Lecture Guide in

Math019
Engineering and Data Analysis

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Chapter 1: Fundamental Concepts of Statistics
- Definition of Basic Statistical Terms
- Population and Sample

- Parameter and Statistic

- Random Variable
- Qualitative and Quantitative Data

- Continuous and Discrete Data

- Levels (Scales) of Measurement

- Summation Notations

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1.1 BASIC STATISTICAL TERMS

Intended Learning BASIC STATISTICAL TERMS

Outcomes (ILOs)
Statistics
• Introduce the basic -branch of Mathematics that examines and investigates.
concepts and
definition of statistics. Descriptive Statistics
-totality of methods and treatments employed in the collection,
• State why learning
statistics is useful in the description, and analysis of numerical data
contemporary world.
Inferential Statistics
• Differentiate among -logical process from sample analysis to a generalization or
different types of
conclusion about a population.
variables.

1. Population - totality of objects.

2. Sample - representative part.
3. Variable - observable characteristic or phenomena of a person or object.
a. Discrete Variable - can be obtained through counting.
b. Continuous Variable - can never be exact no matter what we do in getting the
measurement.
4. Parameter - numerical characteristic of the population.
5. Statistic - numerical characteristic of the sample.

Types of Data
1. Qualitative - form of categories or attributes.
2. Quantitative - obtained from measurements.

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Example 1.1
Tell whether descriptive or inferential statistics have been used.
1. The guard in the SM Megamall records the number of shoppers for the past 15 days.
2. A researcher tested the difference on the customers buying preference in different brands
of milk.
3. The average price of houses in Laguna.
4. The effects of Dengue Virus to the death rate worldwide.
5. One hundred customers have their corresponding age and buying preference results. The
manager wants to determine its relationship.

Assessment Tasks (ATs)

Tell whether the following variables are discrete or continuous variable.
1. Number of the faces of a die.
2. Weight of newborn baby.
3. The time at sunset.
4. Attitude to the use of nuclear power.
5. Number of cars in the parking lot.

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1.2 LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT

Intended Learning LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT

Outcomes (ILOs)
Nominal
• Differentiate among -used for identification.
different types of
measurement scales. Ordinal
-give order/marks of classes/items.

Interval
-numbers are assigned to items/objects to identify.

Ratio
-with an absolute value point it can be said that two observations is "twice as fast" or "half as
long"
Characteristics of Levels of Measurement

Nominal Distinction

Ordinal Distinction
Direction of distinction

Interval Distinction
Direction of distinction
Amount of distinction

Ratio Distinction
Direction of distinction
Amount of distinction
Indicates an absolute zero

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Example 1.2
Determine whether each of the following is nominal, ordinal, interval or ratio data.
1. Student class designation 8. Hair color
2. Gender 9. Product satisfaction
3. Age 10. Movie classification
4. Weight
5. Temperature
6. Salary
7. Automobile ownership

Assessment Tasks (ATs)

Determine whether each of the following is nominal, ordinal, interval or ratio data.
1. Number of male and female teachers in your school
2. Academic performance
3. Party Affiliation as 1-Partido ng Masang Pilipino 2-Lakas NUCD
4. Calendar time
5. SSS Number

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1.3 SUMMATION NOTATION

Intended Learning SUMMATION NOTATION

Outcomes (ILOs)

• Use the proper order

for performing
mathematical
operations to
compute the value of
a mathematical
expression.

Example 1.3
Write the following expressions in expanded form.

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Chapter 2: Descriptive Statistics
- Data Collection and Presentation
- Sampling Techniques

- Purposes of Sampling

- Kinds of Sampling
- Methods of Data Collection

- Frequency Distribution Table

- Measures of Central Tendency of Ungrouped Data
- Measures of Central Tendencies of Grouped Data
- Measures of Position of an Ungrouped and Grouped Data
- Measures of Variation of an Ungrouped and a Grouped Data

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2.1 DATA COLLECTION AND PRESENTATION

Intended Learning SAMPLING TECHNIQUES

Outcomes (ILOs)
Types of Sampling
• Understand the [Link]-probability Sampling
meaning of the
different kinds of [Link] - selecting a group of individuals available for
samples and give study.
practical examples
[Link] - process of selecting based from judgment which
where each kind of
sampling applies. the researcher believed will provide the data they need.

• State reasons for [Link] - collects information from an assigned number.

using samples to
[Link] - one or more members of a population are
obtain information
located and used to lead the researchers to other members.
about the population,
rather than using the 2. Probability Sampling
population itself.
[Link] Random - population via random numbers or lottery.

[Link] - selecting kth element in the population.

c. Stratified - subdividing the population into subgroups or strata.

d. Cluster - selecting clusters from a population which is widely spread out over a wide
geographical area.

