or
Extreme Excess
Water-Soluble Vitamins
Vitamin B1 Pork, legumes, peanuts, Coenzyme used in removing CO2 from Beriberi (nerve disorders, emaciation,
(thiamine) whole grains (polishing rice organic compounds (Decarboxylation anemia)
deprives rice of this vitamin) vitamin)
Vitamin B2 Dairy products, meats, Component of coenzymes FAD and Skin lesions such as cracks at corners
(riboflavin) enriched grains, vegetables FMN of mouth
Vitamin B3 Nuts, meats, grains Component of coenzymes NAD+ and Pellagra (Skin and gastrointestinal
(Niacin) NADP+ lesions, nervous disorders Flushing of
face and hands, liver damage)
Vitamin B6 Meats, vegetables, whole Coenzyme used in amino acid Irritability, convulsions, muscular
(Pyridoxine) grains metabolism (Transamination vitamin) twitching, anemia Unstable gait, numb
feet, poor coordination, loss of appetite
Vitamin B5 Most foods; meats, diary Component of coenzyme A Fatigue, numbness, tingling of hands
(Pantothenic products, whole grains, etc. and feet
acid)
Vitamin B9 Green vegetables, oranges, Coenzyme in nucleic acid and amino Anemia, gastrointestinal problems
Folic acid nuts, legume, whole grains acid metabolism May mask deficiency of vitamin B12
(folacin) (also made by colon bacteria)
Vitamin B12 Meat, eggs, dairy products Coenzyme in nucleic acid metabolism; Pernicious anemia; (failure of RBC
(Cobalamin) needed for maturation of red blood cells. maturation) Megaloblastic anaemia
(Has cobalt-cyanide linkage) (large sized RBCs), nervous system
disorders,
Vitamin B17 apricot, bitter- Recently discovered vitamin with Various types of cancers and
(Laetrile) almonds, apple, peach, anticancer properties lymphomas.
and plum
Biotin Legumes, other vegetables, Coenzyme in synthesis of fat, glycogen, Scaly skin inflammation;
(Vitamin H) meat and amino acids (Carboxylation neuromuscular disorders
vitamin)
Vitamin C Fruits and vegetables, Used in collagen synthesis (e.g., for Scurvy (degeneration of skin, teeth,
(Ascorbic acid) especially citrus fruits, bone, cartilage, gums); antioxidant; aids blood vessels), weakness, delayed
broccoli, cabbage, tomatoes, in detoxification; improves iron wound healing, impaired immunity
green peppers absorption by reducing Fe3+ to Fe2+, Gastrointestinal upset
Amino acid metabolism.
(Hydroxylation vitamin)
Fat-Soluble Vitamins
Vitamin A Provitamin A (beta-carotene) Component of visual pigments; needed Night blindness; dry, scaling skin
(retinol) in deep green and orange for maintenance of epithelial tissues; Headache, irritability, vomiting, hair
vegetables and fruits; retinol antioxidant; helps prevent damage to loss, blurred vision, liver and bone
in dairy products lipids of cell membranes damage.
Vitamin D Dairy products, egg yolk Aids in absorption and use of calcium Rickets (bone deformities) in children;
(Calciferol) (also made in human skin in and phosphorus; promotes bone growth. bone softening in adults, brain,
presence of sunlight) cardiovascular, and kidney damage.
Vitamin E Vegetable oils, nuts, seeds Antioxidant; helps prevent damage to Not well documented in humans;
(Tocopherol) lipids of cell membrane, Inhibits possibly anemia.
oxidation of unsaturated fatty acids.
Vitamin K Green vegetables, tea (also Important in blood clotting Defective blood clotting Liver damage
(Phylloquinone/ made by colon bacteria) and anemia.
Menadione)

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Mineral Requirement of Humans

Mineral Functions in the Body
Copper Proper functioning of organs and various metabolic processes. Deficiency causes
Anaemia.
Excess deposition in liver causes Wilson’s disease
Iodine Formation of Thyroxine and other thyroid hormones. Deficiency retards energy metabolism, growth. Goitre
Sulphur Formation of sulphur containing amino acids Cysteine and methionine.
Calcium Bone formation. Lipases and ATPase require calcium for activation. Also req for blood coagulation.
Phosphorous Formation of ATP, cell membrane.
Magnesium All enzymatic reactions requiring thiamine pyrophosphate (TPP) and various reactions in glucose, lipid and protein
metabolism need Mg2+
Sodium Nerve impulse conduction, muscle contraction. Aldosterone is responsible for its absorption from kidney tbules.
Potassium Carbohydrate and protein metabolism, formation of glycogen and degradation of glucose.
Chlorine Chief anion of extracellular fluid. Responsible for chloride shift by which blood pH is maintained. Important as
HCl in stomach.
Iron Constituent of Haemoglobin, myoglobin, [Link] absorption is facilitated by stomach acid and depends on
transport protein Transferrin. Absorbed mainly in stomach and proximal intestine.
Zinc Carbonic anhydrase contains zinc.
Cobalt Present as a part of Vitamin B12. Necessary for the formation of RBCs.

DISORDERS OF DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

1. Diarrhea
Diarrhea refers to frequent defecation of liquid feces. It is caused by increased motility of and decreased
absorption by the intestine.
2. Constipation
Constipation refers to infrequent or difficult defecation and is caused by decreased motility of the
intestine. Because the feces remain in the colon for prolonged periods of time, there is excessive water
absorption, and the feces become dry and hard.
3. Jaundice
The liver is affected; skin and eyes turn yellow due to the deposition of bile pigments.
4. Vomiting
It is the ejection of stomach contents through the mouth. This reflex action is controlled by the vomiting
centre in the medulla. A feeling of nausea precedes vomiting.
5. Indigestion
In this condition, the food is not properly digested leading to a feeling of fullness. The causes of
indigestion are inadequate enzyme secretion, anxiety, food poisoning, over eating, and spicy food.

————

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EXERCISE #
LEVEL – I (NCERT BASED)

1. Type of nutrition where the whole food is taken into body and digested is called
(1) Saprozoic (2) Holophytic (3) Holozoic (4) Autotrophic

2. Vitamins and water are included under:

(1) Micronutrients or proximate principles of food
(2) Micronutrients or protective principles of food
(3) Macronutrients or proximate principles of food
(4) Macronutrients or protective principles of food

3. In Coelenterates digestion is:

(1) Intracellular (2) Intercellular (3) Both (1) and (2) (4) None of these

4. Function of metabolism includes all except:

(1) Extraction of nutrients from food
(2) Breakdown of substrate
(3) Equilibrium of biochemicals with intracellular components
(4) Using building blocks for synthesis

5. When teeth are embedded in the sockets of jaw bone, then this type of attachment is called:
(1) Thecodent (2) Lophodont (3) Secodont (4) Solenodont

6. Arrangement of teeth in each half of the upper and lower jaw in the order I, C, PM, M is
represented by a dental formula which in humans is:
(1) 2132 (2) 2123 (3) 2312 (4) 3212
2132 2123 2312 3213

7. Thecodont, diphyodont and heterodont teeth are the characteristic of:

(1) Reptiles (2) Aves (3) Amphibians (4) Mammals

8. Oral cavity leads into a short pharynx which serves as a common passage for:
(1) Food only (2) Air only (3) Food and Air (4) Digestive juices

9. Which of the following structures prevents food from entering the trachea?
(1) Larynx. (2) Pharynx. (3) Epiglottis (4) Cardiac sphincter

10. Stomach has three major portions. In which portion of stomach does the oesophagus open?
(1) Fundic (2) Pyloric (3) Cardiac (4) Fundic and Pyloric

11. Select the odd one w.r.t. human stomach

(1) Cardiac (2) Fundus (3) Pyloric (4) Reticulum

12. In which layer of stomach are the gastric glands located?

(1) Serosa (2) Mucosa (3) Submucosa (4) Muscularis mucosa

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13. Which part in the given diagram is filled with air/gas.

