CHAPTER 1

Basic Word Structure

This chapter is divided
into the following sections:
Objectives in Studying the Medical Language, 2
Word Analysis, 3
Terminology, 6
Practical Applications, 16
Exercises, 17
Answers to Exercises, 24
Pronunciation of Terms, 27
Review Sheet, 31

CHAPTER GOALS
• Identify basic objectives to guide your study of the medical language.
• Divide medical words into their component parts.
• Learn the meanings of basic combining forms, suffixes, and prefixes of the medical
language.
• Use these combining forms, suffixes, and prefixes to build medical words.
 BASIC WORD STRUCTURE 3
%DVLF:RUG6WUXFWXUH

Adrenal
glands

Kidneys

Ureters

Urinary bladder

Prostate gland

Urethra

FIGURE 1-2 Male urinary tract. The terms urethra and ureter can be confusing because they are both tubes
of the urinary system, but the spellings and pronunciations are different. Notice the locations: two ureters
between the kidneys and urinary bladder and one urethra between the urinary bladder and the outside of the 1
body.

when terms are spelled correctly, they can be misunderstood because of incorrect
pronunciation. For example, the urethra (ū-RĒ-thrăh) is the tube leading from the
urinary bladder to the outside of the body, whereas a ureter (ŪR-ĕ-tĕr) is one of two
tubes each leading from a single kidney and inserting into the urinary bladder. Figure
1-2 illustrates the difference between the urethra and the ureters.

WORD ANALYSIS
Studying medical terminology is very similar to learning a new language. At first, the words
sound strange and complicated, although they may stand for commonly known disorders
and terms. For example, cephalgia means “headache,” and an ophthalmologist is an “eye
doctor.”
Your first job in learning the language of medicine is to understand how to divide
words into their component parts. Logically, most terms, whether complex or simple,
can be broken down into basic parts and then understood. For example, consider the
following term:
 4 BASIC WORD STRUCTURE

HEMATOLOGY HEMAT/O/LOGY

root suffix

combining vowel
The root is the foundation of the word. All medical terms have one or more roots. For
example, the root hemat means blood.
The suffix is the word ending. All medical terms have a suffix. The suffix -logy means
process of study.
The combining vowel—usually o, as in this term—links the root to the suffix or the root
to another root. A combining vowel has no meaning of its own; it joins one word part to
another.
It is useful to read the meaning of medical terms starting from the suffix and then going
back to the beginning of the term. Thus, the term hematology means process of study of
blood.
Here is another familiar medical term:
ELECTROCARDIOGRAM ELECTR/O/CARDI/O/GRAM

root root suffix

combining vowel
The root electr means electricity.
The root cardi means heart.
The suffix -gram means record.
1 The entire word, reading from the suffix back to the beginning of the term, means record
of the electricity in the heart.
Notice that there are two combining vowels—both o—in this term. The first o links the
two roots electr and cardi; the second o links the root cardi and the suffix -gram.
Try another term:
GASTRITIS GASTR/ITIS

root suffix
The root gastr means stomach.
The suffix -itis means inflammation.
The entire word, reading from the end of the term (suffix) to the beginning, means
inflammation of the stomach.
Notice that the combining vowel, o, is missing in this term. This is because the suffix,
-itis, begins with a vowel. The combining vowel is dropped before a suffix that begins with
a vowel. It is retained, however, between two roots, even if the second root begins with a
vowel.
Consider the following term:
GASTROENTEROLOGY GASTR/O/ENTER/O/LOGY

root root suffix

combining vowel
The root gastr means stomach.
The root enter means intestines.
The suffix -logy means process of study.
The entire term means process of study of the stomach and intestines.
 BASIC WORD STRUCTURE 5
Notice that the combining vowel is used between gastr and enter, even though the second
root, enter, begins with a vowel. When a term contains two or more roots related to parts
of the body, anatomic position often determines which root goes before the other. For
example, the stomach receives food first, before the small intestine—so the word is formed
as gastroenterology, not “enterogastrology.”