Methods of Data Collection Methods of Presenting Data

1. Direct or Interview 1. Textular
2. Indirect or Questionnaire 2. Tabular
3. Registration 3. Semi-tabular
4. Observation 4. Graphical
5. Experiment

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2.2 FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION TABLE

Intended Learning FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION TABLE

Outcomes (ILOs)
Range (R)
• Understand the - difference of the highest value and the lowest value.
meaning of the
different kinds of Class Limits (CL)
samples and give - highest and lowest values describing a class.
practical examples
where each kind of Class Boundaries (CB)
sampling applies. -upper and lower class values with additional decimal place
• State reasons for more than the class limits and end with the digit 5.
using samples to
Interval (i)
obtain information
about the population, -distance between the class lower boundary and the class
rather than using the upper boundary.
population itself.
Frequency (f)
- number of values in a specific class.

Relative Frequency (rf)

- obtained when the frequencies in each class is divided by the total number of values.

Cumulative Frequency (cf)

- sum of the frequencies accumulated up to the upper boundary of a class.

Midpoint (X)
- average of the upper limit and lower limit in each class.

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Steps in Constructing Frequency Distribution
1. Arrange the data in ascending or descending order.

2. Find the highest (HV) and lowest value (LV).

3. Find the range. (HV -LV)

4. Determine the number of classes. ("2 to the k rule")

5. Determine the class interval. (Range/Number of classes)

6. Select a starting point for the lowest class limit.

7. Set the individual class limit.

8. Set the class boundaries.

9. Determine the numerical frequencies.

10. Determine the relative frequency. (Divide each frequency by the total frequency)

11. Compute the percentage. ( rf x 100)

12. Determine the cumulative frequencies.

13. Determine the midpoints.

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Example 2.2.1

SJS Travel Agency, a nationwide local travel agency, offers special rates on summer
period. The owner wants additional information on the ages of those people taking travel tours.
A random sample of 50 customers taking travel tours last summer revealed these ages.

18 29 42 57 61 67 37 49 53 47

24 34 45 58 63 70 39 51 54 48

28 36 46 60 66 77 40 52 56 49

19 31 44 58 62 68 38 50 54 48

27 36 46 59 64 74 39 51 55 48

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Assessment Tasks (ATs)

Consider the raw data below and make a frequency distribution table.

Statistics Test Scores of 50 Students

88 62 63 88 65 85 83 76 72 63

60 46 85 71 67 75 78 87 70 42

63 90 63 60 73 55 62 62 83 79

78 40 51 56 80 90 47 48 54 77

86 55 76 52 76 40 52 72 43 60

Graphical Presentation of Data

1. Histogram - made of vertical bars that are joined together.

2. Frequency Polygon - graph that displays the data using points which are connected by
lines.

3. Cumulative Frequency Polygon (Ogive) - displays the cumulative frequencies for the
classes.

Example 2.2.2

Using the data in Example 2.2.1, construct a histogram, frequency polygon and cumulative
frequency polygon.

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2.3 MEASURE OF CENTRAL TENDENCY

Intended Learning MEASURE OF CENTRAL TENDENCY

Outcomes (ILOs) -summary of the characteristics of a given set of data.

• Locate the center of a Mean

data using the mean, - the only common measure in which all values play an equal
median mode(s), and role meaning to determine its values you would need.
weighted mean and
check for a reasonable
result. " - sample mean " - population mean

• Distinguish situations Properties of Mean

in which the mean
1. A set of data has only one mean.
may not be the best
measure of central 2. Mean can be applied for interval and ratio data.
tendency.
3. All values in the data set are included in computing the
mean.

4. The mean is very useful in comparing two or more data sets.

5. Mean is affected by the extreme small or large values on a data set.

6. The mean cannot be computed for the data in a frequency distribution with an open-ended
class.

Mean for Ungrouped Data

= sample mean = population mean

X = value of any particular observations n = total number of data in the sample

= sum all of Xs N = total number of values in the population

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Mean for Grouped Data

= sample mean X = value of any particular observations

f = frequency N = total number of values in the population

= sum of all the products of f and Xs n = total number of values in the sample

Weighted Mean
- useful when various classes or groups contribute differently to the total.

wi = corresponding weight

Xi = observation or measurement

Median
- midpoint of the data array.

Properties of Median

1. The median is unique, there is only one median for a set of data.

2. The median is found by arranging the set of data from lowest to highest ( or highest to
lowest) and getting the value of the middle observation.

3. Median is not affected by the extreme small or large values.

4. Median can be computed for an open-ended frequency distribution.

5. Median can be applied for ordinal, interval and ratio data.

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Median for Ungrouped Data
To determine the value of median for ungrouped we need to consider two rules:

1. If n is odd, the median is not middle ranked.

2. If n is even, the median is the average of the two middle ranked values.

Median for Grouped Data

LB = lower boundary of the median class

N = number of sample size

cf = cumulative frequency before the median class.

f = frequency

i = interval

Mode
- value in a data that appears more frequently.

d1= difference between the f of the modal class and the f above modal class.

d2= difference between the f of the modal class and the f below modal class.

Unimodal - only one value with the greatest frequency.

Bimodal - two values with the same greatest frequency.

Multimodal - more than two modes.

Properties of Mode

1. The mode is found by locating the most frequently occurring value.

2. The mode is the easiest average to compute.

3. There can be more than one mode or even no mode in any given data set.

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4. Mode is not affected by the extreme small or large values.