(1) A (2) B (3) C (4) D

14. The innermost layer lining the lumen of the alimentary canal is the mucosa. This layer forms
irregular folds in the stomach called
(1) Villi (2) Microvilli (3) Chonchae (4) Rugae

15. Which of the following is mismatched regarding the cells of gastric glands and their functions?
(1) Mucus neck cells : Secrete mucus
(2) Chief cells : Secrete proenzyme (pepsinogen)
(3) Parietal cells : Secrete intrinsic factor for the absorption of Vitamin B12
(4) Peptic cells : Secrete HCl

16. Zymogen cells or chief cells secrete:

(1) HCl (2) Mucus (3) Pepsinogen (4) Trypsin

17. Without functional parietal cells, which of the following would you expect for an individual?
(1) Not be able to initiate protein digestion in the stomach
(2) Not be able to initiate mechanical digestion in the stomach
(3) Only be able to digest fats in the stomach
(4) Not be able to produce pepsinogen

18. Gastric juice contains: OR The correct composition of gastric juice is:
(1) Pepsin, rennin, lipase (2) Trypsin, rennin, pepsin
(3) Pepsin, rennin, ptyalin (4) Pepsin, lipase, trypsin

19. One of the role of hydrochloric acid in the stomach is to

(1) kill bacteria. (2) hydrolyze fats. (3) digest proteins. (4) activate trypsin

20. Regurgitation of food from stomach is prevented by:

(1) Pyloric sphincter (2) Cardiac sphincter (3) Circular muscle (4) Muscularis mucosa

21. Which of the following sphincter controls the passage of food into the stomach?
(1) Upper oesophageal sphincter (2) Gastro-oesophageal sphincter
(3) Pyloric sphincter (4) Oesophageal sphincter

22. A patient complains of a burning sensation in the chest. This was found to be caused by
gastric juice in the esophagus. The structure most likely not functioning properly is the
(1) pharynx. (2) epiglottis. (3) pyloric sphincter. (4) cardiac sphincter.

23. Brush border columnar epithelium is found in the lining of:

(1) Stomach (2) Oesophagus (3) PCT (4) Small intestine
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24. Chyme is propelled forward in small intestine by
(1) Segmentation (2) Haustrations
(3) Migratory motor complexes (MMC) (4) Peristalsis

25. A function of the small intestine is to

(1) secrete bile. (2) filter wastes. (3) make vitamins. (4) absorb nutrients.

26. The presence of large numbers of mitochondria in the cells lining the small intestine allows it
to:
(1) release HCl. (2) produce bile.
(3) absorb glucose. (4) synthesize vitamins.
27. Digestion is completed in
(1) Duodenum (2) Ileum (3) Stomach (4) Cloaca
28. Select the incorrect option w.r.t. function of large intestine:
(1) Absorption of water, minerals, and certain drugs
(2) Secretion of mucus which helps in adhering the waste particles together and lubricating it for
an easy passage.
(3) Chyle enters into the caecum of the large intestine through ileocaecal valve.
(4) Significant digestive activity occurs in large intestine.
29. Which of the following statement is incorrect w.r.t. histology of alimentary canal?
(1) Serosa is the outermost layer made up of a thin mesothelium with some connective tissue.
(2) Muscularis is formed by smooth muscles usually arranged into an inner longitudinal layer
and outer circular layer
(3) Submucosal layer is formed of loose connective tissue.
(4) An oblique muscle layer may be present in stomach

30. Which of the following is the correct sequence of layers in the alimentary canal starting from
outwards to inwards?
(1) Serosa, Muscularis mucosa, Muscularis Externa, Lamina Propria, Epithelial mucosa
(2) Muscularis mucosa, Muscularis Exterma, Lamina Propria, Epthelium, Serosa
(3) Serosa, Muscularis Externa, Muscularis Mucosa, Lamina Propria, Epithelial mucosa
(4) Epithelial mucosa, Lamina Propria, Muscularis mucosa, Muscularis Externa, Serosa
31. Lamina propria is associated with which part of the alimentary canal?
(1) Mucosa (2) Submucosa (3) Muscularis externa (4) Serosa

32. The part of the digestive tract where starch first undergoes chemical digestion is the
(1) mouth. (2) stomach. (3) large intestine. (4) small intestine.

33. Saliva contains an enzyme that partially digests

(1) fats. (2) starch. (3) proteins. (4) nucleic acids.
34. pH of saliva is:
(1) 6.7 (2) 7.4 (3) 8.0 (4) 2.5
35. When a piece of bread is chewed it tastes sweet because
(1) The sugar contents are drawn out
(2) Saliva converts starch into maltose
(3) It does not taste sweet
(4) The taste buds are stimulated by chewing

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36. Bread that has been partially digested by saliva tends to have a sweet taste. Which enzyme and
substrate are involved?
(1) Pepsin and starch. (2) Pepsin and protein.
(3) Amylase and starch. (4) Amylase and protein.

37. When salivary amylase enters the stomach, it becomes

(1) Basic (2) Buffered (3) Activated (4) Denatured
38. Select the incorrect statement:
(1) About 60% starch is hydrolyzed in buccal cavity by the enzyme salivary amylase
(2) Salivary amylase acts on starch and is converted into maltose
(3) Salivary amylase acts at optimum pH 6.8
(4) Stomach stores the food for 4-5 hours.

39. Largest gland in the body of man is

(1) Liver (2) Pancreas (3) Gastric gland (4) Adrenal

40. Abnormal liver function in humans affects the digestion of

(1) Fats. (2) Sugars. (3) Proteins. (4) Starches

41. The organ which detoxifies toxic substances in the diet in human body is:
(1) Liver (2) Kidney (3) Lungs (4) Stomach

42. If a person’s liver fails, which process listed below would stop?
(1) Digestion of proteins.
(2) Destruction of red blood cells.
(3) Storage of starch between meals.
(4) Reabsorption of water from the digestive tract.

43. Products of the liver include

(1) pepsin, gastrin and bile. (2) bile, proteases and urea
(3) bile, urea and blood proteins. (4) proteases, amylases and lipase.

44. High levels of toxins in the blood may indicate a problem with the functioning of the
(1) liver. (2) stomach. (3) pancreas. (4) small intestine.

45. The liver plays vital roles in all of the following systems except the
(1) nervous system. (2) digestive system.
(3) excretory system. (4) circulatory system.

46. Duct of the gall bladder is called:

(1) Hepatic duct (2) Common bile duct (3) Cystic duct (4) Stenson’s duct

47. Surgical removal of gall bladder in human beings would lead to

(1) Jaundice
(2) Increased acidity in the intestine
(3) Impairment of the digestion of fat
(4) Inhibition of production of bile salts and bile pigments

48. Fats in the duodenum lumen

(1) Stimulates gall bladder contraction (2) Inhibits gall bladder contraction
(3) Inhibits CCK secretion (4) Releases secretin

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49. Alkaline nature of bile is due to
(1) NaCI (2) NaHCO3 (3) KOH (4) NaOH

50. The role of bile during digestion is to

(1) Stimulate the release of glycogen.
(2) Hydrolyze neutral fats into fatty acids.
(3) Catalyze the breakdown of peptides into amino acids.
(4) Break fats into droplets thereby increasing surface area.

51. Mark the incorrect statement w.r.t bile juice

(1) Bile is yellowish green alkaline solution with large amount of water
(2) Bile released into the duodenum contains Bilirubin and Biliverdin.
(3) Bile contains enzymes for digesting lipids.
(4) Bile emulsifies fats into small micelles.

52. Opening of hepatopancreatic duct into the duodenum is guarded by:

OR
Before opening into the duodenum, hepatopancreatic ampulla has a thickening called:
(1) Pyloric sphincter (2) Sphincter of Boyden
(3) Sphincter of Oddi (4) Cardiac Sphincter

53. Increasing the secretion of insulin would have which of the following effects?
(1) Decreased blood sugar (2) Decreased metabolic rate
(3) Increased protein synthesis (4) Increased digestion of carbohydrate

54. If sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) is not released as part of the pancreatic juice, the pH of the
(1) stomach will remain basic (2) pancreas will become acidic
(3) large intestine will become basic (4) small intestine will remain acidic

55. Which of the following is not a function of pancreatic juice?

(1) Raising pH. (2) Emulsification. (3) Starch digestion. (4) Protein digestion.

56. Which of the following enzymes is correctly matched with its site of production?
(1) Pepsin – liver. (2) Ptyalin – stomach.
(3) Amylase – pancreas. (4) Trypsin – salivary glands.

57. Succus entericus is:

(1) A junction between ileum and large intestine.
(2) Intestinal juice
(3) Swelling in gut
(4) Appendix

58. Two glands that are responsible for secreting protein-digesting enzymes are:
(1) Salivary and gastric (2) Gastric and pancreas
(3) Thyroid and pancreas (4) Intestinal and thyroid

59. Lipase enzyme which helps in the digestion of fats is secreted by

(1) Gastric glands (2) Pancreatic glands (3) Intestinal glands (4) All of these

60. Which of the following does not produce any digestive enzymes?
(1) Pancreas (2) Colon (3) Stomach (4) Duodenum

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61. The enzyme amylase is produced by which organs?

