In the design process, appropriate process options must be offered, and the choice must be based on a rational and
fair conclusion. To arrive at an
option that best fits the procedure required at optimal conditions, a set of selection criteria must be defined that are rooted in the suitability of
bioethanol production. The criteria weights were established through an analytical hierarchy process accompanied by an associated grading scale
(with 1 being the lowest and 5 being the highest). A preliminary extraction procedure or upstream process, core reaction or mainstream process, and
downstream process are employed to produce a 99.5% bioethanol.
Table 1. Design Selection Criteria
Criteria Description Weight
Separation Time This criterion evaluates the amount of time for a single cycle to
10 %
Required finish the procedure.
This criterion evaluates how much manual labor is needed in the
operation. This includes manual adjustments of the equipment
Labor 10 %
and its utilities, complexity of the process, and supervision
required for the process.
This criterion evaluates the costs involved in the process. This
includes the cost on raw material, equipment, operations, and
Cost 10 %
maintenance. This is evaluated based on the available cost data
from the existing industries employing such processes.
This criterion evaluates the operating conditions typically
employed by the process. Operating conditions such as
Operating Condition 10 %
temperature and pressure are based on the available data from
the existing industries employing such processes.
The effectiveness is measured by the conversion and purity of the
Effectivity products. This is based on available data from the existing 20 %
industries employing such processes.
This criterion evaluates the process’ operating energy cost. This
Energy Consumption is based on available data from the existing industries employing 20 %
such processes.
This criterion evaluates the amount of yield generated by the
Product Yield process. This is based on available data from the existing 20%
industries employing such processes.
Table X. Advantages and disadvantages of different pretreatment processes for lignocellulosic biomass materials.
Pretreatment Method Process Advantages Disadvantages Reference
Mechanical - Reduces cellulose - Power consumption
Physical reduction in substrate crystallinity and degree of usually higher than
particle size by grinding, polymerization. inherent biomass
Physical
milling, etc. - Reduced the particle size energy
to increase a specific
surface area
Steam explosion - Cost-effective - Partial hemicellulose
Substrate particles rapidly - Causes lignin degradation
heated by high-pressure transformation and - Toxic compounds
saturated steam. Explosive hemicellulose generation
decompression caused by solubilization. - Acidic catalyst needed
quick release of pressure acids - High yield of glucose and to make the process
released to aid in hemicellulose hemicellulose in the two- efficient with high lignin
hydrolysis. step process. content material
Ammonia fiber explosion - Increases accessible - Very high pressure
(AFEX) Substrate is exposed surface area. requirements
to hot liquid ammonia under - Fewer inhibitors formation - Expensive
high pressure. Pressure is - Does not require a small - Not very effective for
Physico-chemical released suddenly breaking particle size of biomass the biomass with high
open biomass structure lignin content
CO2 explosion - Increases accessible - Very high pressure
Injected to the biomass reactor surface area. requirements
in very high pressure and - Non- flammability - A portion of xylan
heated at high temperature. - Do not form inhibitory fraction lost.
compounds. - It can emit the CO2
- Availability at relatively emission to the
low cost atmosphere
- Easy recovery after
extraction and
environmental
acceptance.
Chemical Acid - High glucose yield - High operational and
Addition of dilute or - High concentration can be maintenance costs
concentrated acid solutions done at room - Corrosive
result in temperature. - Formation of inhibitors
Hemicellulose hydrolysis - Solubilizes hemicellulose Concentrated acids
(H2SO4, HCl, HNO3, H3PO4). are toxic and
hazardous
Alkali - Decreased cellulose - Relatively expensive
Addition of base causes crystallinity and degree of - Not used for large
swelling, increasing the internal polymerization. scale plant.
surface of cellulose which - Can be done at room - Irrecoverable salts
provokes lignin structure temperature. formed and
disruption (NaOH, KOH, Lime, - Efficient removal of lignin incorporated into
Mg(OH)2, NH4OH). - biomass
Ozonolysis - Reduces lignin content - Relatively expensive
Powerful oxidant, soluble in Does not produce toxic due to a large amount
water and is readily available. residues. of ozone generated.
- No requirement of - Highly reactive,
chemical additives flammable, corrosive
- Operation at ambient and toxic
temperature and pressure - characteristics of
ozone
Ionic Liquids (ILs) - Highly efficient (over 80 % - Very expensive
Organic salts composed of saccharification yield) - Has negative effects
organic cations and either - Environmentally friendly on cellulose activity
organic or inorganic anions chemicals and affect the final
([EMIM][Ac], [BMIM][Cl]). - Minor degradation of raw yield of cellulose
materials hydrolysis Consume
- Negligible production of much water
inhibitory compounds
Fungi and actinomycetes - Low energy consumption - A rate of hydrolysis is
Microorganisms degrade and - Simple equipment very low.
alter biomass structure (white-, degrades lignin and - Low degradation rate
brown-, soft-rot fungi) hemicelluloses. to attain a high degree
Biological - Relatively inexpensive of lignin.
- Does not cause corrosion - Degradation.
to the equipment.