5. Mode can be applied for nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio data.

Example 2.3

1. The daily rates of a sample of eight employees at GMs Inc. are P520, P420, P560, P500,
P700, P670, P860, P480. Find the mean daily rate of employee.

2. Find the population mean of the ages of 9 middle-management employees of a certain

company. The ages are 53, 45, 59, 48, 54, 46, 51, 58, and 55.

3. At the Mathematics Dept. of TIP there are 18 instructors, 12 assistant professors, 7

associate professors, and 3 professors. Their monthly salaries are P30,500, P33,700,
P38,600, and P45,000. What is the weighted mean salary?

4. Find the median of the ages of 9 middle-management employees of a certain company.

The ages are 53, 45, 59, 48, 54, 46, 51, 58, and 55.

5. The daily rates of a sample of eight employees at GMs Inc. are P520, P420, P560, P500,
P700, P670, P860, P480. Find the median daily rate of employee.

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6. The following data represent the total unit sales for PSP 2000 from a sample of 10 Gaming
Centers for the month of August: 15, 17, 10, 12, 13, 10, 14, 10, 8, and 9. Find the mode.

7. Find the mode of the ages of 9 middle-management employees of a certain company. The
ages are 53, 45, 59, 48, 54, 46, 51, 58, and 55.

8. Using Example 2.2.1, determine the mean, median, and mode of the frequency distribution
on the ages of 50 people taking travel tours.

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Assessment Tasks (ATs)

Find the mean, median and mode of the given data below.

Statistics Scores of 50 Students

Class Interval f

90 - 94 2

85 - 89 6

80 - 84 3

75 - 79 8

70 - 74 5

65 - 69 2

60 - 64 10

55 - 59 3

50 - 54 4

45 - 49 3

40 - 44 4

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2.4 MEASURE OF POSITION OF UNGROUPED AND GROUPED DATA

Intended Learning QUANTILES

Outcomes (ILOs) - values which divides the distribution into a given number of
equal parts.
• Locate other positions
using a percentile and Quartile Percentile
a quartile -four equal parts. - 100 equal parts

Decile
- ten equal parts.

Quantiles For Ungrouped Data

1. To determine any quantile, change it first to percentile.

2. Arrange scores according to size.

3. Find the position of the given percentile. "

4. Locate the score starting from the lowest score.

5. Interpolate if the obtained position is not exact.

a. Difference between two scores.

b. Multiply to the decimal digit of "

c. Add to lower score.

Quantiles for Grouped Data

- desired percentile LB - lower boundary

n - cases cf - cf before class interval containing

p - proportion corresponding to the desired f - frequency of

percentile i - interval

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Example 2.4

1. Find the 20th percentile of the following scores: 5, 8, 20, 16, 17, 12, 22, 6, 25.

2. Find the 60th percentile of the following scores : 99, 95, 80, 75, 70, 60, 40.

3. Compute for Q3 and D4.

Statistics Scores of 50 Students

Class Limits f

90 - 94 2

85 - 89 6

80 - 84 3

75 - 79 8

70 - 74 5

65 - 69 2

60 - 64 10

55 - 59 3

50 - 54 4

45 - 49 3

40 - 44 4

Assessment Tasks ( ATs )

1. Using the data in Example 2.4 item no. 3, solve for P75, Q2 and D7.

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2.5 MEASURE OF VARIATION

Intended Learning MEASURES OF VARIABILITY

Outcomes (ILOs) -the spread of the scores in each set are different though the
set of scores have equal means.
• Compute and
interpret the range, Range
interquartile range, Exclusive Range ( ungrouped) = HS - LS
mean absolute
deviation, variance Inclusive Range ( grouped )= Exact Lower Boundary of LS -
and standard Upper Boundary of HS
deviation for both
population and Interquartile Range
sample, then use the
values to rank the
dispersion of different
data sets. Quartile Deviation
-spread of half of the range of the middle 50% of the scores or
values in a distribution.

The Mean Absolute Deviation

Sample Variance and Sample Standard Deviation for Ungrouped Data

Alternate Formula

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 -sample variance n - sample size

s - sample standard deviation " - sample mean

X - value of any observation

Sample Variance and Sample Standard Deviation for Grouped Data

Alternate Formula

Population Variance and Population Standard Deviation for Ungrouped Data

-population variance N - population size

-population standard deviation " - population mean

X - value of any observation

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Skewness and Kurtosis
Types of Skewness

1. Symmetrical ( Normal ) - values are evenly distributed on both sides of the mean.

2. Positively Skewed ( Right-Skewed ) - most of the values fall to the left of the mean and
group at the lower end of the distribution.

3. Negatively Skewed ( Left-Skewed ) - mass of data values fall to the right of the mean and
group at the upper end of the distribution.

Types of Kurtosis

1. Leptokurtic ( Tall Distribution ) - involve unusually large number of values at the center of the
distribution.

2. Platykurtic ( Flat Distribution ) - values are distributed over a wider range about the center
making the hump of the curve flat.

3. Mesokurtic ( Normal Distribution ) - moderately distributed about the center of the

distribution

Example 2.5

1. The daily rates of a sample of eight employees at GMC Inc. are P550, P420, P560, P500,
P700, P670, P860, P480. Find the average deviation, standard deviation and variance.

