Chapter-20 Section F: Ecological Succession

References:

• Elements of Ecology by Thomas M. Smith • Robert Leo Smith.

• Ecology & Environment by PD sharma.
• Ecology concepts and Applications by Manuel C. Molles
• Evolutionary Ecology by Peter [Link]
• Ecology: Global Insights and Investigations-Peter stiling
• Fundamentals of Ecology & Environment-Pranav Kumar & Usha Mina
• Principles of Biology by Robert Brooker, Eric Widmaier, Linda Graham, Peter Stiling
• Ecology by William D. Bowman, Sally D. Hacker,_ Michael L. Cain
• Research Gate online search ([Link])
A. The Environment: Physical environment; biotic environment; biotic and abiotic interactions.
B. Habitat and Niche: Concept of habitat and niche; niche width and overlap; fundamental and realized niche;
resource partitioning; character displacement.
C. Population Ecology: Characteristics of a population; population growth curves; population regulation; life
history strategies (r and K selection); concept of metapopulation – demes and dispersal, interdemic
extinctions, age structured populations.
D. Species Interactions: Types of interactions, interspecific competition, herbivory, carnivory, pollination,
symbiosis.
E. Community Ecology: Nature of communities; community structure and attributes; levels of species
diversity and its measurement; edges and ecotones.
F. Ecological Succession: Types; mechanisms; changes involved in succession; concept of climax.
G. Ecosystem Ecology: Ecosystem structure; ecosystem function; energy flow and mineral cycling (C,N,P);
primary production and decomposition; structure and function of some Indian ecosystems: terrestrial (forest,
grassland) and aquatic (fresh water, marine, eustarine).
H. Biogeography: Major terrestrial biomes; theory of island biogeography; biogeographical zones of India.
I. Applied Ecology: Environmental pollution; global environmental change; biodiversity: status, monitoring
and documentation; major drivers of biodiversity change; biodiversity management approaches.
J. Conservation Biology: Principles of conservation, major approaches to management, Indian case studies
on conservation/management strategy (Project Tiger, Biosphere reserves).

COVERED IN UNIT-9 (Diversity of life forms-By Manisha ma’am)

 Ecological Succession

In 1916, Frederic Clements published a descriptive

theory of succession and advanced it as a general
ecological concept.
Changes in the composition of terrestrial communities
are most apparent after a severe disturbance, such as
a volcanic eruption or a glacier, strips away all the
existing vegetation.

The disturbed area may be colonized by a variety of

species, which are gradually replaced by other
species, which are in turn replaced by still other
species—a process called ecological succession

Process of change of the biological species(species

composition & abundance) in sequential manner.
The time scale is usually long, which may range from
decades, or natural destruction- for example, after a
Ecological succession
wildfire, or even millions of years after a mass
extinction
Ecological Succession

Reference: [Link]
Ecological Succession
 Important terms & Basics

➢ It is the part of community & These changes are sequential . "succession" refers to the process
by which the species composition of a community changes over time
➢ Important characteristics of all communities is that their structure constantly change in
response to the changing environmental condition.
➢ Climax community mark the end point of succession.
➢ The process of change by which the biotic communities replace each other and by which the
physical environment becomes altered over a period of time is called sere. The various
communities that together make up a sere are called seral stages.
➢ Temporal stages are seral stages.
➢ First colonist are pioneer species.
➢ Frequent disturbances could lead to failure of a community to reach a climax community as one
seral stage keeps replacing itself, a condition known as cyclic succession.
 The unoccupied site is first colonize by few pioneer
species, which are often microbes, lichens and mosses.
Succession on a newly exposed site or lifeless area that was
not previously occupied by soil and vegetation.

Primary succession
Types of succession

Secondary succession
Pre-existing or initially community was there , but
destroyed by some natural disturbance such as fire, flooding
etc. Insect, weedy plants , grasses arises first followed by
herbs & shrubs.
Recolonization of an area after a major disturbance has
removed most but not all of the organisms in a community.
 Disturbance

1. Volcanic eruption
2. Earthquakes
3. Landslides
4. Hurricanes
5. Tornadoes
6. Floods
7. Drought
8. Fires
9. human activities.