(1) Liver and duodenum. (2) Thyroid and pancreas.
(3) Salivary glands and liver. (4) Pancreas and salivary glands

62. Which of the following enzymes is stable at acidic pH

(1) Pepsin (2) Trypsin (3) Chymotrypsin (4) Carboxypeptidase

63. Pepsinogen is activated by

(1)Enterokinase (2) Low pH
(3)Trypsin (4) Chymotrypsin

64. Trypsin functions best in which of the following conditions?

(1) basic (2) acidic (3) neutral (4) low pH

65. Milk protein casein is coagulated by

(1) Pepsin (2) Trypsin
(3) Rennin (4) Both (1) and (3)

66. Pepsin differs from trypsin in that it digests

(1) Protein in alkaline medium in stomach
(2) Protein in acidic medium in duodenum
(3) Protein in acidic medium in stomach
(4) Protein in alkaline medium in duodenum

67. Match column I with column II

Column I Column II
(a) Pancreatic juice (i) Bilirubin and biliverdin
(b) Intestinal juice (ii) Maltase
(c) Bile juice (iii) Trypsin, Carboxypeptidase
(d) Succus entericus (iv) Enterokinase
(1) a(iv), b(iii), c(ii), d(i) (2) a(iii), b(iv), c(ii), d(i)
(3) a(iii), b(iv), c(i), d(ii) (4) a(ii), b(iii), c(i), d(iv)

68. Which of the following reaction is not catalyzed by brush border enzymes?
(1) Maltose Maltase glucose + glucose
Lactase
(2) Lactose glucose + galactose
Nucleotidase
(3) Nucleotides Nucleosides
Nucleases
(4) Nucleic acids Nucleotides

69. The enzymes of which of the following juice acts on the end products of reactions to form simple
absorbable forms?
(1) Pancreatic juice (2) Succus entericus (3) Saliva (4) Bile juice

70. All of the following are secreted in proenzyme form except:

(1) Trypsin (2) Chymotrypsin (3) Pepsin (4) Ribonuclease

71. Which of the following enzymes is correctly matched with its substrate?
(1) Amylase–fat. (2) Lipase–starch. (3) Pepsin–protein. (4) Trypsin–glycogen.

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72. In a demonstration, 10 grams of raw meat were suspended in an enzyme solution. After
several hours the meat was weighed and was found to have a mass of 3 grams. The solution
most likely contained:
(1) Bile (2) Pepsin (3) Maltase (4) Amylase

73. Which of the following correctly matches a digestive enzyme with its source?
(1) Pepsin / pancreas (2) Bile / gall bladder
(3) Trypsin / stomach (4) Amylase / pancreas

74. Which of the following enzymes is correctly matched with its source?
(1) Amylase – stomach (2) Peptidase – pancreas
(3) Trypsin – small intestine (4) Maltase – small intestine

75. Which two enzymes break down the same substrate?

(1) Trypsin and pepsin (2) Pepsin and peptidase
(3) Lipase and salivary amylase (4) Pancreatic amylase and maltase

76. What would occur if sodium bicarbonate ions were removed from pancreatic juice?
(1) Decreased amounts of bile would be released.
(2) Increased H2O absorption would occur in the colon.
(3) The cells lining the small intestine would be damaged.
(4) Digestion of nutrients in the small intestine would increase.

77. Sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) in pancreatic juice

(1) emulsifies fats. (2) activates pepsin.
(3) neutralizes acid chyme. (4) stimulates the release of insulin.

78. Lactase converts lactose into:

(1) Glucose + maltose (2) Glucose + fructose
(3) Fructose (4) Glucose + galactose
79. After ingestion, the first type of macromolecule to be worked on by enzymes in the human
digestive system is
(1) Protein (2) Carbohydrate (3) Cholesterol (4) Glucose
80. The main source of energy for the body’s metabolic processes comes from the breakdown of
(1) Lipids. (2) Proteins. (3) Nucleic acids. (4) Carbohydrates.

81. Which of the following is a nutritional monomer that can be transported in the blood?
(1) sucrose (2) maltose (3) fatty acid (4) dipeptide

82. The blood capillaries of intestinal villi cannot absorb:

(1) Glucose (2) Salts (3) Fatty acids and glycerides (4) Amino acids

83. Protein coated fat globules are called (i) , which are transported into (ii) in villi.
(1) Cholesterol, capillaries (2) Chylomicrons, lacteals
(3) Chylomicrons, capillaries (4) Micelles, lacteals
84. In villi some of the glycerol and fatty acids are combined to form fats, coated with proteins and
then transported as chylomicrons to the
(1) Lacteals (2) Capillaries
(3) Lumen of small intestine (4) Lumen of large intestine

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85. Fats are transported from intestinal cells to blood plasma primarily in the form of
(1) Micelle (2) Chylomicrons
(3) Triglycerides (4) Fatty acids
86. Absorbed fats are released into lacteals as
(1) Glycerol (2) Fatty acids (3) Monoglycerides (4) Chylomicrons.

87. The physical digestion of fats is a result of the release of secretions from the
(1) pancreas (2) gall bladder
(3) small intestine (4) salivary glands

88. One function of the lymphatic system is to

(1) deliver oxygen to body tissues. (2) store fluids during dehydration.
(3) absorb fats from the digestive system. (4) carry platelets to sites of vessel injury.

89. Which one of the following statement is true regarding digestion and absorption of food in
humans?
(1) About 60% of starch is hydrolysed by salivary amylase in the mouth
(2) Oxyntic cells in our stomach secrete the proenzyme pepsinogen.
(3) Fructose and amino acids are absorbed through intestinal mucosa with the help of carrier
ions like Na+
(4) Chylomicrons are small lipoprotein particles that are transported from intestine into blood
capillaries.

90. Which of the following nutrient(s) is/are absorbed in the stomach?

(1) Water (2) Simple sugar (3) Alcohol (4) All of these

91. Which of the following are absorbed into the lymphatic system from the small intestine?
(1) Lipids. (2) Nucleotides.
(3) Amino acids. (4) Monosaccharides.

92. Lacteals primarily absorb

(1) lipids. (2) proteins. (3) minerals. (4) carbohydrates.
93. How does the digestion and absorption of fat differ from that of carbohydrates?
(1) Processing of fat does not require any digestive enzymes, whereas the processing of
carbohydrates does
(2) Fat absorption occurs in the stomach, whereas carbohydrates are absorbed from the small
intestine
(3) Carbohydrates need to be emulsified before they can be digested, whereas fats do not
(4) Most absorbed fat first enters the lymphatic system, whereas carbohydrates directly enter
the blood
94. Absorption of most nutrients from the digestive tract occurs in the
(1) Liver. (2) Stomach. (3) Pancreas. (4) Small intestine.

95. Most digestion and maximum absorption of food takes place in the
(1) Stomach (2) Small intestine (3) Caecum (4) Large intestine

96. The functional units for absorption of digested food are

(1) Crypts of Lieberkuhn (2) Peyer's patches
(3) Villi (4) Brunner's glands

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97. An example of absorption is the:
(1) Movement of food by peristalsis.
(2) Active transport of glucose into a villus.
(3) Hydrolysis of a peptide into amino acids.
(4) Release of secretin in the presence of HCl.

98. In jaundice, skin and eyes turn yellow due to the deposition of bile pigments.. The disease is due
to malfunctioning of which organ?
(1) Liver (2) Intestine (3) Brain (4) Pancreas

99. Vomiting is a reflex action and is controlled by the vomit centre. This is present in _______
(1) Cerebrum (2) Hypothalamus (3) Medulla (4) Cerebellum

100. In which of the following disorder of digestive system, there is an abnormal frequency of bowel
movement and increased liquidity of the faecal discharge?
(1) Vomiting (2) Diarrhoea (3) Constipation (4) Indigestion

101. Which of the following can cause indigestion?

(1) Inadequate enzyme secretion (2) Food Poisoning and spicy food.
(3) Anxiety and over eating (4) All of these

102. A prolonged constipation may cause:

(1) Hemorrhoids (2) Ulcers
(3) Cholera (4) Dysentery

LEVEL – II (HOME WORK)

1. Largest reserve of energy in body is stored as

(1) Liver glycogen (2) Muscle glycogen (3) Adipose tissue (4) Blood glucose

2. The purpose of physical digestion is to

(1) hydrolyze large molecules. (2) increase the amount of feces.
(3) increase the surface area of food (4) slow the action of digestive enzymes.