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2. Find the interquartile range and quartile deviation of the ages of 9 middle-management
employees of a certain company. The ages are 53, 45, 59, 48, 54, 46, 51, 58, and 55.

3. Determine the variance and standard deviation of the frequency distribution on the ages of
50 people taking travel tours.

Class Limits f

18 - 26 3

27 - 35 5

36 - 44 9

45 - 53 14

54 - 62 11

63 - 71 6

72 - 80 2

4. The monthly incomes of the five research directors of Recoletos schools are: P55,000,
P59,500, P62,500, P57,000, P61,000. Find the variance and standard deviation.

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5. A motorcycle dealership pay its salesperson a salary plus a commission on sales. The mean
monthly commission is P8800, the median P9000, and the standard deviation P1200.
Determine the value for skewness. Comment on the shape of the distribution.

Assessment Tasks ( ATs )

Determine the variance and standard deviation given the data below.

Statistics Scores of 50 Students

Class Interval f

90 - 94 2

85 - 89 6

80 - 84 3

75 - 79 8

70 - 74 5

65 - 69 2

60 - 64 10

55 - 59 3

50 - 54 4

45 - 49 3

40 - 44 4

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Chapter 3: Probability
- The Fundamental Principles of Counting
- Multiplication Rule

- Tree Diagram

- Permutations
- Combinations
- Introduction to Probability
- Basic Probability Concepts

- Probability of an Event
- Probability Rules
- Simple Probability P(A)

- Complement of an Event P(A’)

- Addition of Probabilities

- Mutually Exclusive Events

- Non Mutually Exclusive Events

- Multiplication of Probabilities

- Independent Events

- Dependent Events

- Conditional Probability

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3.1 COUNTING TECHNIQUES

Intended Learning COUNTING TECHNIQUES

Outcomes (ILOs)
Sample Space
• Compute andrecognize that -possible outcomes/occurrences.
probability is a measure of
uncertainty with alternative Event
methods of determining -one or more of the possible outcomes of doing
basic probability values. something.
• Become familiar with the
Tree Graph
concepts of statistical
experiment, trial, outcome, -systematic way of listing and counting the elements in
sample space, event, order that no outcome is missed.
probability.

The Fundamental Principle of Counting

-if an event E1 can happen in n1 number of ways and

another event E2 can happen in n2 number of ways, then
the number of ways of both events can happen in the
specified order, n1n2 ways.

Permutations

- an arrangement of objects wherein order is taken into account.

Permutation of objects taken all at a time Permutation of n objects taken r at a time

Circular Permutations Permutation of n objects not all distinct

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Combination

- a selection of objects with no attention given to the order of the objects.

Combination of objects taken all at a time Combination of n objects taken r at a time

Combination in a Series

Example 3.1

1. Given 9 digits 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, how many 3-digit numbers could be formed without

repetition of digits?

2. A girl has 3 coins in her pocket, one 25-centavo coin, a peso coin, and a 5-centavo coin
from which she will draw two coins to pay some candies. She first draws out a coin then
she takes another one. Construct a tree graph to show the probable outcomes.

3. How many ways can a manager and a supervisor be formed if there are six employees?

4. In how many ways can 8 guests be seated in a round table with 8 chairs?

5. The number of permutations of letters in the word STATISTICS.

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6. In how many ways can a coach assign the 5 starting positions in basketball to nine equally
qualified men?

7. In how many ways can a teacher assign at most six of her students to do a project?

8. Given a club with 10 members,

a. in how many ways can the offices of president, secretary, and treasurer be filled?

b. in how many ways can a committee of 3 be selected?

9. The House of Representative is forming a committee of 5 to be made up of 3 from the

ruling party and 2 from the opposition. How many ways are there of selecting the
committee of 6 nominees coming from the ruling party and 5 nominees from the
opposition?

Assessment Tasks (ATs)

1. There are 4 copies of Statistics book, 5 copies of Probability book, and 3 copies of
Forecasting book. In how many ways can they be arranged on a shelf?

2. In how many ways can 5 persons be seated around a circular table?

3. How many different committees of 5 people can be appointed from a group of 10 people?

4. How many committees can be formed from 5 people if the committees consist of 1,2,3,4,
or 5 members?

5. How many ways can 9 different books be arranged on a shelf?

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3.2 PROBABILITY

Intended Learning PROBABILITY

Outcomes (ILOs) •The probability of an event is within range 0 to 1.

• Become familiar with the •The sum of the probabilities of all events for an
terms complement, experiment is always 1.
mutually exclusive,
Complementary Events (E')
conditional probability,
compound events and -set of outcomes in the sample space that are not
independent events. included in the outcome of event E.

• Understand the rules for Three Conceptual Approaches to Probability

calculating probabilities
and use them to solve Classical Probability - assumes that all outcomes in the
problems. sample space are equally likely to occur.

Empirical or Relative Frequency Probability - uses frequency distribution based based on

observations to determine probabilities of events.

