Sree Narayana Polytechnic College Electrical and Electronics Department

MODULE – 3

ESTIMATION OF INDUSTRIAL INSTALLATIONS

What is Electrical Earthing or Grounding?

To connect the metallic (conductive) Parts of an Electric appliance or installations to the

earth (ground) is called Earthing or Grounding.

In other words, to connect the metallic parts of electric machinery and devices to the
earth plate or earth electrode (which is buried in the moisture earth) through a thick
conductor wire (which has very low resistance) for safety purpose is known as Earthing
or grounding.

To earth or earthing rather, means to connect the part of electrical apparatus such as
metallic covering of metals, earth terminal of socket cables, stay wires that do not carry
current to the earth. Earthing can be said as the connection of the neutral point of a
power supply system to the earth so as to avoid or minimize danger during discharge.

Why Earthing is Important?

The primary purpose of earthing is to avoid or minimize the danger of electrocution,

fire due to earth leakage of current through undesired path and to ensure that the
potential of a current carrying conductor does not rise with respect to the earth than its
designed insulation.

electrical energy.

When the metallic part of electrical appliances (parts that can conduct or allow passage
of electric current) comes in contact with a live wire, maybe due to failure of
installations or failure in cable insulation, the metal become charged and static charge
accumulates on it. If a person touches such a charged metal, the result is a severe shock.

To avoid such instances, the power supply systems and parts of appliances have to be
earthed so as to transfer the charge directly to the earth. This is why we need Electrical
Earthing or Grounding in electrical installation systems.

Below are the basic needs of Earthing.

 To protect human lives as well as provide safety to electrical devices and

appliances from leakage current.

 To keep voltage as constant in the healthy phase (If fault occurs on any one
phase).

Guruprasad A, Lecturer, SNPTC

Sree Narayana Polytechnic College Electrical and Electronics Department

 To Protect Electric system and buildings form lighting.

 To serve as a return conductor in electric traction system and communication.

 To avoid the risk of fire in electrical installation systems.

Different Terms used in Electrical Earthing

 Earth: The proper connection between electrical installation systems via

conductor to the buried plate in the earth is known as Earth.

 Earthed: When an electrical device, appliance or wiring systems connected to

the earth through earth electrode, it is known as earthed device or simple
“Earthed”.

 Solidly Earthed: When an electric device, appliance or electrical installation is

connected to the earth electrode without a fuse, circuit breaker or
resistance/Impedance, It is called “solidly earthed”.

 Earth Electrode: When a conductor (or conductive plate) buried in the earth for
electrical earthing system. It is known to be Earth Electrode. Earth electrodes are
in different shapes like, conductive plate, conductive rod, metal water pipe or
any other conductor with low resistance.

 Earthing Lead: The conductor wire or conductive strip connected between

Earth electrode and Electrical installation system and devices in called Earthing
lead.

 Earth Continuity Conductor: The conductor wire, which is connected among

different electrical devices and appliances like, distribution board, different plugs
and appliances etc. in other words, the wire between earthing lead and electrical
device or appliance is called earth continuity conductor. It may be in the shape of
metal pipe (fully or partial), or cable metallic sheath or flexible wire.

 Sub Main Earthing Conductor: A wire connected between switch board and
distribution board i.e. that conductor is related to sub main circuits.

 Earth Resistance: This is the total resistance between earth electrode and earth
in Ω (Ohms). Earth resistance is the algebraic sum of the resistances of earth
continuity conductor, earthing lead, earth electrode and earth.

Points to be Earthed

Earthing is not done anyhow. According to IE rules and IEE (Institute of Electrical
Engineers) regulations,

 Earth pin of 3-pin lighting plug sockets and 4-pin power plug should be
efficiently and permanently earthed.

Guruprasad A, Lecturer, SNPTC

Sree Narayana Polytechnic College Electrical and Electronics Department

 All metal casing or metallic coverings containing or protecting any electric

supply line or apparatus such as GI pipes and conduits enclosing VIR or PVC
cables, iron clad switches, iron clad distribution fuse boards etc should be
earthed (connected to earth).

 The frame of every generator, stationary motors and metallic parts of all
transformers used for controlling energy should be earthed by two separate and
yet distinct connections with the earth.

 In a dc 3-wire system, the middle conductors should be earthed at the generating

station.

