NAVI GATI ON

Ear th Although t he ear thi snota per fectspher ebutwe consi deri tspher ef or
navi gat ionpur [Link] rorscausedduet ot heseassumpt i
onsar enegl i
gi ble.
Pol esandAxi s An i magi nar yl iner ound whi ch t heear thr ot atesi scal led Axi [Link]
ext remi t i
esofaxi sar ecal ledpol es, Nor thPol eandSout hPol e.
Cir cle. Anyl inewhi chdi videdt heear thi nt wopar tsiscal ledci rcl e.
Gr eatCi rcl e Anyci rclewhi chdi vi dest heear thi nt woequalpar tsi scal ledgr eatci rcleorany
circl ewhi chpassest hrought hecent eroft heear thi scal ledgr eatci r
cl e.
Smal lCi rcleAnyci rcl ewhi chdoesnotdi videt heear thi nt woequalpar tsi scal ledsmal l
circl eoranyci rclewhi chdoesnotpasst hrought hecent eroft heear thiscal ledsmal lcir
cle.
Equat or I
tisagr eatci rclewhi chi smi dwaybet weent heear t
hs.
Mer idi an. Thesemigr eatci rcl ej oiningpol es, theycutt heequat oratr ightangl e.
0
Angl e Anyangl eof90 ( <)i scal ledr i
ghtangl e.
Pr imeMer idian Themer i
di anpassest hrought heGr eenwi ch( Engl and)i scal l
edPr i
me
Mer idi an.
EastandWest . Thedi rect iont owar dswhi cht heear thr ot atesi scal ledeastandt he
opposi tedi rectioni swest .Theear thal waysr otat esf rom westt oeast , ant i
clockwi se.
Lat itude. I ti sanangul ardi stanceofapl acenor thorsout hoft heequat [Link] ed
from 00t o900Nor thorSout [Link] pressedi tindegr ees, mi nut esandseconds.
Longi tude. I ti san angul ardi st ance ofa pl ace eastorwestoft he pr i
me mer i
dian.
Measur edf rom 00t o1800eastorwest .Weexpr essedi tindegr ees, mi nut esandseconds.
LocalMeanTi me( LMT) LMTatanyi nst anti st hel ocalhourangl eoft hemeansunatt hat
i
nst ant , measur edwest war df r om t hemer idianoft hepl ace.
Gr eenwi chMeanTi me( GMT) . Localmeant i
meofGr eenwi chi scal ledGMT.
Cel est ialMer idian.I ti sagr eatci rcl ejoiningcel est i
alpol es.
Cel est ialEquat or.I ti sagr eatci rclei nwhi cht hepl anesofear th’sequat orcutt hecel estial
spher e.
Twi light . I tisdi videdi nt hr eet ypes:
a. Ci vilTwi li
ght . Thi si ssai dt oendorbegi nwhent hesun’ scent eris60
bel owt hecel est ialhor izon.
b. Naut i
calTwi light . Thi si ssai dt oendorbegi nwhent hesun’ scent eri s120
bel owt hecel est ialhor izon.
c. Ast ronomi calTwi light . Thi si ssai dt oendorbegi nwhent hesun’ scent eri s
180bel owt hecel est ialhor izon.
TrueCour seandBear [Link] heNavi gat orofashi pi nmi d- ocean,t hehor izoni saci r
cle
drownsaboutt heshi pascent er ,andt her ei snot ingt odi stingui shonepoi ntont hatci r
cle
from ot her .Inor dert opr oceedi napar ti
cul ardi rect ion,i ti st her efore,necessar ytor eferto
somedat um l ineorf i
xeddi r ect ion. Theangl ebet weent hi sdat um l ineandt heshi pi s
requi redt opr oceedi scal ledcour seorbear ingoft hepoi ntt owar dst heshi psi spr oceedi ng.
Rel at iveCour seandBear i
ng. Bear i
ngofobj ect sar ef requent lygi ven,notwi thr ef er
ence
tot het ruemagnet i
corcompassnor th, butt ot hef oreandaf toft heshi [Link] et hensai d
tobe“ RedorGr een”accor dingt owhet hert heobj ectl iest opor torSt [Link] eknownas
relat ivecour seorbear ing.