Example 3.2

1. A card is drawn from an ordinary deck of card. find these probabilities (a) of getting king of
hearts, (b) of getting a spade (c) of getting a 5 or a clubs (d) of getting a 5 or a 7, (e) of
getting a card which is not a spade, (f) of getting 11 of clubs.

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2. In a sample of 50 college students, 18 are freshmen, 23 are sophomore, 2 are junior, and 7
are senior. Find the following probabilities:

a. a student is a freshman.

b. a student is a freshman or a sophomore.

c. a student is neither a freshman nor a junior.

d. a student is not a senior.

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3.3 ADDITION OF PROBABILITIES

Intended Learning INDEPENDENT, DEPENDENT,

Outcomes (ILOs) MUTUALLY EXCLUSIVE EVENTS
• Become familiar with the Independent Events
terms complement,
-if the occurrence of A does not affect the probability of
mutually exclusive,
B occurring. P(A/B) = P(A) or P(B/A) = P(B)
conditional probability,
compound events and Dependent Events
independent events.
-occurrence of A affects the outcome of B.
• Recognize the symbols P(A),
P(A’), P(A/B), P(A or B), P(A Mutually Exclusive Events
and B) -if one and only one of the events can occur at a time.

Addition Rules

Rule 1: When two event are mutually exclusive,

P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B)

Rule 2: When two event are not mutually exclusive, P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B) - P(A and B)

Example 3.3

1. A box contains 4 red marbles, 8 blue marbles, and 7 green marbles. If a person selects a
marble at random, find the probability that is either a red or green marble.

2. A single card is drawn from an ordinary deck of card. Find the probability that is a queen or
a diamonds.

3. In a certain insurance company there are 20 senior salespersons and 30 junior

salespersons; 8 senior and 14 junior salespersons are males. If a salesperson is selected,
find the probability that the salesperson is a senior or a female.

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Assessment Tasks (ATs)

1. From a regular deck of 52 playing cards, what is the probability of drawing a 10?

2. The town council of Sto. Nino in Central Luzon is composed of the following 5 persons:

Person Sex Age

Maphy Female 29

Ames Female 33

Louis Male 45

Yammy Male 30

Edilyn Female 40

If the members of the council decide to elect a chairman randomly, what is the
probability that the chairman will either be male or over 35?

3. If the probability of race horse A winning a given race is 1/4, and that of race horse B is 1/5,
then, what is the probability that either horse will win the given race?

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3.4 MULTIPLICATION OF PROBABILITIES

Intended Learning MULTIPLICATION RULES

Outcomes (ILOs) - probability of two or more events that occur in
sequence.
• Become familiar with the
terms complement, Rule 1: When two events are independent, then
mutually exclusive,
P(A and B) = P(A) x P(B)
conditional probability,
compound events and Rule 2: When two events are dependent, then
independent events.
P(A and B) = P(A) x P(A/B)
• Recognize the symbols P(A),
P(A’), P(A/B), P(A or B), P(A Rule 3: When two events are mutually exclusive, then
and B)
P(A and B) = 0

Example 3.4

1.A box contains 3 red ball, 8 blue balls, and 9 green

balls. A first ball is selected, and then it is replaced. A
second ball is selected. Find the probability of selecting: (a) 2 red balls, (b) 1 blue ball and
then 1 green ball.

2. A SJS survey found that one out of 5 Filipinos say they are in favor of the death penalty for
heinous crimes. If the people are selected at random, find the probability that all three will
say that they are in favor of death penalty.

3. Lucia owns a collection of 25 bags, of which 6 are made by Guess. If the 2 bags are
selected at random, find the probability that both are made by Guess.

4. There are 3 green cards, 4 red cards and 5 brown cards in a bag. What is the probability of
getting a red card or a brown card after a green one?

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3.5 CONDITIONAL PROBABILITIES

Intended Learning CONDITIONAL PROBABILITIES

Outcomes (ILOs) -probability that an event will occur given that another
event has already occurred.
• Become familiar with the
terms complement,
mutually exclusive,
Example 3.5
conditional probability,
compound events and 1.A box contains blue and red balls. A person selects
independent events. two balls without replacement. If the probability of
• Recognize the the meaning selecting a blue ball and a red ball is 12/30, and the
of compound events probability of selecting a blue ball on the first draw is
connected with “and” and 3/5, find the probability of selecting a red ball on the
with “or”. second draw, given that the first ball selected was a blue
ball.

2. Suppose the total population of a very progressive town consists of 1000 adults who have
finished the their college degrees. Out of this number, 460 are males who are employed
and 40 unemployed. The female population with college degrees include 240 employed
and 260 unemployed. One of these individuals will be selected at random for a town-to-
town tour in the province to campaign for the construction of a shell craft factory and at the
same time to seek probable members of the corporation which is also proposed. Find the
probability that a male is chosen, given that he is also employed.