In summary, remember three general rules:

1. Read the meaning of medical terms from the suffix back to the beginning of
the term and across.
2. Drop the combining vowel (usually o) before a suffix beginning with a vowel:
gastritis, not “gastroitis.”
3. Keep the combining vowel between two roots: gastroenterology, not
“gastrenterology.”

In addition to the root, suffix, and combining vowel, two other word parts are commonly
found in medical terms. These are the combining form and the prefix. The combining form
is simply the root plus the combining vowel. For example, you already are familiar with the
following combining forms and their meanings:
HEMAT/O means blood

root combining vowel COMBINING FORM

GASTR /O means stomach

root combining vowel COMBINING FORM

CARDI /O means heart
1
root combining vowel COMBINING FORM
Combining forms are used with many different suffixes. Remembering the meaning of a
combining form will help you understand different medical terms.
The prefix is a small part that is attached to the beginning of a term. Not all medical
terms contain prefixes, but the prefix can have an important influence on the meaning.
Consider the following examples:
HYPO/GASTR/IC means pertaining to below the stomach

prefix root suffix

(below) (stomach) (pertaining to)
EPI/GASTR/IC means pertaining to above the stomach

prefix root suffix

(above) (stomach) (pertaining to)

In summary, the important elements of medical terms are the following:

1. Root: foundation of the term
2. Suffix: word ending
3. Prefix: word beginning
4. Combining vowel: vowel (usually o) that links the root to the suffix or the root to
another root
5. Combining form: combination of the root and the combining vowel
 6 BASIC WORD STRUCTURE

TERMINOLOGY
In previous examples you have been introduced to the combining forms gastr/o (stomach), hemat/o (blood),
and cardi/o (heart). This section of the chapter presents a list of additional combining forms, suffixes, and
prefixes, with examples of medical words using those word parts. (Similar lists are included for each chapter
in the book.) Write the meaning of the medical term in the space provided. Then check the correct pronunciation
for each term with the Pronunciation of Terms list on pages 27 to 30. The Evolve website for The Language of
Medicine contains definitions and audio pronunciations for each term. Use it!
Most medical terms are derived from Greek and Latin roots. Greek, Roman, and Arabic physicians had
developed medically useful concepts and associated vocabularies long before the 21st century. Greek and Latin
derivations for medical terms are presented for your interest on the Evolve website.

CHAPTER STUDY GUIDE

1. Use slashes to divide each term into component parts (aden/oma), and write its meaning (tumor of
a gland) in the space provided. Although most medical terms are divided easily into component parts
and understood, others defy simple explanation. Information in italics under a medical term helps
you define and understand the term. You can check meanings on the Evolve site.
2. Complete the Exercises, pages 17 to 23, and check your answers against those provided on pages 24
to 26.
3. Write meanings for terms on the Pronunciation of Terms list, pages 27 to 30. Definitions are on the
Evolve site.
4. Complete the Review Sheet, pages 31 and 32. Check your answers with the Glossary, page 961.
Then, test yourself by writing Review Sheet terms and meanings on a separate sheet of paper.
1 5. Make your own flash cards. Using the Review Sheet as a guide, create flash cards that can be
transported wherever you study!
6. Create your own book tabs to have easy access to key concepts and frequently used sections; for
example the Glossary of Word Parts, beginning on page 961.
7. Review terms using the audio pronunciations found on the Evolve website.

Notice that you are actively engaging in the learning process by writing terms and their meanings and
testing yourself repeatedly. Here is your study mantra: Read, WRite, Recite, and Review. I guarantee success
if you follow these simple steps. This is a proven method—it really works!
 BASIC WORD STRUCTURE 7
COMBINING FORMS
Remember: You will find every term phonetically pronounced starting on page 27, and you can hear the
pronunciations on the Evolve website.