 Stay wires that are for overhead lines should be connected to earth by
connecting at least one strand to the earth wires.

Components of Earthing System

A complete electrical earthing system consists on the following basic components.

 Earth Continuity Conductor

 Earthing Lead

 Earth Electrode

Earth Continuity Conductor or Earth Wire

That part of the earthing system which interconnects the overall metallic parts of
electrical installation e.g. conduit, ducts, boxes, metallic shells of the switches,
distribution boards, Switches, fuses, Regulating and controlling devices, metallic parts of
electrical machines such as, motors, generators, transformers and the metallic
framework where electrical devices and components are installed is known as earth
wire or earth continuity conductor as shown in the above fig.

The resistance of the earth continuity conductor is very low. According to IEEE rules,
resistance between consumer earth terminal and earth Continuity conductor (at the
end) should not be increased than 1Ω. In simple words, resistance of earth wire should
be less than 1Ω.

Size of the Earth Continuity Conductor or Earth Wire depends on the cable size used in
the wiring circuit.

Size of Earth Continuity Conductor

The cross sectional area of the Earth Continuity Conductor should not be less than the
half of the cross sectional area of the thickest wire used in the electrical wiring
installation.

Guruprasad A, Lecturer, SNPTC

Sree Narayana Polytechnic College Electrical and Electronics Department

Generally, the size of the bare copper wire used as earth continuity conductor is 3SWG.
But keep in mind that, don’t use less than 14SWG as earth wire. Copper strip is also can
be used as earth continuity conductor instead of bare copper wire but don’t go for it
until manufacture recommend it.

Earthing Lead or Earthing Joint

The conductor wire connected between earth continuity conductor and earth electrode
or earth plate is called earthing joint or “Earthing lead”. The point where earth
continuity conductor and earth electrode meet is known as “connecting point” as shown
in the above fig.

Earthing lead is the final part of the earthing system which is connected to the earth
electrode (which is underground) through earth connecting point.

There should be minimum joints in earthing lead as well as lower in size and straight in
the direction.

Generally, copper wire can be used as earthing lead but, copper strip is also used for
high installation and it can handle the high fault current because of wider area than the
copper wire.

A hard drawn bare copper wire is also used as an earthing lead. In this method, all earth
conductors connected to a common (one or more) connecting points and then, earthing
lead is used to connect earth electrode (earth plat) to the connecting point.

To increase the safety factor of installation, two copper wires are used as earthing lead
to connect the device metallic body to the earth electrode or earth plate. I.e. if we use
two earth electrodes or earth plats, there would be four earthing leads. It should not be
considered that the two earth leads are used as parallel paths to flow the fault currents
but both paths should work properly to carry the fault current because it is important
for better safety.

Guruprasad A, Lecturer, SNPTC

Sree Narayana Polytechnic College Electrical and Electronics Department

Size of the Earthing Lead

The size or area of earthing lead should not be less than the half of the thickest wire
used in the installation.

The largest size for earthing lead is 3SWG and the minimum size should not be less
than 8SWG. If 37/.083 wire is used or the load current is 200A from the supply voltage,
then it is recommended to use copper strip instead of double earthing lead. The earth
lead connection methods is shown in the above fig.

Guruprasad A, Lecturer, SNPTC

Sree Narayana Polytechnic College Electrical and Electronics Department

Earthing Electrode or Earth Plate

A metallic electrode or plate which is buried in the earth (underground) and it is the last
part of the electrical earthing system. In simple words, the final underground metallic
(plate) part of the earthing system which is connected with earthing lead is called earth
plate or earth electrode.

A metallic plate, pipe or rode can be used as an earth electrode which has very low
resistance and carry the fault current safely towards ground (earth).

Size of Earthing Electrode

Both copper and iron can be used as earthing electrode.

The size of earth electrode (In case of copper)

2×2 (two foot wide as well as in length) and 1/8 inch thickness.. I.e. 2’ x 2’ x 1/8″.
(600x600x300 mm)

In case of Iron

2′ x2′ x ¼” = 600x600x6 mm

It is recommended to bury the earth electrode in the moisture earth. If it is not possible,
then put water in the GI (Galvanized Iron) pipe to make possible the moisture condition.

In the earthing system, put the earth electrode in vertical position (underground) as
shown in the above fig. Also, put a 1 foot (about 30cm) layer of powdered charcoal
and lime mixture around the earth plate (don’t confuse with earth electrode and earth
plate as both are the same thing).