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Chapter 3: Probability
- Discrete Probability Distribution
- Binomial Probability Distribution

- Multinomial Distribution

- Hypergeometric Distribution
- Poisson Distribution

- Mean ( or Expected Value) and Standard Deviation of a Probability Distribution

- Normal Distribution

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3.6 PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTIONS

Intended Learning PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTIONS

Outcomes (ILOs) -listing of the probabilities associated with all the
possible outcomes that could result from an experiment.
• Solve probability problems
using information from a Random Variable (Chance Variable)
probability distribution of a -a function or rule that assigns a number to each
random variable.
outcome of an experiment.
• Employ the binomial
Discrete Variable- consists of listed number of values.
formula and the binomial
table to determine a Continuous Variable- variable that may assume any
probability, then interpret numerical values between an interval.
the result and relate it to a
decision or resolution of a Binomial Probability Distribution
problem.
-probability that has only two outcomes or can be
reduced to two outcomes (success or failure).

Multinomial Probability Distribution

- binomial experiment consisting of more than two possible outcomes in each trial.

Hypergeometric Probability Distribution

- discrete probability distribution when sampling without replacement is used in situation.

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Poisson Probability Distribution
- number of outcomes occurring during a time interval independent of the number of
outcomes that occurred during other time intervals.

Example 3.6

1. A wallet containing four P100 bills, two P200 bills, three P500 bills, and one P1000 bill.
Construct a probability distribution for the data.

2. Department of Labor and Employment (DOLE) found that 83% of Filipinos think that having
a college education is important to succeed in life. If a random sample of seven Filipinos is
selected, find these probabilities:

a. exactly four people will agree with that statement.

b. at most two people will agree with that statement.

c. at least five people will agree with that statement.

3. What is the probability of obtaining 5 and 6 twice when a pair of die is tossed 8 times?

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4. What is the probability that two will be hearts if 7 cards are dealt from an ordinary deck of
52 playing cards.

5. A vintage car breaks down an average of four times per month. Using Poisson probability
distribution formula, find the probability that during the next month this vintage car will have
(a) exactly three breakdowns, (b) at most two breakdowns.

Assessment Tasks (ATs)

1. Find the probability of obtaining 3 heads in three tosses of a coin.

2. Suppose an average of 5 calls for service per hour are received by a machine repair office.
What is the probability that exactly two calls for service will be received in a randomly
selected hour.

3. In a survey, 25% of the people interviewed said they bought their refrigerator during the last
six months. If eleven people are selected at random, find the probability that exactly six of
these people bought their refrigerator during the last six months.

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3.7 THE MEAN AND STANDARD DEVIATION OF A PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION

Intended Learning MEAN OF A PROBABILITY

Outcomes (ILOs) DISTRIBUTION
• Solve for the mean and
standard deviation of a
probability distribution.
X1, X2,...Xn = outcomes

P(X) = corresponding probabilities

VARIANCE AND SD OF A PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION

Example 3.7

1. Five ball numbered 1,2,3,4,and 5 are placed in a box. One is selected, its number is noted,
and then it is replaced. If this experiment is repeated many times, find the mean, variance,
and standard deviation of the numbers on the balls.

2. Five hundred raffle tickets are sold at P25 each for three prizes of P4000, P2500, and
P1000. After each prize drawing, the winner ticket is then returned to the collection of
tickets. What is the expected value if a person purchases four tickets?

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3.8 NORMAL DISTRIBUTION

Intended Learning NORMAL DISTRIBUTION

Outcomes (ILOs) Properties of the Normal Curve

• Differentiate a normal random [Link] about the mean.

variable from a standard
[Link] mean, median and the mode are all equal.
normal random variable.
[Link] tails or ends are asymptotic to the horizontal line.
• Understand what information
is provided by an entry in the [Link] total area under the curve or the probability
standard normal table. associated with it is equal to 1 or 100%.
• Find the probability that a 5. The normal distribution is unimodal.
value in an interval of values of
any normal random variable Example 3.8
occurs.
[Link] the probability that z is greater than 2.2 {P
(Z>2.2)}.

2. Find the area under the curve between z = 0.8 and z = 2.4, P(0.8<z<2.4).

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3. Find the area from z = -2.33 to z = 1.65, P(-2.33<z<1.65).

4. Find the z value if the area to the right of -z = 0.8289.

Assessment Tasks (ATs)

1. Find the area under the curve between z = 0 and z = 1.85.

2. Find the area under the curve to the right of z = 1.15.

3. Find the area under the curve to the left of z = -1.85.

4. Find the z value such that the area under the curve is between 0 and z value is 0.3962.

5. Find the z score if the area is between -1.5 and z is 0.0217.

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3.9 APPLICATION OF THE NORMAL DISTRIBUTION

Intended Learning THE STANDARD NORMAL

Outcomes (ILOs) DISTRIBUTION
z value (z score) - signed distance between a selected
• Distinguish X and Z on a
diagram that represents a value.
problem situation described
by a normal random
variable.

• Use the standard normal Example 3.9

transformation to
approximate a binomial [Link] of a certain hospital showed that the
probability. distribution of length of stay of its patient is normal with a
mean of 11.5 days and a standard deviation of two days.

a. What percentage of the patients stayed nine days

or less?

b. How long should a patient stay to include in the study if a new method in nursing care
is administered to the middle 95% of the group?

2. The average age of bank managers is 40 years. Assume the variable is normally
distributed. If the standard deviation is 5 years, find the probability that the age of randomly
selected bank manager will be in the range between 35 and 46 years old.

