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if E1 and E2 are int, then E1 + E2 is int.

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C-style struct equivalence can differ based on how they are declared.

int float char boolean array record pointer

function

int + float → float

(int)3.14 → 3
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cpp

int add(int a, int b); // integer addition

float add(float a, float b); // float addition

cpp

template <typename T>

T add(T a, T b) { return a + b; }
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Type Checking Description

Performed at compile time (e.g., C,

Java)

Performed at runtime (e.g., Python,

JavaScript)

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Source Code
↓
Syntax Analyzer (Parser)
↓
Abstract Syntax Tree (AST)
↓
Type Checker
↓
Type Correct? → Yes → Continue Compilation
→ No → Report Type Error
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E1 + E2

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If type(E1) = int and type(E2) = int ⇒ type(E1 + E2) = int

Else ⇒ Type Error

python

def type_check(node):
if node is a constant:
return type of constant
if node is an identifier:
return symbol_table[[Link]]
if node is binary_op:
left_type = type_check([Link])
right_type = type_check([Link])
if left_type == int and right_type == int:
return int
else:
raise TypeError("Invalid operands")

typedef struct { int x; } A;

typedef struct { int x; } B;
A a; B b;
a = b; // Name equivalence: error, Structural equivalence: okay
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int char*
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High Memory Address

----------------------
| Command-line args |
| Environment vars |
----------------------
| Stack | ← grows downward
----------------------
| Heap | ← grows upward
----------------------
| Static/Data | ← global, static vars
----------------------
| Code/Text | ← machine instructions
----------------------
Low Memory Address
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malloc free new delete

Method Description

Pass copy of value

Pass address; changes reflect outside

Return value to caller after function

ends

Reevaluate expression each time used

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+----------------------+
| Return Address |
| Control Link (caller)|
| Parameters |
| Local Variables |
| Temporary Values |
+----------------------+

malloc()
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+-------------+--------+--------+------------+
| Identifier | Type | Scope | Location |
+-------------+--------+--------+------------+
| sum | int |1 | 0x1000 |
| result | float | 1 | 0x1004 |
+-------------+--------+--------+------------+
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if (a > b {
printf("Hello");
}

)
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; }

stmt → if ( expr error stmt // missing closing )

Feature Ad-Hoc Methods Systematic Methods

Basis Heuristics Formal theory

(grammar-based)

Implementation Simple, hard-coded Modular, structured

Language Specificity Tied to specific Generalizable

languages

Robustness Low (may miss or High (predictable

miscorrect) handling)

Use in Modern Rare Common (yacc,

Compilers bison, ANTLR)
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malloc()

new

ptr =

malloc(size)
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free(ptr)

Method Description

Maintain a list of free memory blocks.

Divide memory into blocks of size 2^k.

Easy to split and merge.

Allocate the first block that is large

enough.

Allocate the smallest block that fits.

Automatically reclaims unused memory

(e.g., Java, Python).

Problem Description

Free memory is scattered in small

blocks.

Memory not freed, leading to

depletion.

Pointers refer to deallocated memory.

Same memory block is freed more than

once.

int *ptr = (int *)malloc(sizeof(int) * 10); // Allocating array of 10 integers

if (ptr == NULL) {
printf("Memory allocation failed");
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}
free(ptr); // Freeing allocated memory

malloc()

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High Memory Address

-----------------------
| Stack (grows ↓) |
| Activation Records |
| Function Parameters |
-----------------------
↓ ↑ (gap)
-----------------------
| Heap (grows ↑) |
| Dynamic Objects |
| malloc/new memory |
-----------------------
Low Memory Address
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@ #

123abc

"Hello

int $value = 10; // '$' is not a valid character for identifiers

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if (a > b // Missing closing parenthesis and opening brace

printf("Greater");

int a = 10;
char b = a + "text"; // Type mismatch: cannot add int and string
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Error Type Detected In Example Description

Lexical Analysis int $x = 10; Invalid

tokens/character
s

Syntax Analysis if (x > 5 Grammar

violation
(structure)

Semantic x = "abc" + 10; Type mismatch

Analysis or undeclared
variable
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; } end

int a = 10
int b = 20;

;
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if (x > y printf("Hello");

) y

stmt → if ( expr error stmt

expr

pgsql

+----------------+
| Source Program |
+----------------+
|
v
+----------------+
| Lexical Phase |
+----------------+
| \
| -> [Lexical Error?] — Recover or report
v
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+----------------+
| Syntax Phase |
+----------------+
| \
| -> [Syntax Error?] — Use panic mode / phrase-level
v
+----------------+
| Semantic Phase |
+----------------+
| \
| -> [Semantic Error?] — Use type checking
v
Code Generation

Technique Description Pros Cons

Panic Mode Skip until Simple, fast May skip too

synchronizing token much input

Phrase-Level Make local changes Precise error Complex to

to fix recovery implement

Error Add grammar rules Good Increases

Productions to detect common diagnostics grammar size
errors

Global Find least changes to Theoretically Computational

Correction fix optimal ly expensive
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