COMBINING FORM MEANING TERMINOLOGY MEANING

aden/o gland tumor of a gland

adenoma __________________________________________
The suffix -oma means tumor or mass.

adenitis ___________________________________________
The suffix -itis means inflammation.

arthr/o joint arthritis ___________________________________________

bi/o life biology ____________________________________________
The suffix -logy is composed of the root log (study) and the final
suffix -y (process or condition).

biopsy ____________________________________________
The suffix -opsy means process of viewing. Living tissue is
removed from the body and viewed under a microscope.

carcin/o cancerous, cancer carcinoma _________________________________________

A carcinoma is a cancerous tumor. Carcinomas grow from the
epithelial (surface or skin) cells that cover the outside of the body
and line organs, cavities, and tubes within the body (Figure 1-3).

cardi/o heart cardiology _________________________________________

1
cephal/o head cephalic ___________________________________________
(sĕ-FĂL-ı̆k) The suffix -ic means pertaining to. A cephalic
presentation describes a “head first” position for the delivery of an
infant.

FIGURE 1-3 Carcinoma of the skin. This is a basal cell carcinoma, the most common form of skin cancer.
It usually occurs on sun-damaged skin.
 8 BASIC WORD STRUCTURE

Sensations Movement
from body

Eye movement
Writing

Hearing
CEREBRUM Thought
processes
Vision

Reading

Smell
Cerebellum
Speech

FIGURE 1-4 Cerebrum and the functions it

controls. A cerebrovascular accident (CVA), or
Spinal cord
stroke, occurs when blood vessels (vascul/o means
blood vessel) are damaged in the cerebrum and
blood is prevented from reaching functional areas
of the brain. Cells, deprived of oxygen and
nutrients, are damaged, causing loss of movement,
speech, and other signs and symptoms of a CVA.

COMBINING FORM MEANING TERMINOLOGY MEANING

cerebr/o cerebrum (largest cerebral ___________________________________________

1 part of the brain) The suffix -al means pertaining to. Figure 1-4 shows the
cerebrum and its many functional areas.

cis/o to cut incision ___________________________________________

The prefix in- means into, and the suffix -ion means process.

excision ___________________________________________
The prefix ex- means out.

crin/o to secrete (to endocrine glands ___________________________________

form and give off) The prefix endo- means within; endocrine glands (e.g., thyroid,
pituitary, and adrenal glands) secrete hormones directly within
(into) the bloodstream. Other glands, called exocrine glands,
release their secretions (e.g., saliva, sweat, tears) through tubes
(ducts) to the outside of the body.

cyst/o urinary bladder; a cystoscopy _________________________________________

sac or a cyst (sac (sı̆s-TŎS-kō-pē) The suffix -scopy is a complex suffix that includes
containing fluid) the root scop, meaning visual examination, and the final suffix -y,
meaning process.

Complex suffixes
Many suffixes, like -scopy, contain an embedded root word. Other examples are -opsy (ops is a root) and -logy (log is a
root).
 BASIC WORD STRUCTURE 9

COMBINING FORM MEANING TERMINOLOGY MEANING

cyt/o cell cytology ___________________________________________

See Figure 1-5 for examples of blood cells.

derm/o skin dermatitis _________________________________________

dermat/o hypodermic ________________________________________
The prefix hypo- means under or below.

electr/o electricity electrocardiogram __________________________________

The suffix -gram means record. Abbreviated ECG (or sometimes
EKG).

encephal/o brain electroencephalogram _______________________________

Abbreviated EEG.

enter/o intestines enteritis ___________________________________________

(usually the small The small intestine is narrower but much longer than the large
intestine) intestine (colon). See Figure 1-1 on p. 2, which shows the small
and large intestines.

erythr/o red erythrocyte ________________________________________

The suffix -cyte means cell. Erythrocytes carry oxygen in the blood.

gastr/o stomach gastrectomy _______________________________________

The suffix -ectomy means excision or removal. All or, more
commonly, part of the stomach is removed.

gastrotomy ________________________________________ 1
The suffix -tomy is another complex suffix, which contains the
root tom, meaning to cut, and the final suffix -y, meaning process
of.