Var i
at ion Theangl ebet weent ruemer i
dianandt hemagnet i
cmer idi anatanypl acei s
cal ledvar iationoft hatpl ace.
Devi at ion Theangl ebet weencompassnor thandmagnet icnor thi scal leddevi ation.
TidalSt reamTheper i
odi calver ticalosci l
lation( movement )oft heseai nr esponset ot het i
de-
raisi ngf or cesoft hemoonorsuni scal ledt idalst ream.
Hi ghWat er Thehi ghestl evelr eachedbyt heseadur ingonet idalosci llat i
on.
LowWat er Thel owestl evel reachedbyt heseadur ingonet idalosci llat i
on.
RangeThedi fferencebet weenhi ghwat erhei ghtandl owwat erhei ghti scal l
edr ange.
Dur at i
on Thedi fferencebet weent het imesofsuccessi vehi ghandl owwat er .
Char tDat um I nt ernat ionalagr eement ,char tdat um shoul dbeapl anesol owt hatt het i
dewi l
l
notf requent lyf allbel owi t.
Or di nanceDat um Thepl anet owhi cht hehei ghtofal lfeat ur esonmapsar er eferred.
RhumbLi ne Al i
newhi chcut sal lthemer idi
anatt hesameangl eont heearth’
s
surf
acei scalledRhumbl ine.
Foli
o Akhakicoverwhi chcont ainscartsisknownasf ol
iocover,t
herearethreemaintypes
offoli
os:
a. St andardFol ios. Thesef olioscontainallthenavigat
ionalchartspubl
ished
fortheconcer nedar ea.
b. LocalorSpeci alFol i
os. Pr ovi
dedlocalservicesinvi
cini
tyofDockyardpor t
s
Specialfolioscont ainsHor an,
Omegaandr out i
ngchar t
setc.
c. Mi scell
aneousFol i
os. Thesecont ainaquant i
tyofmi scel
laneouscharts,
`di
agramsandt ablesf orgener aluse.
SEXTANTI tisusedt omeasur et healti
tudeofheavenlybody.
SextantAltit
ude Di p=Hei ghtofeye–i ndexerror=
Appearantal t
itude
Correcti
onAl ti
tude
TrueAltit
ude (Answer )
QNo.1Fi ndoutt heSunr i
seon25December2005onDRposi ton58033N122045W:
i
LMTf or580N = 0846
or600N
LMTf = 0903
0
Di
ff
erent02N = 0017’
00”
0
LMTf
or00 33’
N = 17/
2x33/
60
= 17/
2x11/
20
= 187/
40
= 00004’
04”
or580N
LMTf = 08046’
00”
or58033’
LMTf N = 0804600+00004’
04”
= 08050’
04”
N
LI
NT = 00008’
11”
N
GMT = 08058’
15”
N
Zone(
+) = -08000’
00”
N
Sunr
iset
ime= 005815
QNo.2Findoutt
heSunseton25December2005onDRposi
ton58033N122045W:
i
0
LMTfor58N = 1659
or600N
LMTf = 1651
0
Di
ff
erent02N = 00009’
00”
LMTf
or0033’
N = 9/
2x33/
60
= 9/
2x11/
20
= 990/
40
= 00002’
03”
LMTf
or58N = 16059’
00”
LMTf
or5833’
N = 1605900-00002’
03”
= 16055’
57”
N
LI
NT = 00008’
11”
N
GMT = 16047’
46”
N
Zone(
+) = -08000’
00”
N
Sunri
set i
me= 094746
Defi
net heCadetRule
COMPASS DEVIATION MAGNETI C VARIATI
ON TRUE
270 2W 268 - 268
090 2E 092 2W 090
270 2E 272 2W 270
173 9W 164 7E 171
259 08E 267 05W 262
272 25W 247 05E 252
003 21E 024 07W 017
From compasst ot
rueaddeast
er l
ysubtr
actwesterl
y
From tr
uetocompassaddwest erl
ysubtracteast
erl
y
0
Bycalculat
ion,t
hesun’str
[Link]
i s1830Cvar
ngi iat
ion80W.
Whatisdeviati
on?