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!45
Chapter 4: Inferential Statistics
- Hypothesis Testing
- Tests Concerning Means Variation and Proportions
- Linear Regression and Linear Correlation
- Non- Parametric Tests
- ANOVA (One-Way)

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4.1 HYPOTHESIS TESTING

Intended Learning HYPOTHESIS TESTING

Outcomes (ILOs) - aids the researcher to decide whether to accept or
• State the basic logic behind reject a formulated statement or hypothesis after the
the hypothesis testing evaluation of the sample.

• Define null and alternative Assumptions

hypothesis, Type 1 and Type - springboard or the starting point of the study.
II errors, significance level,
significant difference, Hypothesis
decision rule, critical value,
- formulated statements which cannot be accepted to be
rejection and acceptance
true otherwise proven.
region, and test statistics.
• Null Hypothesis (H0) - no difference or no relationship
• Set up Ho and H1 for a
problem. hypothesis.

•Alternative Hypothesis (H1) - existence of a difference or

a relationship.
Actual Condition
Decision
H0 is true H0 is false

Reject H0 Type I error Correct decision

Do not reject H0 Correct decision Type II error

Example 4.1

Formulate the Ho and H1.

1. The NSAT Scores and Academic Achievement of the Students in Private and Public
Schools.

2. A Comparative Study on the Consumer's Acceptance of X and Y Toothpaste.

3. Competencies of Nurses from the Government Hospitals and Private Hospitals.

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Steps in Testing the Hypothesis

1. Formulate the Ho.

2. Select an appropriate H1.

3. Determine the level of significance.

4. Choose an appropriate test statistic and determine the critical value of the test statistic.

5. Find the value of the test statistic using the sample data.

6. Make the decision. Reject Ho if the absolute computed value of the test statistic is greater
than the absolute critical value, otherwise accept H1.

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4.2 TEST CONCERNING MEANS

Intended Learning Z - TEST

Outcomes (ILOs) -used when the population standard deviation is known
or if it is not known but sample size is greater than or
• Perform Z test and T- test by
equal to 30.
using given measurement
units or by transforming to Z One Sample Mean Test Two Sample Mean Test
or T values.

Level of Significance
Test Type
0.05 0.01

One-tailed 1.645 or -1.645 2.33 or -2.33

Two-tailed 1.96 and -1.96 2.575 and -2.575

T - TEST
- testing
the significance of difference between means when the sample is small, n < 30,
when only the sample variance is known.

Example 4.2

1. It is claimed that the average weight of a bag of biscuit is 250 grams with a standard
deviation of 20.5 grams. Would you agree to this claim if a random sample of 50 bags of
biscuits showed an average weight of 240 grams, using a 0.05 level of significance?

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2. In a study made on time and motion, it was found that a certain manual work can be
finished at an average time of 40 minutes with a standard deviation of 8 minutes. A group
of 16 workers is given a special training and then found to average only 35 minutes. Can
we conclude that the special training can speed up the work using 0.01 level?

3. Fifteen pupils from school B have mean IQ of 110 and a variance of 64, while 20 pupils
from school C show a mean IQ of 114 and a variance of 78. Is there a significant difference
between their mean IQs using a 0.01 level of significance?

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4. An expert typist can type 65 words per minute. A random sample of 16 applicants took the
typing test and an average speed of 62 words per minute with a standard deviation of 8
words per minute was obtained. Can we say that the applicant's performance is below the
standard at the 0.05 level?

5. An ice cream machine dispenses 5 ounces of ice cream per serving. To set whether the
machine is under control, a sample of 25 servings showed an average amount of 5.08
ounces with a standard deviation of 0.68 ounces. Is the machine under control, using a
0.01 level of significance?

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6. A random sample of 14 brand C softdrinks had a mean content of 237 ml with a variance
of 8.56 ml, while a sample of 20 brand P softdrinks had a mean content of 240 ml with a
variance of 9.75 ml. Using a 0.05 level, is there a difference in the mean content of the two
brands of softdrinks?

7. A researcher found that 10 randomly selected students from a private school has an
average NSAT score of 84 with a standard deviation of 16, while a random sample of 22
students from a public school showed an average score of 80 with a standard deviation of
12. Is there any evidence to show that the students from the private school performed
better than those from the public school in the NSAT examination using the 0.05 level?

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Assessment Tasks (ATs)

1. A random sample of 25 brand A cigarettes had an average nicotine content of 5 mg, while
a sample of 40 brand D cigarettes showed an average nicotine content of 4.3 mg. If the
standard deviation of nicotine content is 1.6 mg, would you say that brand D has lesser
nicotine content? Assume the distribution of nicotine content to be normal and use a 0.01
level of significance.

2. The average age of hospitality girls working in a certain area is 19 years old. A civic-
oriented group made a recent survey on the age of the hospitality girls working in the same
locality. A random sample of 20 respondents showed an average of 15.4 years old with a
standard deviation of 2.14 years old. Using the 0.05 level of significance, has the age of
hospitality girls gone lower?