3. The link between the tongue and the buccal floor is:
(1) Labial frenulum (2) Lingual frenulum
(3) Lingual papilla (4) Sulcus terminalis

4. Which of the following papillae are without taste buds in human tongue?
(1) Vallate (2) Fungiforrn (3) Fusiform (4) Filiform

5. Dental formula for the monophyodont teeth of human is:

(1) 0021 (2) 0003 (3) 2120 (4) 2102
0021 0003 2120 2102

6. The hard chewing surface of teeth which helps in mastication of food is called______
(1) Dentine (2) Cementum (3) Enamel (4) Both (1) and (2)

7. Lower molars in human dentition have :

(1) Four roots (2) Three roots (3) Two roots (4) Single root

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8. Enamel part of tooth is secreted by______, and it is_______.

(1) Odontoblast, mesodermal (2) Ameloblast, mesodermal
(3) Odontoblast, ectodermal (4) Ameloblast, ectodermal

9. Chewing food aids digestion by

(1) stimulating the release of bile.
(2) increasing the surface area of the food
(3) breaking up large protein molecules into peptides.
(4) completing the chemical breakdown of carbohydrates

10. Thecodent teeth are present in

a. Sphenodon b. Crocodiles c. Mammals d. Scoliodon
(1) c only (2) b & c only (3) a, b & c only (4) a, b, c & d

11. Monophyodont teeth occur in

(1) Shark (2) Frog (3) Whale (4) Rat

12. How many teeth in man are monophydont?

(1) 8 premolars 4 molars (2) 2 premolars 6 molars
(3) 4 premolars 2 molars (4) 4 canines 8 premolars

13. Types of teeth in human are:

(1) Homodont, Lophodont, Diphyodont (2) Heterodont, Selenodont, Monophyodont
(3) Diphyodont, Thecodont, Heterodont (4) Diphyodont, Heterodont, Acrodont

14. People who eat excess of maize in their diet suffer from
(1) Pellagra (2) Rickets (3) Ben-ben (4) Pernicious anaemia

15. Cholecystitis refers to inflammation of:

(1) Gall bladder (2) Stomach (3) Spleen (4) Lungs.

16. Tonsils are enlargements of

(1) Lymphoid tissue (2) Adenoid tissue (3) Larynx (4) Sub-lingual gland
17. Lower esophageal sphincter
(1) Has no tonic activity
(2) Has a tone which is provided by the sympathetic system
(3) Relaxes on increasing abdominal pressure
(4) Relaxes ahead of the peristaltic wave
18. Which of the following can be taken as true stomach in ruminants?
(1) Rumen (2) Reticulum (3) Omasum (4) Abomasum

19. First and largest chamber in stomach of ruminants like cattle, buffalo, sheep, goat and camel
is:
(1) Reticulum (2) Rumen (3) Omasum (4)Abomasum

20. Mark the true statement.

(1) Peptic cell secretion is independent of vagal stimulation
(2) Acetylcholine and histamine acts as synergist for the secretion of peptic cell
(3) Progressive increase in amount of HCl in stomach suppress the secretion of peptic cells
(4) Peptic cell secretion is independent of intrinsic nerve fibres.

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21. Which of the following statement is true?
(1) Pepsin and HCl activate inactive pepsinogen into active pepsin
(2) Pepsin is an active proteolyic enzyme and it does not act, if pH rises above 2
(3) Intrinsic factor is required for the activity of pepsin
(4) Activity of pepsin continues in the jejunum part of small intestine.
22. Which of the following will increase the gastric juice secretion?
(1) Sympathetic stimulation (2) Vagal stimulation
(3) Excess of proteins in diet (4) Both (2) and (3)

23. Chyme formed in stomach is further transformed into

(1) Chyle (2) Colloidal material
(3) Soft solid substance (4) Fats

24. Ileum is characterized by the presence of:

(1) Brunner’s glands and villi (2) Brunner’s gland and Peyer’s patches
(2) Peyer’s patches and villi (4) Brunner’s gland and Taeniae coli

25. In small intestine, pH value is

(1) 7.00 (2) 8.00
(3) 8.5-9.00 (4) 2.5-4.5

26. Which of the following statement is correct regarding motility of alimentary canal?
(1) Peristalsis plays a major role in propelling food through the pharynx to large intestine.
(2) Segmentation is the most common type of intestinal contraction
(3) Churning movement is the segmentation of small intestine
(4) Segmentation is required during gastric emptying.

27. Odd one out

(1) Plicae circularis (2) Valves of Kerkering
(3) Valvulae conniventes (4) Taenia coli.

28. Smallest part of colon lacking mesentry is

(1) Ascending (2) Descending (3) Transverse (4) Sigmoid

29. The peristaltic movement of alimentary canal is controlled by:

(1) Myenteric plexus (2) Auerbach plexus
(3) Meissner’s plexus (4) Both (1) and (2)
30. Auerbach's plexus is present in:
(1) Submucosa
(2) Between mucosa and submucosa
(3) Between circular and longitudinal muscles of muscularis interna
(4) Between circular and longitudinal muscles of muscularis externa
31. Oblique muscle layer is present in
(1) Stomach (2) Duodenum (3) Colon (4) All of these
32. Crypts of Lieberkuhn are present in:
(1) Pancreas and secrete pancreatic juice
(2) Small intestine and secrete digestive enzymes
(3) Stomach and secrete dilute HCl
(4) Stomach and secrete trypsin

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33. Paneth cells are found in:
(1) Crypts of Lieberkuhn (2) Peyer's patches
(3) Islets of Langerhans (4) Gastric glands

34. Location of the Brunner's gland is

(1) Mucosa, duodenum (2) Mucosa ileum
(3) Submucosa duodenum (4) Submucosa, ileum

35. Brunner's glands are intestinal glands and secrete

(1) Mucus (2) Enzymes (3) Enzymes and mucus (4) None of these
36. Brunner’s gland are located in
(1) Serosa of duodenum (2) Muscularis of large intestine
(3) Submucosa of duodenum (4) Mucosa of jejunum.

37. The maximum amount of saliva is secreted by

(1) Sub maxillary glands (2) Sub lingual glands
(3) Parotid glands (4) Both (2) and (3).

38. Wharton’s duct is associated with:

(1) Brunner’s gland (2) Sublingual salivary gland
(3) Submaxillary salivary gland (4) Parotid salivary gland

39. Which of these is not a component of saliva?

(1) Electrolytes Na+, K+, Cl- and HCO3- ions
(2) Ptylin/-salivary amylase
(3) Mucin, lysozyme and thiocyanate ions
(4) Antibody (IgG)

40. Which of the following statement(s) are incorrect?

(i) About 100  500 ml of saliva is secreted per day
(ii) Saliva is acidic with a pH ranging from 3  5.0
(iii)Salivary glands are situated just outside the buccal cavity
(iv) Saliva is produced by 3 pairs of salivary glands
(1) (i), (iii), (iv) (2) (ii), (iii)
(3) Only (ii) (4) (i) & (ii)

41. True regarding action of alpha amylase

(1) Breaks glucose from carbohydrate end (2) Cleaves only at 1 – 4
(3) Cleaves only at  1 – 6 (4) both (2) & (3)
42. Amylase is synthesized at the
(1) Nucleus. (2) Ribosome. (3) Lysosome. (4) Mitochondrion.
43. Eating which of the following would slow the rate of chemical digestion in the mouth?
(1) Cheese. (2) Ice cream. (3) Potato chips. (4) Bread with butter.

44. Which of the following is not a function of gall bladder?

(1) It absorbs water and concentrates bile
(2) It excrete cholesterol
(3) It increases the alkalinity of liver bile
(4) It helps in equalization of pressure within the biliary duct system

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45. Recently discovered vitamin having anticancer properties is
(1) Vitamin B5 (2) Vitamin B15 (3) Vitamin B17 (4) Vitamin Q
46. Sphincter of Boyden which helps in the filling up of gall bladder is present in:
(1) Ductus choledoccus (2) Duct of Wirsung
(3) Ampulla of Vater (4) Duct of Santorini

47. Duct of gall bladder is called:

(1) Hepatic duct (2) Bile duct (3) Ductus choledochus (4) Cystic duct

48. Bile acid has a detergent action due to

(1) Formation of soap (2) Formation of zwitter ion
(3) Amphipathic nature of bile acids (4) Formation of medium chain triglycerides
49. Which of the following is a function of insulin?
(1) Initiating the ‘fight or flight’ response.
(2) Decreasing glucose concentration in the blood
(3) Increasing the calcium ions concentration in the blood
(4) Decreasing the sodium ions concentration in the blood
50. Blood glucose levels are lowered by insulin because it stimulates
(1) Gluconeogenesis.
(2) The uptake of glucose by cells.
(3) The conversion of glucose to fatty acids.
(4) The conversion of glucose to amino acids.
51. Find the odd one out:
(1) Vit K, Prothrombin (2) Zinc, Carbonic Anhydrase
(3) Vitamin B1, Paralysis (4) Sulphur, Phosphatase
52. The following events take place after eating a protein-rich meal. Place these events in the
correct order for digestion.
1. The pancreas releases sodium bicarbonate(NaHCO3).
2. Pepsinogen is converted into pepsin.
3. Gastrin is released into the bloodstream.
4. Acid chyme stimulates the release of secretin.
(1) 3, 2, 4, 1. (2) 3, 4, 2, 1. (3) 4, 2, 3, 1. (4) 2, 4, 1, 3.