Erythrocytes

Thrombocytes
(platelets)
Leukocyte

FIGURE 1-5 Blood cells. Notice red blood cells (erythrocytes), a white blood cell (leukocyte), and clotting
cells (thrombocytes or platelets).
 10 BASIC WORD STRUCTURE

COMBINING FORM MEANING TERMINOLOGY MEANING

glyc/o sugar hyperglycemia __________________________________

The prefix hyper- means excessive, above, or more than normal.
The suffix -emia means blood condition.

gnos/o knowledge diagnosis __________________________________________

The prefix dia- means complete. The suffix -sis means state or
condition of. A diagnosis is made after sufficient information has
been obtained about the patient’s condition. Literally, it is a
“state of complete knowledge.”

prognosis __________________________________________
The prefix pro- means before. Literally “knowledge before,” a
prognosis is a prediction about the outcome of an illness, but it is
always given after the diagnosis has been determined.

gynec/o woman, female gynecology ________________________________________

hemat/o blood hematology ________________________________________
hem/o hematoma _________________________________________
In this term, -oma means a mass or collection of blood, rather
than a growth of cells (tumor). A hematoma forms when blood
escapes from blood vessels and collects as a clot in a cavity or
organ or under the skin. See Figure 1-6.

hemoglobin ________________________________________
1 The suffix -globin means protein. Hemoglobin carries oxygen in
red blood cells.

hepat/o liver hepatitis __________________________________________

iatr/o treatment, iatrogenic _________________________________________
physician The suffix -genic means pertaining to producing, produced by, or
produced in. Iatrogenic conditions are adverse effects that result
from treatment or intervention by a physician.

leuk/o white leukocyte __________________________________________

This blood cell helps the body fight disease.

log/o study of dermatology _______________________________________

nephr/o kidney nephritis __________________________________________
nephrology ________________________________________
neur/o nerve neurology _________________________________________

Hyperglycemia and Diabetes

Hyperglycemia (high blood sugar) most frequently is associated with diabetes. People with diabetes have high blood sugar
levels because they lack insulin (in type 1 diabetes) or have ineffective insulin (in type 2 diabetes). Insulin is the
hormone normally released by the pancreas (an endocrine gland near the stomach) to “escort” sugar from the bloodstream
into cells. Sugar (glucose) is then broken down in cells to release energy. When insulin is not present, sugar cannot enter cells
and builds up in the bloodstream (hyperglycemia).
 BASIC WORD STRUCTURE 11

A B
FIGURE 1-6 A, Notice the hematoma under the nail. B, Hematoma caused by external trauma to the brain
(cerebrum). Blood collects above the brain’s outermost (epi-) covering (dura). It is an epidural hematoma.
(B, Courtesy of Dr. Raymond D. Adams, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston.).

COMBINING FORM MEANING TERMINOLOGY MEANING

onc/o tumor oncology __________________________________________

oncologist _________________________________________
The suffix -ist means one who specializes in a field of medicine (or
other profession).
1
ophthalm/o eye ophthalmoscope ____________________________________
(ŏf-THĂL-mō-skōp) The suffix -scope means an instrument for
visual examination. (To help with spelling, notice that just as
there are two eyes, there are two “h”s in this term.)

oste/o bone osteitis ____________________________________________

osteoarthritis ______________________________________
This condition of aging is actually a degeneration of bones and
joints often accompanied by inflammation.

path/o disease pathology _________________________________________

pathologist ________________________________________
A pathologist examines biopsy samples microscopically and
examines dead bodies to determine the cause of death.

ped/o child pediatric __________________________________________

Notice that ped/o is also in the term orthopedist. Orthopedists
once were doctors who straightened (orth/o means straight)
children’s bones and corrected deformities. Nowadays,
orthopedists specialize in disorders of bones and muscles in
people of all ages.
 12 BASIC WORD STRUCTURE

COMBINING FORM MEANING TERMINOLOGY MEANING

psych/o mind psychology ________________________________________

psychiatrist ________________________________________
radi/o x-rays radiology __________________________________________
Low-energy x-rays are used for diagnostic imaging.