Clearing a natural forest and farming the land for several years
is an example of a severe forest disturbance that does not kill
all native species. Some plants and many soil bacteria,
nematodes, and insects are still present.
 Type of succession(Details)
Primary succession

❑ When this process begins in a virtually lifeless area, such as on a new volcanic island left by a retreating
glacier, it is called primary succession. colonization of habitats that are devoid of life
❑ During primary succession, the only life-forms initially present are often prokaryotes and protists. Lichens
and mosses, which grow from windblown spores, are commonly the first macroscopic
photosynthesizers to colonize such areas.
❑ Soil develops gradually as rocks weather and organic matter accumulates from the decomposed remains of
the early colonizers. Once soil is present, the lichens and mosses are usually overgrown by grasses, shrubs,
and trees that sprout from seeds blown in from nearby areas or carried in by animals.
❑ Eventually, an area is colonized by plants that become the community’s dominant form of vegetation.
❑ Primary succession can be very slow because the first arrivals (known as pioneer or early successional
species) typically face extremely inhospitable conditions.
❑ Even the most basic resources needed to fuel life, such as soil, nutrients, and water, may be lacking. The first
colonizers, then, tend to be species that are capable of withstanding great physiological stress and
transforming the habitat in ways that benefit their further growth and expansion.
 Type of succession(Details)

Secondary succession

❑ Recolonization/ reestablishment of an area/community after a major disturbance has

removed/destroyed most but not all of the organisms or organic constituents in a community.
❑ Agents of change that can create such conditions include fire, hurricanes, logging, and
herbivory.
❑ The legacy of the preexisting species and their interactions with colonizing species can play a
large role in the trajectory of secondary succession.
❑ Following the disturbance, the area may return to something like its original state. For
instance, in a forested area that has been cleared for farming and later abandoned, the earliest
plants to recolonize are often herbaceous species that grow from windblown or animal-borne
seeds.
❑ If the area has not been burned or heavily grazed, woody shrubs may in time replace most of
the herbaceous species, and forest trees may eventually replace most of the shrubs.
❑ The rate of secondary succession is faster than primary succession because. Soil or
sediment is already present
Extra

It begins in environments that lack Already been altered by a period of

organic matter and which have not occupancy by living organisms
yet been altered in any way by living (Forest clearcuts, abandoned
organisms (a fresh rock surface agricultural fields)
exposed by a landslide)
 Mechanism of succession

Nudation Dispersal/migration Ecesis Aggregation Competition

▪ Nudation: Succession begins with the development of a bare site, called

Nudation (disturbance) Reaction
▪ Dispersion/ Migration: refers to arrival of [Link] species invade or
reach a new site from any other [Link]- seed, spores and other
propagules.
Stabilization
▪ Ecesis: involves process of successful establishment and initial growth of
(climax)
vegetation, adjustment according to condition.
▪ Competition: as vegetation becomes well established, grows, and spreads,
various species begin to compete for space, light and nutrients.
▪ Reaction: during this phase autogenic changes such as the buildup of humus
affect the habitat, and one plant community replaces another.
▪ Stabilization: a stable climax community forms.
The driving force behind succession, the reason why change occurs, is not always the same

❑ Autogenic succession: the replacement of one community by the next results from changes
in the physical environment that have been produced by the resident organisms.
These changes tend to render the site less optimal for the organisms producing the
change and more optimal for those organisms that replace them.
❑ Allogenic succession: it occurs when geological processes cause changes in the
physical environment, which in turn lead to changes in the biota.
❑ Biogenic succession: it occurs when there is a sudden interference with an autogenic or
allogenic succession by a living organism which becomes the major agent of successional
change, at least temporally. A sudden change in herbivore pressure on the plant community or
the sudden removal of a segment of the plant community by a pathogen could be two good
examples.
 Climax Community

Change in the composition of the biota over time is a fundamental characteristic of all
ecosystems, the rate of changes varies widely in different seres and between the different
stages of a single sere. In most areas, change does not continue indefinitely.
Communities development in which rates of change become exceedingly slow, or in which the
composition of the biota remains approximately constant for a long period of time, are
called CLIMAX. These stable communities represent either the final or an indefinitely
prolonged stage of a sere.