53. Enterokinase or enteropeptidase found in intestinal juice helps in converting:

(1) Casein into paracasein (2) Pro-rennin into rennin
(3) Trypsinogen into trypsin (4) Proteins into peptides

54. Which of the following is not a brush border enzyme?

(1) Maltase (2) Lactase (3) Sucrase (4) Amylase.

55. Which of the following statement is not true regarding protein digestion?
(1) Most protein digestion occurs principally in the upper small intestine
(2) Trypsin digest collagen proteins present in meat
(3) Pepsin only provide 10–20% of total protein digestion
(4) Last protein digestion takes place by the brush border cells of small intestine.

56. Which enzyme would be used for curdling of milk in adult humans?
(1) Rennin (2) Pepsin (3) Lactase (4) Both (2) & (3).

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57. Which of the following carries out chemical digestion?
(1) Insulin. (2) Gastrin. (3) Trypsin. (4) Secretin.
58. In human gut, in order of secretion, the proteolytic enzymes are
(1) Rennin, trypsin, steapsin (2) Pepsin, trypsin, erepsin
(3) Trypsin, steapsin, dipeptidase (4) Trypsin, chymotrypsin, steapsin

59. Which of the following secretions has a very high pH?

(1) Gastric juice (2) Pancreatic juice
(3) Bile in gall bladder (4) Saliva
60. Which of the following would prevent maltase from forming an enzyme-substrate complex?
(1) pH of 8.5 (2) A competitive inhibitor
(3) Increased production of bile (4) An increase in substrate concentration

61. Chymotrypsinogen is a
(1) Zymogen (2) Carboxypeptidase
(3) Transaminase (4) Chymotrypsin

62. Vitamin containing cobalt cyanide linkage is:

(1) A (2) B1 (3) B6 (4) B12
63. The final sugars in intestinal chyme are
(1) Glucose and fructose (2) Ribose and mannose
(3) Ribose and xylulose (4) Xylulose and fructose
64. The only sugar normally absorbed in the intestine against a concentration gradient is
(1) Xylose (2) Mannose (3) Glucose (4) Ribose
65. Fats are maximally absorbed in
(1) Ileum (2) Colon (3) Stomach (4) Jejunum
66. Short chain fatty acid produced by bacteria are maximally absorbed in
(1) Duodenum (2) Colon (3) Ileum (4) Jejunum
67. Vitamin B12 is absorbed in
(1) Duodenum (2) Jejunum (3) Ileum (4) Stomach
68. The amount of water absorbed in the intestine in a day is
(1) 5 lit (2) 1 lit (3) 10 lit (4) 8 lit
69. Maximum absorption of bile occurs at
(1) Jejunum (2) Duodenum (3) Ileum (4) Colon
70. Which of the following is absorbed in the colon?
(1) Iron (2) Proteins (3) Bile salts (4) Electrolytes
71. Dietary fiber contains
(1) Collagen (2) Pectin (3) Proteoglycans (4) Starch
72. Colonic bacteria, on digestion of dietary fibres would give
(1) Free radicals (2) Glycerol (3) Butyrate (4) Sucrose
73. Gastrin, Secretin, choleocystokinin (CCK) and gastric inhibitory peptide (GIP) are four major
peptide hormones secreted by-
(1) Only stomach (2) Only small intestine
(3) Gastro-intestinal tract (4) Only pancreas
74. The release of cholecystokinin (CCK) would most likely be triggered after a meal of
(1) fruit. (2) meat. (3) bread (4) lettuce.

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75. Bile is released as a result of
(1) gastrin entering the blood
(2) sympathetic nerves being stimulated
(3) the duodenum secreting CCK (cholecystokinin).
(4) the presence of carbohydrates in the digestive tract.

76. A piece of stomach wall is grafted into the skin of a mammal. The presence of food in the
stomach causes this patch of stomach wall on the skin to produce gastric juice. This is an
evidence that the secretion of gastric juice is most likely brought about by
(1) Peristalsis. (2) Nervous stimulation.
(3) The secretion of a hormone. (4) Mechanical stimulation of the stomach wall

77. Which of the following supports the idea that the secretion of enzymes from the pancreas is
controlled by hormones?
(1) The sight and smell of food causes the pancreas to secrete enzymes.
(2) If the nerves leading to the pancreas are cut, no enzymes are secreted.
(3) If there is no food in the stomach, the pancreas will not secrete enzymes.
(4) If the nerves leading to the pancreas are cut and weak acid is placed in the intestine, the
pancreas secretes enzymes.
78. The secretion of cholecystokinin (CCK) will be stimulated by the presence of
(1) Polypeptides and glucose.
(2) Partially digested protein and fats.
(3) Partially digested starch and water.
(4) Completely digested carbohydrates and water.

79. Gastric secretions stimulated by all of the following except

(1) Secretin (2) Gastric distension
(3) Gastrin (4) Vagal stimulus

80. Which of the following vegetarian meals will supply all essential amino acids in the correct
proportions for synthesizing human proteins?
(1) Spinach and beans (2) Corn and rice
(3) Beans and rice (4) Peas and beans

81. Which one is wrong about vitamins?

(1) Vitamins help in cellular metabolism
(2) Vitamins are accessory food factors
(3) Plants can synthesize vitamins but animals are unable to synthesize vitamins except vitamin
D
(4) Citrus fruits are rich source of vitamin A

82. Glossitis and cheilitis are seen in which vitamin deficiency?

(1) Vit. B2 (2) Vit. B12 (3) Vit. K (4) Vit. D

83. Tonics made out of the liver are very effective curing haemopoietic disorders because:
(1) They contain proteins (2) They contain RBCs
(3) They contain bile juice (4) They contain vitamin B12

84. Pancreatic juice rich in water and electrolytes, poor in enzymes is secreted in response to
(1) Pancreozymin (2) Cholecystokinin (3) Secretin (4) Proteins

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85. Which of the following hormones inhibit the release of gastric juice?
(1) Enterogastrone (2) GIP
(3) Both (1) & (2) (4) Enterocrinin

86. Which of the following is the major gastro inhibitory hormone?

(1) Secretin (2) GIP (3) VIP (4) Somatostatin.

87. Which of the following statement is not true regarding pancreatic secretion?
(1) Presence of HCl in chyme stimulate secretin secretion, which in turn stimulate pancreatic
secretion
(2) Presence of proteoses and peptones increases cholecystokinin, which in turn stimulate
pancreatic secretion
(3) Presence of long chain fatty acids also stimulates pancreatic secretion.
(4) Secretin stimulates secretion of pancreatic enzyme from the acinar cell.

88. Maximum absorption of water occurs in

(1) Stomach (2) Jejunum (3) Ilieum (4) Colon

89. Which of the following process is not involved in the absorption of amino acids?
(1) Secondary active transport (2) Na+ – couple transport
(3) Facilitated diffusion (4) K+ – couple transport.

90. Which of the following is absorbed in the proximal intestine?

(1) Iron (2) Electrolytes (3) Bile salts (4) Vitamin B12

91. Iron absorption is increased by

(1) Fiber diet (2) Vitamin C (3) Phosphate (4) Phytic acid

92. True about high roughage in diet is

(1) Decreases stool transit time (2) Increase stool transit time
(3) Normalize stool transit time (4) No effect on stool transit time
93. Which of the following is not correct about vitamin absorption?
(1) Fat and water soluble vitamins are maximally absorbed in proximal intestine
(2) Vitamin B12 cannot be absorbed completely in the absence of castle’s intrinsic factor
(3) Fat soluble vitamins areabsorbed in the same method by which fat absorption takes place
(4) Water soluble vitamin absorption takes place by facilitated diffusion and Na+ dependent
active transport.
94. Which of the following are absorbed by the mechanism of facilitated transport with the help of
the carrier ions like Na+?
(1) Glucose and fructose (2) Fructose and some amino acids
(3) Fats and glucose (4) Fats and amino acids

95. Na+ dependent transport is responsible for the absorption of all of the following except:
(1) Amino acid (2) Glucose (3) Bile salt (4) Vitamin A.