ren/o kidney renal _____________________________________________

Ren/o (Latin) and nephr/o (Greek) both mean kidney. Ren/o is
used with -al (Latin) to describe the kidney, whereas nephr/o is
used with other suffixes such as -osis, -itis, and -ectomy (Greek)
to describe abnormal conditions and operative procedures.

rhin/o nose rhinitis ___________________________________________

sarc/o flesh sarcoma ___________________________________________
This is a cancerous (malignant) tumor. A sarcoma (Figure 1-7)
grows from cells of “fleshy” connective tissue such as muscle,
bone, and fat, whereas a carcinoma (another type of cancerous
tumor) grows from epithelial cells that line the outside of the
body or the inside of organs in the body.

sect/o to cut resection __________________________________________

The prefix re- means back. A resection is a cutting back in the
sense of cutting out or removal (excision). A gastric resection is a
gastrectomy, or excision of the stomach.
1 thromb/o clot, clotting thrombocyte _______________________________________
Also known as platelets, these cells help clot blood. A thrombus
is the actual clot that forms, and thrombosis (-osis means
condition) is the condition of clot formation.
ur/o urinary tract, urology ___________________________________________
urine A urologist is a surgeon who operates on the organs of the
urinary tract and the organs of the male reproductive system.

Sarcoma
Prior incision from biopsy

FIGURE 1-7 Sarcoma of muscle in the thigh. (Courtesy Dr. Sam Yoon, Massachusetts General Hospital,
Boston.)
 BASIC WORD STRUCTURE 13
SUFFIXES
SUFFIX MEANING TERMINOLOGY MEANING

-ac pertaining to cardiac ____________________________________________

-al pertaining to neural ____________________________________________
-algia pain arthralgia _________________________________________
neuralgia __________________________________________
-cyte cell erythrocyte ________________________________________
-ectomy excision, removal nephrectomy _______________________________________
-emia blood condition leukemia __________________________________________
Literally, this term means “a blood condition of white (blood
cells).” Actually, it is a condition of blood in which cancerous
white blood cells proliferate (increase in number).

-genic pertaining to carcinogenic _______________________________________

producing, Cigarette smoke is carcinogenic.
produced by, or
produced in pathogenic ________________________________________
A virus or a bacterium is a pathogenic organism.

iatrogenic _________________________________________
In this term, -genic means produced by.

-globin protein hemoglobin ________________________________________ 1

-gram record electroencephalogram _______________________________
-ic, -ical pertaining to gastric ____________________________________________
neurologic _________________________________________
Log/o means study of.

-ion process excision ___________________________________________

-ist specialist ophthalmologist _________________________________
-itis inflammation cystitis ____________________________________________
-logy process of study endocrinology ______________________________________
-oma tumor, mass, hepatoma _________________________________________
swelling A hepatoma (hepatocellular carcinoma) is a malignant tumor of
the liver.

-opsy process of biopsy ____________________________________________

viewing Biopsy specimens are obtained and viewed under a microscope.

Ophthalmologist, Optometrist, Optician

An ophthalmologist is a physician who specializes in diagnosing and treating (surgically and medically) disorders of the eye.
An optometrist is a healthcare professional who examines (metr/o = to measure) eyes and prescribes corrective lenses,
and may treat eye diseases. An optician grinds lenses and fits glasses but does not examine eyes, prescribe corrective lenses,
or treat eye diseases.
 14 BASIC WORD STRUCTURE

SUFFIX MEANING TERMINOLOGY MEANING

-osis condition, usually nephrosis __________________________________________

abnormal (slight
increase in leukocytosis _______________________________________
This condition, a slight increase in normal white blood cells,
numbers when
occurs as white blood cells multiply to fight an infection. Don’t
used with blood
confuse leukocytosis with leukemia, which is a cancerous
cells) (malignant) condition marked by high levels of abnormal,
immature white blood cells.

-pathy disease condition enteropathy ________________________________________

(ĕn-tĕ-RŎP-ă-thē)

adenopathy ________________________________________
(ă-dĕ-NŎP-ă-thē)

-scope instrument to endoscope _________________________________________

visually examine Endo- means within. A cystoscope is a type of endoscope.