Succession progresses through various stages that include a climax stage. The climax is
thought to disturbance is catastrophic, destroying all life, a pioneer stage is formed through
the process of primary succession. Some life be a stable end point that experiences little
change until a particularly intense disturbance sends the community back to an earlier stage.
Models of Succession

Joseph Connell and his collaborator Ralph Slatyer

(1977) surveyed the literature and proposed three
models of succession that they believed to be
important
1. Facilitation model
2. Inhibition model
3. Tolerance model
Multiple methods of succession may
operate during succession in the same
system.
 Models of Succession

Facilitation Model
▪ Classical model that explain the mechanism of succession is facilitation model.
▪ Earliest colonizers modify the environment in ways that ultimately benefit later-arriving species but hinder
their own continued dominance.
▪ These early successional species have characteristics that make them good at colonizing open habitats,
dealing with physical stress, growing quickly to maturity, and ameliorating the harsh physical conditions
often characteristic of early successional stages. Eventually, however, a sequence of species facilitations
leads to a climax community composed of species that no longer facilitate other species and are displaced
only by disturbances.
▪ Existing/pioneer species modify the ecology and make it suitable for other species.
▪ Later species eliminates this earlier species.
▪ Colonists prepare environment for later successional species.
▪ Facilitation assumes each invading species creates a more favorable habitat for succeeding species
 Models of Succession

Inhibition Model
▪ Pioneer/ early species make the environment less suitable for the other species.
▪ Some plant are known to secrete toxic biochemical into the soil (allelochemicals), which
inhibit the growth of other species.
▪ Development at any one site depends on, who gets there first.
▪ Inhibition implies that early colonists prevent later arrivals from replacing them.
• Early successional species modify the environment in ways that hinder later successional
species. For example, these early colonizers may monopolize resources needed by subsequent
species. This suppression of the next stage of succession is broken only when stress or
disturbance decreases the abundance of the inhibitory species.
• In inhibition model, strong competitive interaction is present as no species is completely
superior.
 Models of Succession

Tolerance Model
▪ In this model new pioneer species neither inhibit nor facilitate the growth and success of other
species.
▪ Earliest colonizers modify the environment, but in neutral ways that neither benefit nor inhibit
later species.
▪ These early successional species have life history strategies that allow them to grow and
reproduce quickly. Later species persist merely because they have life history strategies such
as slow growth, few offspring, and long life that allow them to tolerate increasing environmental
or biological stresses that would hinder early successional species.
▪ All species has to learn the tolerance to survive. Weak species or competition in-tolerant species
will be eliminated with time.
▪ Presence of early species is not essential, so any species can start the succession. Strong
competitor are dominant.
▪ Early colonists neither facilitate nor inhibit later colonists. Early species is independent not
depending on later species.
PRIMARY SUCCESSION IN
GLACIER BAY, ALASKA
 Assembly rules

Assembly rules: Each piece of the puzzle represents a species in the community. The
first species to invade the community influences which other species can subsequently
invade.

Example→If species C colonizes before species B, then species D cannot colonize.