Earth Plate or Earth Electrode Size for Small installation

In small installation, use metallic rod (diameter = 25mm (1inch) and length = 2m (6ft)
instead of earth plate for earthing system. The metallic pipe should be 2 meter below
from the surface of ground. To maintain the moister condition, put 25mm (1inch) coal
and lime mixture around the earth plate.

For effectiveness and convenience, you may use the copper rods 12.5mm (0.5 inch) to
25mm (1 inch) diameter and 4m (12ft) length. We will discuss the installation method
of rod earthing latter.

Methods and Types of Electrical Earthing

Earthing can be done in many ways. The various methods employed in earthing (in
house wiring or factory and other connected electrical equipment and machines) are
discussed as follows.

Guruprasad A, Lecturer, SNPTC

Sree Narayana Polytechnic College Electrical and Electronics Department

Plate Earthing:

In plate earthing system, a plate made up of either copper with dimensions 60cm x
60cm x 3.18mm (i.e. 2ft x 2ft x 1/8 in) or galvanized iron (GI) of dimensions 60cm x
60cm x 6.35 mm (2ft x 2ft x ¼ in) is buried vertical in the earth (earth pit) which should
not be less than 3m (10ft) from the ground level.

For proper earthing system, follow the above mentioned steps in the (Earth Plate
introduction) to maintain the moisture condition around the earth electrode or earth
plate.

Estimate for Plate earthing

Sl No Materials required Unit Quatity Rate

1 GI plate (60cmX60cmX6mm) No 1 400

Guruprasad A, Lecturer, SNPTC

Sree Narayana Polytechnic College Electrical and Electronics Department

2 GI wire (No 8SWG) m 5 50

3 12 mm GI Pipe m 2 90
4 19 mm GI Pipe m 1.5 60
5 GI nuts, bolts, washer, check nuts Set 2 30
6 12mm GI bends No 1 20
7 GI lugs No 3 15
8 30cmX30cm Cast iron plate with No 1 300
hinges
9 30cmX30cm Cast iron cover No 1 350
10 Funnel with wire mesh No 1 150
11 Charcoal Kg 20 400
12 Salt Kg 20 80
13 Cement concrete m3 0.15 200
Total 2145

(approximately)-2200

Pipe Earthing:

A galvanized steel and a perforated pipe of approved length and diameter is placed
vertically in a wet soil in this kind of system of earthing. It is the most common system
of earthing.

The size of pipe to use depends on the magnitude of current and the type of soil. The
dimension of the pipe is usually 40mm (1.5in) in diameter and 2.75m (9ft) in length for
ordinary soil or greater for dry and rocky soil. The moisture of the soil will determine
the length of the pipe to be buried but usually it should be 4.75m (15.5ft).

Sl No Materials required Unit Quatity Rate

1 38 mm dia GI pipe M 2.5 350
2 GI wire (No 6SWG) m 12 60
3 13 mm GI Pipe m 4 160
4 19 mm GI Pipe m 1.5 60
5 GI lugs Set 2 10
6 13mm GI bends No 2 20
7 GI lugs No 3 15
8 30cmX30cm Cast iron plate with No 1 300
hinges
9 30cmX30cm Cast iron cover No 1 350
10 Funnel with wire mesh No 1 150
11 38/19mm reducer with washer No 1 20
12 Charcoal Kg 20 400
13 Salt Kg 20 80
14 Cement concrete m3 0.15 200
(approximately – 2000 Rs)

Guruprasad A, Lecturer, SNPTC

Sree Narayana Polytechnic College Electrical and Electronics Department

Rod Earthing

it is the same method as pipe earthing. A copper rod of 12.5mm (1/2 inch) diameter or
16mm (0.6in) diameter of galvanized steel or hollow section 25mm (1inch) of GI pipe of
length above 2.5m (8.2 ft) are buried upright in the earth manually or with the help of a
pneumatic hammer. The length of embedded electrodes in the soil reduces earth
resistance to a desired value.

Guruprasad A, Lecturer, SNPTC

Sree Narayana Polytechnic College Electrical and Electronics Department

Copper Rod Electrode Earthing System

Earthing through the Watermain

In this method of earthing, the waterman (Galvanized GI) pipes are used for earthing
purpose. Make sure to check the resistance of GI pipes and use earthing clamps to
minimize the resistance for proper earthing connection.