-scopy process of endoscopy _________________________________________

visually (ĕn-DŎS-kō-pē)
examining Endoscopy is performed with an endoscope.

-sis state of; prognosis __________________________________________

condition
-tomy process of osteotomy _________________________________________
1 cutting, incision (ŏs-tē-ŎT-tō-mē)

-y process, gastroenterology ____________________________________

condition

PREFIXES
PREFIX MEANING TERMINOLOGY MEANING

a-, an- no, not, without anemia ____________________________________________

Anemia is a decreased number of erythrocytes or an abnormality
of the hemoglobin (a chemical) within the red blood cells. This
results in decreased delivery of oxygen to cells of the body.
Anemic patients look so pale that early physicians thought they
were literally “without blood.”

aut-, auto- self, own autopsy ___________________________________________

This term literally means “process of viewing by oneself.” Hence,
an autopsy is the examination of a dead body with one’s own eyes
to determine the cause of death and nature of disease.

dia- complete, diagnosis __________________________________________

through The plural of diagnosis is diagnoses.

Plurals
Terms ending in -is (diagnosis, prognosis) form their plural by dropping the -is and adding -es. See Appendix I, page 981, for
other rules on formation of plurals.
 BASIC WORD STRUCTURE 15

PREFIX MEANING TERMINOLOGY MEANING

endo- within endocrinologist _____________________________________

epi- above, upon epigastric __________________________________________
epidermis _________________________________________
This outermost layer of skin lies above the middle layer of skin,
known as the dermis.

ex-, exo- out, outside of, excision ___________________________________________

outward
exocrine glands _____________________________________
hyper- excessive, above, hyperthyroidism ________________________________
more than The suffix -ism means process or condition.
normal
hypo- deficient, below, hypogastric ________________________________________
under, less than When hypo- is used with a part of the body, it means below.
normal
hypoglycemia ______________________________________
In this term, hypo- means deficient.

in- into, in incision ___________________________________________

peri- surrounding, pericardium _______________________________________
around The suffix -um means a structure. The pericardium is the
membrane that surrounds the heart.
1
pro- before, forward prostate gland ______________________________________
This exocrine gland “stands” (-state) before or in front of the
urinary bladder (see Figure 1-2). It produces semen, which
contains fluid and sperm cells.

re- back, backward, resection __________________________________________

again This is an operation in which tissue is “cut back” or removed. The
Latin resectio means a trimming or pruning.

retro- behind retrocardiac ________________________________________

sub- below, under subhepatic _________________________________________
trans- across, through transhepatic _______________________________________

Understanding Hyperthyroidism
In hyperthyroidism, a hyperactive thyroid gland (an endocrine gland in the neck) secretes a greater than normal amount
of thyroxine (thyroid hormone, or T4). Because thyroxine causes cells to burn fuel and release energy, signs and symptoms
of hyperthyroidism are increased energy level and nervousness, tachycardia (increased heart rate), weight loss, and
exophthalmos (bulging eyeballs).
 16 BASIC WORD STRUCTURE

PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS
This section provides an opportunity for you to use your skill in understanding medical terms and to
increase your knowledge of new terms. Be sure to check your answers with the Answers to Practical
Applications on page 26. You should find helpful explanations there.

SPECIALISTS

Match the abnormal condition in Column I with the physician (specialist) who treats it in Column II.
Write the letter of the correct specialist in the space provided.
COLUMN I COLUMN II

1. heart attack ______ A. gastroenterologist

B. hematologist
2. ovarian cysts ______ C. nephrologist
3. bipolar (manic-depressive) disorder ______ D. cardiologist
E. oncologist
4. breast adenocarcinoma ______ F. gynecologist
G. urologist
5. iron deficiency anemia ______
H. ophthalmologist
6. retinopathy ______ I. neurologist
J. psychiatrist
7. cerebrovascular accident; stroke ______

1 8. renal failure ______

9. inflammatory bowel disease ______
10. cystitis ______