96. All of the following are absorbed in the large intestine except:
(1) Sodium (2) Fats (3) Water (4) Vitamin K.

97. Enterocrinin acts on

(1) Gall bladder (2) Intestinal glands
(3) Trypsinogen (4) Gastric glands

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98. E. coli are beneficial to humans because they
(1) Convert pepsinogen to pepsin.
(2) Produce vitamins and amino acids.
(3) Absorb water from the large intestine.
(4) Synthesize urea from the breakdown of amino acids.

99. In humans, the bacteria E. coli are normally found within the
(1) Colon. (2) Mouth. (3) Pancreas. (4) Small intestine.

100. Which of the following is not included as odoriferous products of faeces?

(1) Indole (2) Skatole (3) Stercobilin (4) Mercaptans.

101. The foul odour of the faeces is due to the presence of the compound:
(1) Skatole (2) Methyl mercaptan
(3) Hydrogen sulphide (4) Ammonia

102. Which of the following is the enterogastric reflex?

(1) Signal from the stomach to cause evacuation of colon
(2) Signal from colon and small intestine to inhibit stomach motility
(3) Reflex from the colon inhibit emptying of ileal contents into the colon
(4) Signal from small intestine to increases its own motility.

103. Mark the odd one out:

(1) Gastrin (2) Trypsin (3) Secretin (4) Enterocrinin

104. Following are gastrointestinal hormones except

(1) CCK – PZ (2) GIP (3) Motilin (4) Chymotrypsin
105. All of the following effects are caused by secretin except:
(1) Stimulation of pancreatic bicarbonate secretion
(2) Increases bile acid secretion
(3) Stimulate CCK
(4) Inhibit gastric motility.
106. Mark the incorrect match
(1) Acetylcholine – Increases secretion of pancreatic enzyme
(2) Cholecystokinin – Increases secretion of pancreatic enzyme
(3) Secretin – Increases secretion of bicarbonate ions and pancreatic enzymes
(4) Secretin – No stimulation of enzyme secretion.

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ASSERTION & REASON QUESTIONS (CLASS WORK)

In the following questions a statement of assertion (A) is followed by a statement of reason (R).
(1) If both Assertion & Reason are true and the reason is the correct explanation of the
assertion, then mark (1)
(2) If both Assertion & Reason are true but the reason is not the correct explanation of the
assertion, then mark (2)
(3) If Assertion is true statement but Reason is false, then mark (3)
(4) If both Assertion and Reason are false statements, then mark (4)
1. A: Thick layers of muscles are present in the wall of alimentary canal.
R: These muscles help in the mixing of food materials with the enzymes coming from different
glands in the alimentary canal.
2. A: Bile is essential for fat absorption
R: Bile serves as a good medium for the interacting fats and fat splitting enzymes.

3. A: Vitamin K is the most essential activity of bacterial action in colon.

R: Vitamin K in the ingested food is insufficient to maintain adequate blood coagulation.

4. A: Rate of fructose transport is only about one half that of glucose and/or galactose.
R: Much of fructose is converted into glucose on its way through the enterocyte.

5. A: Trypsin inhibitor protects the pancreas from adutodigestion

R: Trypsin inhibitor prevents the subsequent activation of other pancreatic proteolytic enzymes.

6. A: Presence of trypsin inhibitor enzyme protects the pancreas from autodigestion

R: Trypsin inhibitor prevents the secretion of secretin and acetylcholine.

7. A: In people who have lost the ability to secrete normal amount of acid, the secretion of
pepsinogen also reduces.
R: HCl is required as a precursor for the formation of pepsinogen.

8. A: Proteolytic enzymes of the pancreatic juice do notbecome activated until they have been
secreted into the intestine.
R: Trypsinogen activator is present only in the upper part of small intestine.
9. A: Pancreatic juice is secreted most abundantly in response to the presence of chyme in the
upper portions of the small intestine.
R: HCl present in chyme stimulate secretin secretion from cells of upper small intestine.
10. A: Innermost lining of alimentary called has dual function in digestion and absorption.
R: Maximally digestive glands are modified mucosal cells and mucosal lining forms irregular
fold's called villi.
11. A: Mammalian liver is unique from other chordate’s liver
R: Mammalian liver is externally covered by a thin connective tissue sheath called the Glisson's
capsule.
12. A: Secretion of cystic duct and pancreatic duct comes together in the upper part of small
intestine.
R: Bile and pancreatic juice mix-up in hepato-pancreatic duct which is guarded by a sphincter
called the sphincter of Oddi.

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13. A: The chemical process of digestion is initiated in the oral cavity.
R: About 30% of starch is hydrolyzed in oral cavity by amylase into monosaccharide.

14. A: Bile helps in digestion of fat but it can not break down the fat by chemical process.
R: Bile contains bile salts, cholesterol, and phospholipids but no enzyme.

15. A: Complete protein digestion takes place in the small intestine with the help of pancreatic and
brush border enzymes.
R: Intestinal cells secrete enterokinase which activate pancreatic and brush border enzyme.

16. A: Small intestine is characterized with the presence of brush border cells.
R: Final steps of protein and carbohydrate digestion occurs very close to the mucosal epithelial
cells of the intestine.

17. A: Active transport occurs during the transport of various food components.
R: Some of the substance like fructose and some amino acids are absorbed by facilitated
transport.

18. A: Blood sugar level falls rapidly after hepatectomy

R: The glycogen of the liver is the principal source of blood sugar.

19. A: Polypeptidase acts on the peptide linkages of proteins and breaks them into smaller
molecules. Water molecules are necessary for this reaction.
R: All digestive enzymes belong to hydrolase class.

20. A: Thiamine deficiency results in beri-beri causing paralysis.

R: People eating raw fish may also suffer form paralysis due to the deficiency of vitamin B1 ;
cooked fish has no such effect.

PREVIOUS YEARS QUESTIONS (HOME WORK)

1. An adolescent human below 17 years of age normally has dental formula as:
2, 1, 2, 0 2, 1, 2, 2 2, 1, 3, 2 2, 2, 3, 2
(1) (2) (3) (4) .
2, 1, 2, 0 2, 1, 2, 2 2, 1, 3, 2 2, 2, 3, 2
2. Brunner’s glands are found in:
[Kerala PMT 2001]
(1) Wall of rectum (2) Mucosa of ileum
(3) Submucosa of stomach (4) Submucosa of duodenum.

3. Identify the correct set which shows the name of the enzymes from where it is secreted and substrate upon
which it acts: [Orissa JEE 2002]
(1) Pepsin – Stomach wall – Caesin (2) Ptyalin – Intestine – Maltose
(3) Chymotrypsin – Salivary gland – Lactose
(4) Ptyalin – Pancreas – Lipid.
4. The release of pancreatic juice from the pancreas in a mammal is stimulated by:
(1) Secretin (2) Trypsinogen
(3) Enterokinase (4) Cholecystokinin.

5. Submaxillary glands of man pour their secretions through: [EAMET 2003]

(1) Stenson's duct (2) Wharton's duct
(3) Nasopalatine duct (4) Bartholin's duct.