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4.3 LINEAR REGRESSION TEST

Intended Learning PEARSON COEFFICIENT OF

Outcomes (ILOs) RELATION
-relationships between two or more variables.
• Describe the organization of
values in a data set to be -used to measure the degree of linear relationship or
used for correlation and
association between two variables.
regression analysis.
• Positive Correlation (+1.00) - when high values in one
• Calculate a correlation
variable are associated with high values of another
coefficient and interpret the
value. variable.

• Test for a significant •Negative Correlation ( -1.00) - when high values are
correlation between two associated with low values of the other variable.
variables.

x = observed data of the independent variable n = sample size

y = observed data of the dependent variable r = degree of x and y relationship

0.90 to1.00 (-0.90 to -1.00) Very high positive (negative)

0.70 to 0.90 (-0.70 to -0.90) High positive (negative)

0.50 to 0.70 (-0.50 to -0.70) Moderate positive (negative)

0.30 to 0.50 (-0.30 to -0.50) Low positive (negative)

0.00 to 0.30 (0.00 to -0.30) Little, if any correlation

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Example 4.3

1. A study was made to determine the relationship existing between the grade in Calculus
and the grade in Fortran Computer Language. A random sample of 10 computer students
in a certain university were taken and the following are the results of the sampling.
Student no: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Calculus (x) 73 83 80 77 89 78 92 86 93 84

Fortran (y) 78 87 78 76 92 81 89 89 91 84

Is the obtained relationship significant at 0.05 level?

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4.4 CHI-SQUARE DISTRIBUTION

Intended Learning CHI-SQUARE DISTRIBUTION

Outcomes (ILOs) -a nonparametric test for data presented in frequencies,
or data which can be transformed to frequencies.
• State the advantages and
disadvantages of Test for Goodness-of-Fit
nonparametric tests over
-set of observed frequencies on one variable will be the
parametric tests.
same as the expected frequencies on the same variable.
• Perform a chi-square test for
independence.

• Determine the critical values

from a chi-square table. Test of Independence
• State the hypotheses and 1 x c = one row with several columns df = c - 1
conclusions of a chi-square
test in a usable form. 2 x 2 = two rows and two columns df = (2 - 1)(2 - 1)

r x c = r rows and c columns df = (r - 1)(c - 1)

Example 4.4

1. A one peso is tossed 200 times to test whether the coin is fair or loaded. Use 0.05 level of
significance.
Head Tail Total

Observed 109 91 200

Frequencies

Expected 100 100 200

Frequencies

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2. The following results were obtained in a survey conducted with college students on the
prohibited drug issue. Do the responses of the two groups differ using the 0.05 level?

Agree Disagree

Male 28 122

Female 20 140

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Assessment Tasks (ATs)

1. The following are the score on the NSAT Examination and achievement grades of 15
students of a certain college. Determine the degree of relationship existing between the two
variables and the significance of the obtained r using the 0.05 level.

Student NSAT (x) Achievement Grade (y)

No.

1 65 80

2 98 96

3 86 91

4 78 84

5 90 89

6 72 85

7 88 92

8 75 83

9 96 94

10 87 93

11 80 84

12 79 76

13 84 87

14 82 85

15 93 93

2. A study was made to know if hypertension is independent of the drinking habits among
200 respondents in a certain locality, as shown from the table below. Use a 0.05 level of
significance.

Nondrinker Moderate Heavy

drinker drinker

Hypertension 20 42 54

No hypertension 49 20 15

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4.5 ONE WAY ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE (ANOVA)

Intended Learning ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE (ANOVA)

Outcomes (ILOs) - comparison test used to determine the significant
difference among normal population means.
• State the hypotheses and
conclusions of an ANOVA • The various groups are assumed to be with normal
test formally, in terms of populations.
means and effect sizes, then
interpret the decision in •The variance of the different groups are assumed to be
everyday terms related to a equal.
given problem or situation.
•The random samples in the groups should be
• State the purpose of ANOVA independent.
in controlled experimental
situations and relate the test
statistics to this purpose

• Determine the critical values

from an F table.
SST = total sum of squares X = individual values
• Perform a one way ANOVA
for a completely randomized SSB = sum of squares between columns
design.
SSW = sum of squares within columns

Xc = individual values in each column

Source of Variation Sum of Squares df Mean Square Computed F

Between column SSB k-1 MSB = SSB / k - 1

F = MSB / MSW
Within column SSW k (n - 1) MSW = SSW/k(n - 1)

Total SST N-1

MSB = Mean square between columns

MSW = Mean square within columns

k = number of columns

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Example 4.5

1. Three brands of reducing pills were tried on a sample of 8 female adults. The data is
reflected on the table below in terms of weight loss (in lb). Test the hypothesis that there is
no significant difference in the average weight loss among the three groups of respondents
using the 3 brands of reducing pill at 0.01 level.

Respondents Brand A Brand B Brand C

No.

1 4.5 3.2 3.0

2 4.1 3.0 2.8

3 3.6 3.8 3.2

4 5.3 3.9 3.6

5 4.8 4.2 3.5

6 2.7 3.1 3.5

7 4.3 4.0 2.9

8 3.8 3.3 3.6

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!61
!62
F DISTRIBUTION TABLE

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