If stranded conductor is used as earth wire, then clean the end of the strands of the wire
and make sure it is in the straight and parallel position which is possible then to connect
tightly to the waterman pipe.

Strip or Wire Earthing:

In this method of earthing, strip electrodes of cross-section not less than 25mm x
1.6mm (1in x 0.06in) is buried in a horizontal trenches of a minimum depth of 0.5m. If
copper with a cross-section of 25mm x 4mm (1in x 0.15in) is used and a dimension of
3.0mm2 if it’s a galvanized iron or steel.

If at all round conductors are used, their cross-section area should not be too small, say
less than 6.0mm2 if it’s a galvanized iron or steel. The length of the conductor buried in
the ground would give a sufficient earth resistance and this length should not be less
than 15m.

Guruprasad A, Lecturer, SNPTC

Sree Narayana Polytechnic College Electrical and Electronics Department

IE Rules regarding power wiring circuits.

1. All equipment used in power wiring shall be of iron clad construction and wiring shall
be of armoured cable or conduit type.

2. Wood work shall not be used for mounting of switchgear.

3. For earthing a motor, two separate earth electrode have to be provided.

4. Motor frame, starter, main switch and all other parts of metal are to be earthed
properly by means of two separate and distinct Earth Continuity Conductors (ECC) to
the earth electrode.

5. All motors shall be provided with starters and switch fuse unit at convenient places
and control must be provided near the motor locations.

6. Minimum conductor size of single core cable is 1.5mm2 Copper and 2.5mm2
Aluminium. If armoured cable is closed, minimum size is 6mm2.

7. Separate conduits must be used for different motor connections.

8. The conduit should preferably be laid in covered trenches to facilitate operator

movement.

9. Current rating of cables for motor shall be 150% of the motor full load current rating.

10. Fuse ratings:- The fuse selected must carry the starting current safely.

D.O.L Starter – Fuse rating shall be 3 times the full load current of the motor.

Star/Delta Starter – Fuse rating shall be 1.5 times full load current rating.

11. Main switch:- Current rating of the main switch should be equal to the starting
current of the motor of highest rating plus the full load current of remaining motors.

12. Motor Starters:-

Type of motor Method of starting

Induction motor up to 5HP D.O.L Starter.
Induction motor (Above 5HP – 25HP) Star/Delta Starter.
Induction motor of high rating (above 25HP) Auto transformer starter.
Slip ring Induction motor. Rotor resistance starter.
D.C Motor 3- Point starter.

Guruprasad A, Lecturer, SNPTC

Sree Narayana Polytechnic College Electrical and Electronics Department

13. Labour cost:- In order to calculate the labour cost it is assumed that one electrician
with a helper takes 2 days to complete the electrical installation work of one motor, if
the distance of motor from the switch board is 10 to 15m.

14. Size of conduit:-

For 3run - 25mm conduit.

For 6run - 38mm conduit.

15. Rating of Distribution Board:-

The rating of DB is decided from the number of circuits to be fed, voltage rating
of the circuit and starting current of each subcircuit.

16. Efficency:-

Motor rating Efficiency

Below 1HP 0.5 – 0.65
1 – 2HP 0.7 – 0.75
2 – 5HP 0.75 – 0.8
Above 5HP 0.8 – 0.9

17. Calculation of full load current

DC Motor = (Output in HP x 735.5) / (Efficiency x Input voltage)

Single phase motor = (Output in HP x 735.5) / (Efficiency x power factor x Input

voltage)

Three phase motor = (Output in HP x 735.5) / (√3 x Efficiency x power factor x Input
voltage)

17. Selection of rating of cables:-

Current ratings of Al and Cu Cables (2 core and 3 core cables)

Cu cables

Size of cable in mm2 2 Core cable 3 Core cable

0.96 5 5
1.29 10 10
1.93 15 13
2.9 20 15
4.52 28 22
6.45 36 29

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Sree Narayana Polytechnic College Electrical and Electronics Department

9.35 43 34
14.5 53 42
19.35 62 50
25.8 74 59
38.7 97 78

Al Cables

Size of cable in mm2 2 Core cable 3 Core cable

1.5 10 9
2.5 15 11
6 27 21
10 34 27
16 43 35
25 59 48
35 60 55
50 91 69

Schematic representation of single motor wiring

Industrial bus bar arrangement for 3 phase supply

Guruprasad A, Lecturer, SNPTC

Sree Narayana Polytechnic College Electrical and Electronics Department

A 10 HP, 3 phase induction motor is to be installed in a workshop which is located 25m

away from the main distribution panel board. Prepare an estimate of the quantity of
materials required and its cost. Also show the layout of the wiring.

