Name: Nazia Kanwal Tahir

Roll Number: 2216

Program: [Link]

Subject: Research Methods

Unit Title: Selecting a Sample

Submitted to: Mam Faiza Zulfiqar

 Table of Contents

1. Introduction

2. Sampling in Qualitative Research

3. Selecting Research Participants: Purposive Sampling

4. Sampling Approaches

5. Determining Sample Size

 Introduction
What is Research?

• A systematic and scientific investigation.

• A way to discover new knowledge or solve problems.
• Involves data collection, analysis, and interpretation.

Meaning of Research

• Originates from the French word “rechercher” (to search

again).
• Involves deep investigation and inquiry.
• More than information gathering—it’s problem-solving.
 Introduction to Qualitative Research

Qualitative research focuses on understanding phenomena rather than

measuring them.
It involves exploring human experiences, perceptions, and social
contexts.
Used to generate deep insights into complex issues.

Uses of Qualitative Research

1. Exploring Human Experiences – Understand how people feel, think, and act.
2. Understanding Social & Cultural Contexts – Study how society and culture affect behavior.
3. Generating New Ideas or Theories – Build new theories when little is known about a topic.
4. Evaluating Programs or Policies – Get feedback to improve services or systems.
5. Understanding Language & Communication – Analyze how people express themselves.
6. Studying Behavior in Natural Settings – Observe real-life actions in daily environments.
7. Supporting Quantitative Research – Explain the "why" behind numerical data.
Used in education, health, psychology, sociology, and more for deep understanding.
 Common Qualitative Research Methods
1️⃣ Interviews
2️⃣ Focus Groups
3️⃣ Observations
4️⃣ Case Studies
5️⃣ Content Analysis
1. Interviews
Involves asking open-ended questions to individuals.
Gathers personal experiences and detailed opinions.
Example: A researcher interviewing teachers about classroom management
strategies.
2. Focus Groups
A group discussion where participants share thoughts on a specific topic.
Promotes interaction and captures a variety of perspectives.
Example: Focus group with students discussing their study habits.
 3. Observations
Researchers watch and record behaviors in a natural setting.
Provides insights into real-world actions and interactions.
Example: Observing children’s play behavior in a park.

4. Case Studies
An in-depth investigation of a single case or a small number of cases.
Provides a holistic view of a particular phenomenon.
Example: Case study on a specific school implementing a new teaching method.

5. Content Analysis
Analyzes text, videos, or audio to identify patterns or themes.
Used to understand cultural and social phenomena.
Example: Analyzing news articles to identify media representations of mental health.
 Introduction to Sampling
Sampling = selecting a small group from a large population.
Helps answer research questions without studying everyone.
Saves time and money while giving meaningful results.

Importance of Sampling
Makes research manageable
Reduces cost and effort
Results can represent the whole population
Improves data accuracy

Characteristics of a Good Sample

Representative – Matches the population
Relevant – Aligned with the study’s purpose
Accurate – Free from bias
Sufficient Size – Enough participants to ensure validity
 Approaches of
Sampling in Research

Sampling approaches are

methods used to select
individuals or groups from a
population for research.
These are mainly divided into
two types:
A. Probability Sampling

B. Non-Probability Sampling
Probability sampling ( used in quantitative research)

Non-Probability sampling ( used in qualitative research)

 B. Non-Probability Sampling

Participants are chosen based on purpose, convenience, or

judgment. Used in qualitative research.

1-Purposive Sampling
2-Snowball Sampling
3-Convenience Sampling
4-Theoretical Sampling
5-Quota Sampling
 Types of Purposive Sampling in Qualitative Research

1. Maximum Variation Sampling:

Selects participants with diverse characteristics to capture a wide range of perspectives on a topic.
2. Homogeneous Sampling:
Involves selecting individuals with similar traits or experiences to explore a specific group in depth.
3. Typical Case Sampling:
Focuses on average or typical examples to illustrate general trends or behaviors.
4. Extreme/Deviant Case Sampling:
Targets highly unusual or rare cases to understand unique insights or exceptions.
5. Critical Case Sampling:
Chooses a case that is especially important, assuming findings may apply to other similar cases.
6. Theory-Based Sampling:
Selects participants based on their ability to contribute to the development or testing of a theory.
7. Expert Sampling:
Involves interviewing individuals with specialized knowledge or expertise on the research topic.
 Snowball Sampling