B
A
D

Species Richness Often Increases During Succession

During succession species that colonize in early seral stages
tend to have different life-history characteristics than those
that colonize in later seral stages.
Early stage Later stage Source:
[Link]
Nienhuis/publication/227155056/figure/tbl1/AS:6
68206968619037@1536324364773/A-tabular-
model-of-ecological-succession-trends-to-be-
[Link]
Succession and Invasive species
(kindly read )
 Role of Invasive Species in Succession

Invasive species are non-native organisms that spread rapidly and disrupt native ecosystems.
They can:
•Accelerate Succession: By rapidly colonizing an area, altering soil properties, and outcompeting
native species (e.g., kudzu vine in the U.S.).
•Slow Down Succession: By creating monocultures and reducing biodiversity, preventing
native plant regrowth (e.g., cheatgrass in North America increasing fire frequency).
•Alter the Succession Pathway: Changing nutrient cycles, modifying habitat conditions, and
impacting native species interactions (e.g., zebra mussels in freshwater ecosystems).

Management of Invasive Species in Succession

•Early Detection & Rapid Response (EDRR): Preventing spread at an early stage.
•Biological Control: Introducing natural predators or competitors.
•Habitat Restoration: Promoting native species regrowth through active reforestation and land
management.

✔ Succession studies help understand the impact of invasives on ecosystems.

✔ They identify 'invasion windows'—periods when ecosystems are vulnerable to invaders.
✔ Invasive species can alter succession by outcompeting native species.
✔ Invasive species often outcompete native species due to traits like rapid growth, high reproductive rates, and a lack
of natural predators in the new environment.
Educator Name: JYOTI KUMARI (CSIR UGC NET-Life science)

TIRED………….??
DON’T QUIT, TAKE REST AND START AGAIN!!
PYQs (Previous Year Questions)
CSIR NET 2011-JUNE
CSIR NET 2012-JUNE
CSIR NET 2012-DEC

Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of late successional forest plant species?
(1) Large seed size, high root to shoot ratio.
(2) Long seed dispersal distance, long seed viability
(3) Slow growth rate, long maximum life span.
(4)Low light saturation intensity, high efficiency at low light
CSIR NET 2013-DEC
In the following diagram, two models succession are represented. In this diagram A, C and D are species and arrows
indicate replaced by'

Based on the above, which statement is correct.

1. Fig.(i) represents facilitation and Fig.(ii) represents tolerance model
2. Fig.(i) represents tolerance model Fig. (ii) represents facilitation model
3. Fig.(i) represents facilitation model and Fig.(ii) represents inhibition model
4. Fig.(i) represents tolerance model Fig.(ii) represents inhibition
CSIR NET-2017-DEC

Given below are two patterns of ecological succession. Four species are represented by A, B, C and D. An arrow
indicates "is replaced by
In the context of ecological succession, which of the following
statements is INCORRECT with respect to the figures given
above.
1. Model - X represents facilitation model and Model - Y represents
tolerance model.
2. Model - X represents tolerance model and Model - Y represents
inhibition model.
3. As per Model - Y, C can out-compete B but can also invade a habitat
in their absence.
4. As per the Model - X, A makes the environments more suitable for B
to invade.
CSIR NET-JUNE-2020
CSIR NET JUNE 2023
CSIR NET JUNE 2023
CSIR NET 2013-JUNE
CSIR NET 2013-DEC
An observation was made on a species experiencing three factors A, B and C in order to infer a density
dependent population regulation by a factor. The following graph shows the relationship between the adverse
effect of the factors in terms of number and population density.
Based on the above observation, which of the following is correct?

1. A - Density independent; B = Density dependent; C - Inversely density

dependent
2. A - Inversely density dependent; B- Density independent; C - Density
dependent
3. A - Density dependent; B = Inversely density independent; C - Density
independent
4. A - Density dependent; B = Density independent; C - Inversely density
dependent
 CSIR DEC 2024
Which statement about studies on succession is INCORRECT?
1. Succession studies can reveal the effects of non-native species on the ecological structures and functions of a community.
2. Studies of succession can indicate threshold conditions for the 'invasion window'.
3. Non-native invasion can divert succession by out-competing existing species.
4. Succession studies show that coevolved native species always outcompete invasive species.