Ans:-

Single line diagram

Assumptions:-

1. The main switch, motor switch fuse unit, starter etc are mounted 1.5m above ground
level.

2. Cable trench is 0.5m deep.

3. The motor will be installed 0.3m above floor level.

Guruprasad A, Lecturer, SNPTC

Sree Narayana Polytechnic College Electrical and Electronics Department

4. Efficiency of the motor is 0.85 and power factor is 0.8.

5. From DB to motor switch, 3 core cable is used and from motor starter to motor
terminals, two runs of 3 core cable is used.

[I] Selection of starter:-

Since the motor capacity is 10HP, we can select an automatic Star/Delta starter.

[II] Calculation of current:-

Full load current = (10 * 735.5)/(√3 * 0.85 * 415 * 0.8)

= 15A

Since we are using a star/delta starter, the starting current will be 1.5 times of full load
current.

Starting current = 15 * 1.5

= 22.5A

[III] Selection of cable:-

The cable rating shall withstand the starting current. So we can select a 3core, 10mm2,
Aluminium cable of 1100V grade which can withstand 27A.

[IV] Selection of fuse rating:-

The fuse rating should be greater than the starting current of the motor. Since
the starting current of motor is 22.5A, we can select standard fuse rating of 32A.

[V] Selection of main switch:-

The selection of main switch and motor main switch and the motor switch fuse
unit can be 32A, 500V grade ie 32A, 500V, ICTPR.

[VI] Size of conduit:-

From meter board to main switch and from main switch to motor main switch,
3core cables are to be run. So 25mm rigid HG conduit is used.

From starter motor to motor terminals, 6 cables are to be run. So we can use 2
runs of 3core cables and for this we can use 38mm HG conduit.

Total length of cable = 30 + (2x5) = 40 m

[VII] Earth wire required = 30+5= 35m

Guruprasad A, Lecturer, SNPTC

Sree Narayana Polytechnic College Electrical and Electronics Department

[VIII] Labour charge:-

One electrician and a helper will take 2 days to complete the work

Labour charge = 2*1000 = 2000 rs

Layout of the wiring

Guruprasad A, Lecturer, SNPTC

Sree Narayana Polytechnic College Electrical and Electronics Department

[VIII] Estimate:-

Sl No Materials required Unit Quantity Rate Amount

1 32A, 500V,ICTP No 2 500 1000
2 10HP automatic star-delta starter No 1 3000 3000
3 25mm HG conduit M 30 15 450
4 38mm HG conduit M 5 20 100
5 6mm2,Al, 3core cable M 40 25 1000
6 Iron frame for fixing starter and board No 2 250 500
7 Nails and srews Lum sum 100
8 Earth set (Pipe) No 2 2000 4000
9 8 SWG CU wire for earth M 10 20 200
10 Labour charge Day 2 1000 2000

Pilot lamp connection

Guruprasad A, Lecturer, SNPTC

Sree Narayana Polytechnic College Electrical and Electronics Department

Pump set connection:-

Estimate the quantity of materials for getting connection to well agricultural pump set
motor 5kw, 400V, 50Hz three phase using star-delta starter and including pilot lamps.
The supply to the pump is to be taken from an over head LT, three phase pole 15m away
from the pump shed in open conduit system of wiring for motor connection and show
the layout of the connection.

[I] Assumptions:-

1. The efficiency of the pump set is 85% and power factor 0.8.

2. The height of the pumpset house is 3m.

3. Height of starter, switch board is 1.5m above ground.

Guruprasad A, Lecturer, SNPTC

Sree Narayana Polytechnic College Electrical and Electronics Department

4. The cost of motor is not included in the estimate.

5. The cost of service wire is not included in the estimate.

Full load current of motor = {5*1000}/{√3*400*0.8*0.85}

= 10.6A

Starting current of motor = 1.5*10.6

= 16A

[III] Selection of cable:-

We can use 3core cable of 6mm2 Al wire having a current carrying capacity of
27A.