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6. Match the type of cells listed under Column I and their secretions given under Column II Choose the
answer which gives the correct combination of the alphabets of the two columns.
[Karnataka CET 2003]
Column I Column II
(Type of cells) (Secretions)
A Peptic cells p Mucus
B Oxyntic cells q Alkaline fluid
C Goblet cells r Pro-enzymes
s HCl
(1) A = q, B = p, C = s (2) A= s, B = r, C = q
(3) A = s, B = p, C = q (4) A = r, B = s, C = p
7. The wave like contraction of the smooth muscles of digestive tract is called:
(1) Peristalsis (2) Deglutition [CMC, Vellore 2003]
(3) Fibrillation (4) Mastication.
8. Which one of the following pairs of the kind of cells and their secretion is correctly matched?
(1) Oxyntic cells – a secretion with pH between 2.0 and 3.0 [AIIMS 2006]
(2) Kupffer cells – a digestive enzyme that hydrolyses nucleic acids
(3) Sebaceous glands – a secretion that evaporates for cooling
(4) Alpha cells of islets of Langerhans – secretion that decreases blood sugar level.
9. Examination of blood of a person suspected of having anaemia, shows large, immature, and nucleated
erythrocytes without haemoglobin. Supplementing his diet with which of the following, is likely to
alleviate his symptoms? [CBSE 2006]
(1) Thiamine (2) Riboflavin
(3) Iron compounds (4) Folic acid and cobalamin.
10. Oxyntic cells are located in [DPMT 2006]
(1) Islets of Langerhans (2) Kidney and secrete rennin
(3) Gastric epithelium and secrete HCl (4) Gastric epithelium and secrete pepsin.
11. Enterogastrone is [CPMT 2007]
(1) Enzyme secreted by mucosa (2) Hormone secreted by gastric mucosa
(3) Hormone secreted by intestinal mucosa (4) Secreted by endocrine gland related to digestion.
12. Find out the correctly matched pair: [Kerala PMT 2007]
(1) HCl – Goblet cells (2) Ptyalin – Acinar cells
(3) Mucus – Oxyntic cells (4) Pepsinogen – Zymogenic cell
13. Find out the correct match: [Kerala PMT 2007]
Column I Column II
A Hepatic lobule 1 Submucosal glands
B Brunner’s glands 2 Base of villi
C Crypts of Lieberkuhn 3 Glisson’s capsule
D Sphincter of Oddi 4 Gall bladder
E Cystic duct 5 Hepato-pancreatic duct
6 Serous glands.
(1) A = 3, B = 6, C = 2, D = 5, E = 4 (2) A = 3, B = 1, C = 2, D = 5, E = 4
(3) A = 4, B = 6, C = 5, D = 2, E = 1 (4) A = 4, B = 2, C = 6, D = 5, E = 3
14. Bile can be prevented to release into the duodenum by: [CMC, Vellore 2007]
(1) Pyloric valve (2) Sphincter of Oddi
(3) Cardiac sphincter (4) Sphincter of Boyden.
15. What is a correct dental formula for the child falling under age group 5-6 yrs:
[Gujarat CET 2007]
(1) i = 2/2, c = 1/1, pm = 0/0, m = 2/2 (2) i = 2/2, c = 1/1, pm = 2/2, m = 3/3
(3) i = 1/1, c = 2/2, pm = 2/2, m = 3/3 (4) i = 2/2, c = 2/2, pm = 1/1, m =3/3

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16. Which of the following is the correct matching of the site of action on the given substrate, the enzyme
acting upon it and the end product? [CBSE 2008]
Lipase
(1) Stomach : Fat   Micelles
Trypsin
(2) Duodenum : Triglycerides   Monoglycerides
amylase
(3) Small intestine : Starch   Disaccharide(Maltose)
Pepsin
(4) Small intestine : Proteins   Amino acids .
17. What will happen if the secretion of parietal cells of the gastric glands is blocked with an inhibitor?
[CBSE 2008]
(1) Gastric juice will be deficient in chymosin
(2) Gastric juice will be deficient in pepsinogen
(3) In the absence of HCl secretion, inactive pepsinogen is not converted into the active enzyme pepsin
(4) Enterokinase will not be released from the duodenal mucosa and so trypsinogen is not converted to
trypsin.
18. Which one of the following pairs is not correctly matched? [AFMC 2008]
(1) Vitamin B2 – Pellagra (2) Vitamin B12 – Pernicious anaemia
(3) Vitamin B6 – Loss of appetite (4) Vitamin B1 – Beri-beri.
19. Which of the following is correct match for column A and column B?
Column I Column II
A Retinol (i) Inhibits oxidation of unsaturated fatty acids
B Tocopherol (ii) Absorption of Ca2+
C Calciferol (iii) Essential for maintenance of epithelial
tissue
D Menadione (iv) Helps in clotting of blood
E Ascorbic acid (v) Required for amino acid metabolism.
Answer Codes: [Gujarat CET 2008]
(1) (A – iii); (B – ii); (C – iv); (D – v); (E –i) (2) (A – ii); (B – iii); (C – i); (D – iv); (E –v)
(3) (A – iii); (B – i); (C – ii); (D – iv); (E –v) (4) (A – iv); (B – i); (C – ii); (D – iii); (E –v).
20. Dentition in man is [Kerala PMT 2009]
(1) thecodont, heterodont and polyphyodont (2) thecodont homodont and polyphodont
(3) thecodont, heterodont and diphyodont (4) acrodont, heterodont and diphyodont
21. Match column I with column II and choose the correct option:
Column I Column II
A Saliva 1 Proteins
B Bile salts 2 Milk proteins
C Rennin 3 Starch
D Pepsin 4 Lipids
E Steapsin 5 Emulsification of fats
Answer Codes: [Kerala PMT 2009]
(1) (A – 5); (B – 4); (C – 1); (D – 2); (E – 3) (2) (A – 2); (B – 3); (C – 4); (D – 5); (E – 1)
(3) (A – 2); (B – 4); (C – 3); (D – 1); (E – 5) (4) (A – 3); (B – 5); (C – 2); (D – 1); (E – 4)

22. Which group contains biocatalysts? [Orissa JEE 2010]

(1) Erepsin, amylase, rennin (2) Rhodopsin, pepsin, steapsin
(3) Myosin, oxytocin, adrenaline (4) Glucose, amino acids, fatty acids.

23. In humans, sphincter of Oddi is associated with the opening of: [Kerala PMT 2010]
(1) Oesophagus (2) Pyloric stomach
(3) Common hepatic duct (4) Hepatopancreatic ampulla.

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24. Carrier ion like Na+ facilitate the absorption of substances like: [CBSE 2010]
(1) Glucose and fatty acids (2) Fatty acids and glycerol
(3) Amino acids and glucose (4) Fructose and some amino acids.

25. If for some reason the parietal cells of the gut epithelium become partially non-functional, what is likely to
happen? [CBSE 2010]
(1) The pancreatic enzymes and specially the trypsin and lipase will not work efficiently
(2) The pH of stomach will fall abruptly
(3) Steapsin will be more effective
(4) Proteins will not be adequately hydrolyzed by pepsin into proteoses ad peptones.

26. Arrange the following enzymes in correct sequence in which these act on food in different regions of
alimentary canal: [EAMET 2010]
1. Pepsin 2. Ptyalin
3. Dipeptidase 4. Carboxypeptidase
(1) 1 3 2 4 (2) 21 4 3
(3) 1 4 3 2 (4) 2 1 3 4.

27. Aggregates of lymphoid tissue present in the distal portion of the small intestine are known as:
(1) Villi (2) Rugae [DUMET 2010]
(3) Choroid plexus (4) Peyer’s patches.

28. Which one of the following is not the reason for very high load of billirubin in a new born?
[Karnataka CET 2010]
(1) Excessive red blood corpuscles in the new born bursts releasing the billirubin
(2) The liver of the newborn is too young to cope up with the heavy load of bilirubin
(3) Mother’s milk contain a high amount of billirubin
(4) Insoluble bilirubin in the intestine is reabsorbed by the blood.

29. The gastric juice contains: [Kerala PMT 2010]

(1) Trypsin, pepsin, lipase (2) Pepsin, lipase, rennin
(3) Pepsin, amylase, trypsin (4) Trypsin, pepsin, rennin

30. Bile salts act as activator of which enzyme? [MPPET 2010]

(1) Lipase (2) Pepsinogen
(3) Trypsinogen (4) Pancreatic amylase.

31. The purplish-red pigment rhodopsin, contained in the rods type of photoreceptor cells of the human eye, is
a derivative of [CBSE – 2011]
(1) Vitamin B1 (2) Vitamin C
(3) Vitamin D (4) Viamin A

32. Which one of the following enzymes carries out the initial step in the digestion of milk in humans?
[CBSE– 2011]
(1) Pepsin (2) Rennin
(3) Lipase (4) Trypsin

33. Which one of the following is true stomach in ruminants? [AMU 2011]
(1) Rumen (2) Reticulum
(3) Abomasum (4) Omasum

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34. Alimentary canal is absent in: [AMU 2011]
(1) Fasciola hepatica (2) Taenia solium
(3) Ascaris suum (4) Ancylostoma caninum

35. The mucosal layer in the stomach forms irregular folds known as [Kerala 2011]
(1) Villi (2) Lumen
(3) Rugae (4) Crypts of Lieberkuhn

36. The backflow of faecal matter from the large intestine is prevented by the presence of
(1) Epiglottis (2) Sphincter of Oddi [Kerala PMT 2011]
(3) Ileo-caecal valve (4) Gastro-oesophageal sphincter