C D M V T
183 5E 188 8W 180

COMPASSTOTRUEADDEASTERLYSUBTRACTWESTERLY
TRUETOCOMPASSADDWESTERLYSUBTRACTEASTERLY
Fi
ndoutt hetr
uealti
tudesextantalti
tudeofsun’
slowerli
mbis340 14.
5’.I
ndexer
ror=-
1.2,
H.E=10.5m on9Mar96.
Truedir
ecti
on
Thetruedir
ect
ionbetweentwopoi ntsontheEart
h’ssur
facei
sgi
venbyt he
Greatci
rcl
ebetweenthem;itisexpressedint
ermsoftheangl
ebetweenthe
Meridi
anandthegreatcir
cle

Tr
uenorth
Tr
uenorthi
sthenort
herl
ydir
ect
ionoft
hemeridi
anandi
sther
efer
encef
rom
Whicht
ruebear
ingsandcour
sesaremeasur
ed.

Truebear
ing
Thetr
uebearingofanobj
ecti
stheangl
ebet
weent
hemer
idi
anandt
he
di
rect
ionoft
heobject.

CHARTDRAWNONTHEMERCATORPROJECTI ON
Proper ti
esofChar tMer catorprojecti
on
1. Rhumbl i
nesont heEar t
happearasst rai
ghtl
inesont hechar t.
2. Theangl esbet weent heser humbl inesar
eunaltered,asbet weenEarthandchart.
3. Theequat or ,whichisar humbl ineaswellasagr eatcircle,appear
sont hechartasa
straightli
ne.
4. Thepar allelsofl at
itude( whichar ebot
hsmal lcirclesandr humbl i
nes)appearas
straightli
nepar alleltotheequat or.
5. Themer i
dians( whichr humbl inesaswi l
lasgr eatcircles)appearsasstrai
ghtlines
par al
leltotheequat or.
6. Ast rai ghtl inejoini
ngt wopoi ntsdoesnotr epresentt heshor t
estdist
ancebetween
them,unl essi thappenst obeagr eatci r
cleaswill
.Agr eatcirclewhichisnotamer idi
anor
theequat orwi l
lappearasacur ve
INFORMATI ONSHOWNONCHART
Numberoft hechar ts
Titl
eoft hechar t
Sur veydata\
Asour cedat adi agr am
Dat aofpubl ication
Sat elliteder i
vedposi tion
Newaddi ti
on
Lar gecor rect i
on
Smal lcor rect i
on
Br acket edcor rections
Dat eofpr i
nting
Ident if i
cat i
onofchar tpl ates
Char tdi mensi ons
Cor nerCo- or dinates
Scal eoft hechar t
Abbr evi ationofSymbol
Dept h
Hei ght s
Tidalandst r
eam i nfor mat ion
CAUSEOFACOCKEDHAT
1. Ti mei ntervalbet weenobser vations
2. Er rori ni ndent ifyingt heobj ect
3. Er rori npl ottingt hel inesofbear ing
4. I naccur acyofobser vat i
onr esul t
ingf rom t hel i
mi tationsoft hecompass
5. I naccur acyoft hesur veyort hechar t
6. Compasser rorunknownori ncor rectlyappl ied.
THEVERTEXThepoi ntatwhi chagr eatci rcl emostnear lyappr oachest hepol eiscal l
edt he
ver tex.
DEPARTUREDepar tur ei st hedi stancemadegoodi naneast–westdi recti
oni nsailingf rom
onepl acet oanot heral ongar humbl i
ne.
THERHUMBLI NE Thef ivesai l
ingsal luset her humbl i
neacur vedr awnont heEar th’s
sur facecut ti
ngal lthemer idiansatt hesameangl eiscal l
edr humbl ine.
RELATI VEBEARI NGS Thel ineofr efer encei st hef ore- and-aftl ineoft heshi p,i.e.t he
shi p’scour seBear i
ngsar er elati
vet ot hisl i
neandar emeasur edf rom t hebowf rom 0t o180
degr eeoneachsi [Link] ingar egr een, por tbear ingar eRed.
TRUEDI RECTI ON Thet ruedi rect i
onbet weent wopoi nt sont heEar th’ssur faceisgi venby
thegr eatci rclebet weent hem;i ti sexpr essedi nt er msoft heangl ebet weent hemer idianand
thegr eatci rcle
TRUENORTH Thenor thist henor ther l
ydi rectionoft hemer idianandi sther eference
from whi cht ruebear ingsandcour sesar emeasur ed.