[IV] Selection of conduit:-

For single run 3core cable, we can use 25mm HG conduit.

For two run of 3 core cable, we can use 38mm HG conduit.

[V] Selection of main switch:-

32A, 500V, ICTP switch can be used.

[VI] Length of conduit:-

Guruprasad A, Lecturer, SNPTC

Sree Narayana Polytechnic College Electrical and Electronics Department

Length of 25mm conduit = 1+4+2 = 7m approx- 8m

Length of 38mm conduit = 1.5+1+1.5 = 4m approx.- 5m

[VII] Length of cable required:-

3core cable required = 8+ (2*5)

= 18m

Earth wire required = 8+5 = 13m

[VIII] Labour charge:-

One electrician and a helper will take 2 days to complete the work

Labour charge = 2*1000 = 2000 rs

[VIII] Estimate:-

Sl No Materials required Unit Quantity Rate Amount

1 32A, 500V,ICTP No 2 500 1000
2 5A, 230V, 15W indicating lamps No 3 25 75
3 5A, 230V porcelain fuse unit No 3 25 75
4 5A, 230V Steady batten holder for lamps No 3 20 60
5 5A, 230V SPST switch No 3 25 75
6 25mm HG conduit M 8 15 120
7 38mm HG conduit M 5 20 100
8 6mm2,Al, 3core cable M 18 25 450
9 Iron frame for fixing starter and board No 2 250 500
10 Nails and srews Lum sum 100
11 Earth set (Pipe) No 2 2000 4000
12 Labour charge Day 2 1000 2000

Guruprasad A, Lecturer, SNPTC

Sree Narayana Polytechnic College Electrical and Electronics Department

Single phase service connection

Sl No Materials required Unit Quantity Rate Amount

1 5-10A, 250V, 50Hz single phase energy No 1 1250 1250
meter
2 10A, 250V Iron clad cut out No 1 50 50
3 10A, 250V neutral link No 1 50 50
4 Board insulator No 4 10 40
5 Spacing cleats No 4 10 40
6 Wooden pegs No 4 5 20
7 Cement Kg 1 35 35
8 Card holder No 1 25 25
9 Meter board No 1 350 350
10 Iron wood screws Lumsum 50
11 3.15mm GI wire Kg 1 50 50
12 1/1.5mm weather proof wire M 20 10 200
13 15A, 250V fuse unit No 1 50 50
14 Nuts and bolts Lumsum 50 50
15 Insulation tape Role 1 35 35

Guruprasad A, Lecturer, SNPTC

Sree Narayana Polytechnic College Electrical and Electronics Department

Three phase service connection

Sl No Materials required Unit Quantity Rate Amount

1 10-20A, 500V, 50Hz Three phase energy No 1 1500 1500
meter
2 30A, 500V Iron clad cut out No 1 70 70
3 30A, 500V neutral link No 1 70 70
4 Board insulator No 4 10 40
5 Spacing cleats No 4 10 40
6 Wooden pegs No 4 5 20
7 Cement Kg 1 35 35
8 Card holder No 1 25 25
9 Meter board No 1 350 350
10 Iron wood screws Lumsum 50
11 3.15mm GI wire Kg 1 50 50
12 2.5mm twin core weather proof wire M 40 15 600
13 30A, 500V fuse unit No 3 70 210
14 Nuts and bolts Lumsum 50 50
15 Insulation tape Role 1 35 35

Guruprasad A, Lecturer, SNPTC

Sree Narayana Polytechnic College Electrical and Electronics Department

Underground cable service connection

Sl No Materials required
1 10-20A, 250V, 50Hz Three phase energy meter (1No)
2 30A, 500V Iron clad cut out (3No)
3 30A, 500V neutral link (1No)
4 35mm2, 4core,1100V, Al armoured cable
5 38mm dia GI Pipe
6 38mm GI couplings
7 38mm GI bends
8 Metal frame for fixing energy meter
9 LT outdoor cable box
10 Clamps to fix GI pipe to LT pole
11 Nails and screws
12 Nuts and bolts
13 Wooden gutties
14 Bricks to lay pipe
15 Cement, Sand

Guruprasad A, Lecturer, SNPTC