37. Pellagra is caused due to deficiency of [J & K CET 2011]

(1) Niacin (2) Pantothenic acid
(3) Tocopherol (3) Cyanocobalamine

38. Where do certain symbiotic microorganisms normally occur in human body? [AIPMT – 2012]
(1) Vermiform appendix and rectum (2) Duodenum
(3) Caecum (4) Oral lining and tongue surface

39. Anxiety and eating spicy food together in an otherwise normal human, may lead to [AIPMT- 2012]
(1) Diarrhea (2) Vomiting
(3) Indigestion (4) Jaundice

40. Select the correct match of the digested products in humans given in Colum I with their absorption site
and mechanism in Column II. [NEET- 2013]
Column I Column II
(1) Cholesterol, maltose large intestine, active absorption
(2) Glycine, glucose small intestine, active absorption
+
(3) Fructose, Na small intestine, passive absorption
(4) Glycerol, fatty acids duodenum, move as chylomicrons

41. Fructose is absorbed into the blood through mucosa cells of intestine by the process called :
[AIPMT – 2014]
(1) Simple diffusion (2) Co-transport mechanism
(3) Active transport (4) Facilitated transport

42. The initial step in the digestion of milk in humans is carried out by? [AIPMT – 2014]
(1) Rennin (2) Pepsin (3) Lipase (4) Trypsin

43. Which of the following statements is not correct? [AIPMT – 2015]

(1) Goblet cells are present in the mucosa of intestine and secrete mucus
(2) Oxyntic cells are present in the mucosa of stomach and secrete HCl
(3) Acini are present in the pancreas and secrete carboxypeptidase
(4) Brunner's glands are present in the submucosa of stomach and secrete pepsinogen

44. Gastric juice of infants contains: [AIPMT – 2015]

(1) nuclease, pepsinogen, lipase (2) pepsinogen, lipase, rennin
(3) ptyalin, rennin, pepsinogen (4) maltase, pepsinogen, rennin

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45. The primary dentition in human differs from permanent dentition in not having one of the following type
of teeth: [RE AIPMT – 2015]
(1) Incisors (2) Canine (3) Premolars (4) Molars

46. The enzyme that is not present in succus entericus is [RE AIPMT – 2015]
(1) Lipase (2) Maltase (3) Nuclease (4) Nucleosidase

47. Which of the following guards the opening of hepatopancreatic duct into the duodenum? [NEET-I 2016]
(1) Sphincter of Oddi (2) Semilunar valve (3) Deocaecal valve (4) Pyloric sphincter

48. In the stomach, gastric acid is secreted by the: [NEET-I 2016]

(1) acidic cells (2) gastrin secreting cells (3) parietal cells (4) peptic cells

49. Which hormones do stimulate the production of pancreatic juice and bicarbonate? [NEET-II 2016]
(1) Angiotensin and epinephrine (2) Gastrin and insulin
(3) Cholecystokinin and secretin (4) Insulin and glucagon

50. Which cells of ‘Crypts of Lieberkuhn’ secrete antibacterial lysozyme? [NEET- 2017]
(1) Argentaffin cells (2) Paneth cells (3) Zymogen cells (4) Kupffer cells

51. A baby boy aged two years is admitted to play school and passes through a dental check-up. The dentist
observed that the boy had twenty teeth. Which teeth were absent? [NEET- 2017]
(1) Incisors (2) Canines (3) Pre-molars (4) Molars
52. Which of the following gastric cells indirectly held in erythropioesis? [NEET- 2018]
(1) Goblet cells
(2) Parietal cells
(3) Mucous cells
(4) Chief cells
53. Which of the following terms describe human dentition? [NEET- 2018]
(1) Pleurodont, Monophyodont, Homodont
(2) Pleurodont, Diphyodont, Heterodont
(3) Thecodont, Diphyodont, heterodont
(4) Thecodont, Diplyodont, Homodont

————

PACE IIT & MEDICAL: Delhi & NCR / Mumbai / Lucknow / Goa / Akola / Nashik / Pune / Nagpur / Bokaro / Durgapur / Bhopal / Dubai 107
 Digestion and Absorption Rg-Zol. XI-2018-20

EXERCISE # KEY
LEVEL – I (Class Work)
1. (3) 16. (3) 31. (1) 46. (3) 61. (4) 76. (3) 91. (1)
2. (2) 17. (1) 32. (1) 47. (3) 62. (1) 77. (3) 92. (1)
3. (3) 18. (1) 33. (2) 48. (1) 63. (2) 78. (4) 93. (4)
4. (1) 19. (1) 34. (1) 49. (2) 64. (1) 79. (2) 94. (4)
5. (1) 20. (2) 35. (2) 50. (4) 65. (4) 80. (4) 95. (2)
6. (2) 21. (2) 36. (3) 51. (3) 66. (3) 81. (3) 96. (3)
7. (4) 22. (4) 37. (4) 52. (3) 67. (3) 82. (3) 97. (2)
8. (3) 23. (4) 38. (1) 53. (1) 68. (4) 83. (2) 98. (1)
9. (3) 24. (4) 39. (1) 54. (4) 69. (2) 84. (1) 99. (3)
10. (3) 25. (4) 40. (1) 55. (2) 70. (4) 85. (2) 100. (2)
11. (4) 26. (3) 41. (1) 56. (3) 71. (3) 86. (4) 101. (4)
12. (2) 27. (2) 42. (2) 57. (2) 72. (2) 87. (2) 102. (1)
13. (4) 28. (4) 43. (3) 58. (2) 73. (4) 88. (3)
14. (4) 29. (2) 44. (1) 59. (4) 74. (4) 89. (3)
15. (4) 30. (3) 45. (1) 60. (2) 75. (1) 90. (4)

LEVEL – II (Home Work)

1. (3) 17. (4) 33. (1) 49. (2) 65. (4) 81. (4) 97. (2)
2. (3) 18. (4) 34. (3) 50. (2) 66. (2) 82. (1) 98. (2)
3. (2) 19. (2) 35. (1) 51. (4) 67. (3) 83. (4) 99. (1)
4. (4) 20. (2) 36. (3) 52. (1) 68. (4) 84. (3) 100. (3)
5. (1) 21. (1) 37. (1) 53. (3) 69. (3) 85. (3) 101. (1)
6. (3) 22. (4) 38. (3) 54. (4) 70. (4) 86. (1) 102. (2)
7. (3) 23. (1) 39. (4) 55. (2) 71. (2) 87. (4) 103. (2)
8. (4) 24. (2) 40. (4) 56. (2) 72. (3) 88. (2) 104. (4)
9. (2) 25. (2) 41. (4) 57. (3) 73. (3) 89. (4) 105. (3)
10. (2) 26. (2) 42. (2) 58. (2) 74. (2) 90. (1) 106. (3)
11. (3) 27. (4) 43. (2) 59. (2) 75. (3) 91. (2)
12. (1) 28. (1) 44. (3) 60. (2) 76. (3) 92. (1)
13. (3) 29. (4) 45. (3) 61. (1) 77. (4) 93. (2)
14. (1) 30. (4) 46. (1) 62. (4) 78. (2) 94. (2)
15. (1) 31. (1) 47. (4) 63. (1) 79. (1) 95. (4)
16. (1) 32. (2) 48. (3) 64. (3) 80. (4) 96. (2)
ASSERTION & REASON QUESTIONS (Class Work)
1. (1) 4. (2) 7. (3) 10. (1) 13. (3) 16. (2) 19. (1)
2. (2) 5. (1) 8. (1) 11. (3) 14. (1) 17. (2) 20. (2)
3. (1) 6. (3) 9. (1) 12. (4) 15. (3) 18. (1)

PREVIOUS YEARS QUESTIONS (Home Work)

1. (2) 9. (4) 17. (3) 25. (4) 33. (3) 41. (4) 49. (3)
2. (4) 10. (3) 18. (1) 26. (2) 34. (2) 42. (1) 50. (2)
3. (1) 11. (3) 19. (3) 27. (4) 35. (3) 43. (4) 51. (3)
4. (1) 12. (4) 20. (3) 28. (3) 36. (3) 44. (2) 52. (2)
5. (2) 13. (2) 21. (4) 29. (2) 37. (1) 45. (3) 53. (3)
6. (4) 14. (2) 22. (1) 30. (1) 38. (3) 46. (3)
7. (1) 15. (1) 23. (4) 31. (4) 39. (3) 47. (1)
8. (1) 16. (3) 24. (4) 32. (2) 40. (2) 48. (3)

108 PACE IIT & MEDICAL: Delhi & NCR / Mumbai / Lucknow / Goa / Akola / Nashik / Pune / Nagpur / Bokaro / Durgapur / Bhopal / Dubai