- Low production of
inhibitors
Table 2. Dissolution Methods Selection
Dissolution Methods
Criteria Microwave-Assisted Dissolution Ultrasound-Assisted Dissolution
Mechanical Agitation
(MAD) (UAD)
Dissolution time
4 5 5
(10%)
Labor
4 5 5
(10%)
Cost
5 3 3
(10%)
Operating Condition
5 4 4
(10%)
Effectivity
4 4 5
(20%)
Energy Consumption
5 3 3
(20%)
Product Yield
4 5 5
(20%)
Weighted Sum 4.4 4.1 4.3
Shown in Table 2 that mechanical agitation has the highest weighted score in the methods selection, thus this will be the method to be used in the
dissolution of PNG or semi-refined carrageenan.
Dissolution Methods
Criteria Microwave-Assisted Dissolution Ultrasound-Assisted Dissolution
Mechanical Agitation
(MAD) (UAD)
Dissolution time
4 5 5
(10%)
Labor
4 5 5
(10%)
Cost
5 3 3
(10%)
Operating Condition
5 4 4
(10%)
Effectivity
4 4 5
(20%)
Energy Consumption
5 3 3
(20%)
Product Yield
4 5 5
(20%)
Weighted Sum 4.4 4.1 4.3
Table X. Advantages and disadvantages of different saccharification methods for lignocellulosic biomass materials.
Saccharification Method Process Description Advantages Disadvantages Reference
- Selective breakdown of - Costly due to enzyme
cellulose and production.
Utilizes enzymes (cellulases hemicellulose. - Reaction rates
and xylanases) to break - Can achieve high yields affected by various
Enzymatic hydrolysis down cellulose and of fermentable sugars. factors such as
hemicellulose into - Utilizes enzymes from substrate properties
fermentable sugars. various sources, and enzyme activity.
including fungi and
bacteria.
- Commonly used method - Generates numerous
Divided into dilute and
due to its ability to inhibitors.
concentrated forms. Dilute
selectively remove - Optimal conditions
acid hydrolysis targets
hemicellulose. require careful
Acidic hydrolysis selective removal of
- Can be performed at parameter control.
hemicellulose using low
relatively high - May produce large
acid concentrations and
temperatures. oligomers in hydrolysis
high temperatures.
products.
Table X. Advantages and disadvantages of different fermentation processes for lignocellulosic biomass materials.
Fermentation Processes Process Description Advantages Disadvantages Reference
Separate hydrolysis and The hydrolysis of cellulose - Ability to carry out - Inhibition of cellulase
and hemicellulose into each step under and β- glucosidase
fermentable sugars and optimal conditions, enzymes by glucose
the fermentation of these i.e., enzymatic released during
sugars into ethanol occur hydrolysis at 45 °C to hydrolysis, which calls
as two distinct steps 50 °C forbetter for lower solids
conducted in separate performance and loadings and higher
vessels. fermentation at 30 °C enzyme loadings to
for optimizing sugar achieve reasonable
utilization (Mohd Azhar yields (Balat, 2011).
et al., 2017; Tengborg,
Galbe, & Zacchi,
2001).
- SHF is more efficient
than SSF when
fermentation (SHF) bioethanol production
is carried out using
cellulosic biomass
(Cotana et al., 2015;
Wirawan, Cheng, Kao,
Lee, & Chang, 2012).
- The yeast produced
during the SHF
process can be
recycled after
fermentation of the
hydrolysate, which is
not possible in SSF
(Olofsson, Bertilsson,
& Lidén, 2008).
Simultaneous Saccharification of - Lower enzyme - The conditions of SSF
saccharification and cellulose and requirements; higher are more difficult to
fermentation (SSF) hemicellulose into product yields; lower optimize (Krishna,
fermentable sugars and requirements for Reddy, & Chowdary,
the fermentation of these sterile conditions since 2001).
sugars into ethanol occur glucose is removed - During SSF the
simultaneously in a single immediately and release of sugar is not
vessel. bioethanol is controlled, as all the
produced; shorter cellulase enzymes are
process time; and less added at once (Erdei,
reactor volume (Sun & Frankó, Galbe, &
Cheng, 2002). Zacchi, 2012).
- The immediate
consumption of sugars
by the microorganism
produces low sugar
concentrations in the
fermentor, which
significantly reduces
enzyme inhibition
compared to SHF
(Schell Mark F.;
Tucker, Melvin P.,
1999). This process is
often effective when
combined with dilute
acid or high
temperature hot-water
pretreatment (Balat,
2011).
- Accept the mode of
improvement which
combines the cellulase
enzymes and
fermenting microbes in
one vessel to improve
the bioethanol
production economics
(Y. Yu, Lou, & Wu,
2008).
Simultaneous Saccharification of - Reduced capital costs - At high water insoluble
saccharification and co- cellulose and (Wingren, Galbe, & solids (WIS) content,
hemicellulose into Zacchi, 2003). the ethanol yield
fermentable sugars and Continuous removal of decreases due to an
the fermentation of these end-products of increase in mass
sugars into ethanol occur enzymatic hydrolysis transfer resistance and
simultaneously, but unlike that inhibit cellulases inhibitor concentration
SSF, SSCF involves the or β-glucosidases (Hoyer, Galbe, &
co-fermentation of multiple (Olofsson et al., 2008). Zacchi, 2009).
sugars by different - Higher ethanol
microorganisms. productivity and yield
than separate
hydrolysis and
fermentation (SSCF) fermentation (Alfani,
Gallifuoco, Saporosi,
Spera, & Cantarella,
2000; Tomás-Pejó,
Oliva, Ballesteros, &
Olsson, 2008).
- Maintains glucose at
low levels allowing
efficient co-
fermentation of
glucose and xylose
(Öhgren et al., 2006).