Definition:
Snowball sampling is a method in which initial participants help recruit further
participants from their network, creating a chain of referrals.
Purpose:
To access hidden or hard-to-reach populations through trust-based referrals.
Features:
• Starts with a small group of participants.
• Participants refer others.
• Often used in sensitive or closed communities.
Advantages:
• Effective for rare or sensitive populations.
• Builds trust between researcher and participant.
• Cost-efficient in recruiting.
Disadvantages:
• Limited diversity in sample.
• Bias in selection.
• Difficult to determine when to stop sampling.
 Convenience Sampling
Definition:
Convenience sampling involves choosing participants who are easiest to access, such as friends,
colleagues, or students.
Purpose:
To collect data quickly and inexpensively, especially for exploratory studies or pilot testing.
Features:
• Based on availability and proximity.
• No specific inclusion criteria.
• Often used in small-scale or student research.
Advantages:
• Quick and easy to implement.
• Requires minimal resources.
• Useful for early-stage research.
Disadvantages:
• High risk of bias.
• Poor representation of population.
• Results may lack depth and reliability.
 Theoretical Sampling

Definition:
Theoretical sampling is used in grounded theory research to select participants based on
concepts that are emerging from ongoing data analysis.
Purpose:
To build and refine a theory by selecting new participants who help clarify or test emerging ideas.
Features:
• Flexible and iterative.
• Driven by developing theory.
• Continues until theoretical saturation is reached.
Advantages:
• Generates deep theoretical insights.
• Highly focused and relevant data.
• Adapts to evolving research needs.
Disadvantages:
• Time-consuming and complex.
• Requires experienced researchers.
• Unpredictable sample size.
 Quota Sampling
Definition:
Quota sampling involves dividing the population into categories (e.g., age, gender), then selecting a
fixed number (quota) of participants from each group non-randomly.
Purpose:
To ensure representation of key subgroups in the sample when random sampling is not feasible.
Features:
• Quotas set before sampling.
• Non-random participant selection.
• Ensures diversity among participants.
Advantages:
• More representative than convenience sampling.
• Easier and faster than random methods.
• Useful when demographic balance is important.
Disadvantages:
• No randomization increases bias.
• May miss variability within quotas.
• Relies heavily on researcher judgment.
 How to Select Participants in Research (Qualitative)
Selecting research participants involves the following steps:
1. Define the Purpose of the Study
Clarify your research goal and what kind of data you need.

2. Identify the Target Population

Decide who is most relevant to the topic based on experience or background.

3. Choose a Sampling Method

Use non-probability techniques like:
• Purposive sampling
• Snowball sampling
• Convenience sampling
• Quota sampling
• Theoretical sampling

4. Set Selection Criteria

Create clear inclusion and exclusion conditions to guide participant choice.
5. Decide Sample Size
Keep the group small and flexible—typically 5–30 participants—based on
data saturation.

6. Recruit Participants
Use emails, personal contacts, referrals, or institutional help.

7. Get Informed Consent

Explain the study, ensure confidentiality, and gain voluntary agreement.

8. Build Rapport
Establish trust to collect honest and detailed responses.

9. Adjust If Needed
Revise sampling or add participants if necessary as the study progresses.
 Determining Sample Size in Research

Choosing the right sample size is crucial for the accuracy, reliability, and validity of
research findings. It refers to the number of participants or observations included in the
study.
Factors to Consider

1. Population Size – Total number of people in the group being studied.

2. Research Objectives – Whether the study aims for generalization or in-depth
insight.
3. Margin of Error – The acceptable amount of error in the results (smaller margin =
larger sample).
4. Confidence Level – Usually 90%, 95%, or 99%; higher confidence requires a larger
sample.
5. Variability in the Population – More diversity means a larger sample may be
needed.
6. Resources Available – Time, budget, and manpower limit how many can be studied.
 Steps for Selecting a Sample Size in Research
1. Clarify the Research Question
Define the focus of your research. Ensure your question is specific to guide the sample
size.
2. Identify the Target Population
Determine the group best suited to answer the research question. Understand their
characteristics and accessibility.
3. Consider the Feasibility of Different Sampling Strategies
Evaluate practical aspects:
• Availability of participants
• Resources (time, budget)
• Data collection methods
4. Evaluate Strengths and Weaknesses of Sampling Strategies
Assess each sampling method's pros and cons
5. Select a Strategy That Best Fits the Research Question
Choose the method that aligns with your research goals and ensures deep, meaningful
insights.
 Sample Size Formulas in Research
1️⃣ When Population is Unknown (Infinite Population)
Formula:

Where:
• n = Required sample size
• Z = Z-value (standard score)
• 1.96 for 95% confidence
• 1.64 for 90% confidence
• 2.58 for 99% confidence
• p = Estimated proportion of the population (use 0.5 if unknown for maximum variability)
• e = Margin of error (expressed as a decimal; e.g., 0.05 for 5%)
 2️⃣ When Population is Known (Finite Population)

Formula:

Where:
• n = Required sample size
• N = Total population size
• The rest are same as above: Z, p, e
THANK YOU