TRUEBEARI NG Thet ruebear i
ng ofan obj ecti st hebet ween t hemer i
dian and t he
direct i
onoft heobj ect.
TRUECOURSE Tr uecour sei st hedi rect ional ongt heEar t
h’ssur facei nwhi cht heshi pi s
bei ngst eer ed.I tismeasur edbyt heangl ebet weent hemer idiant hr ought heshi p’
sposi tion
andt hef ore-and- aftl i
ne,cl ockwi sef rom Tr uecour sei snott obeconf usedwi t
hheadi ng( or
shi p’sheadi ng) ,whi chi st hei nst ant aneousdi r
ect ionoft heshi pandi st husaconst ant l
y
changi ngval uei ftheshi pyawsacr osst hecour seduet ot heef f
ectofwi nd,seaandst eer ing
error .
THECOMPASS Thenavi gationalcompassi sani nstrumentwhi chpr ovidesthedat um
from whi ch cour sesand bear i
ngsmaybemeasur [Link] ear et wo pr i
ncipalt ypesof
compass
Gyr ocompass
Magnet iccompass
THEGYROCOMPASS Thisinst rumenti sar api dlywheelorgyr oscope,t heaxisofwhi ch
i
smadet opoi ntal ongt hemer idiant owar dst ruenor [Link] sesandbear i
ngswhi char e
measur edusi ngagyr o-compassar et ruepr ovidedt her eisnoer rori nt hecompass,andar e
measur edcl ockwi sef rom 000t o360degr ee.
THEMAGNETI CCOMPASS Thi sinst rumentmaybeconsi deredasabarmagnetf reely
suspendedi nt hehor izont alpl aneandact eduponbyt heEar th’
smagnet icfiel
dandt he
magnet icpr oper ti
esoft heshi p.
THEMAGNETI CMERI DIAN Af reel ysuspendedmagnet iccompassneedl eact edupon
byt heear th’smagnet icf ieldal onewi llliei nt hever ticalpl anecont aini ngt hel i
neoft ot al
forceoft heear t
h’smagnet i
cf [Link] sver ticalpl anei sknownast hemagnet icmer idi an.
MAGNETI CNORTHMagnet icnor thi st henamegi vent ot hedi rect ioni nwhi cht he‘ nor th’ end
ofamagnet icneedl e, suspendedsoast o0r emai nhor izont al ,woul dpoi ntwhensubj ectonl y
tothei nf l
uenceoft heEar th’smagnet i
c.I tist henor ther lydi rect ionoft hemagnet i
cmer i
di an.
VARI ATI ON Var i
at ioni st heangl ebet weent hegeogr aphi c( true)andmagnet icmer idi anat
anypl ace.I ti smeasur edeastorwestf rom t r uenor [Link] i
at i
onhasdi ff er entv al uesat
differentpl acesandi sgr adual lychangi ng.
Var iati
onmayal sobeobt ainedf rom speci ali sogoni cchar tonwhi chal lpl acesofequal
variationar ej oinedbyi sogoni cl i
nesandknownasi sogonal s.
THEKNOT I nnavi gat i
on,i ti sconveni entt ohaveaf ixedorst andar duni tf ormeasur ing
[Link] suni ti sonei nt ernat ionalnaut icalmi l
e( 1852m)perhourandi scal l
edaknot
abbr eviat edt okn
THESTATUTEMI LE Thest at ureorl andmi l
ei st heuni tofdi stanceof1760yar dsor
5280f eet( 1609. 3m)
THEI NTERNATI ONALNAUTI CALMI LEThi si sast andar df ixedl engt hof1852m.I tscor r ect
abbr eviat ioni sthet er m nmi l
e.
THEGEOGRAPHI CALMI LE Thegeogr aphi calmi lei st hel engt hof1’ar cmeasur ed
alongt heequat or( i.e.1’ ofl ongi t
ude)Ast heequat ori saci rcl et hel engt hoft hegeogr aphi cal
mi l
ei st hesameatal lpar tsoft heequat orandi sequalt o( asi nofar c), wher eai st her adi us
oft heequat [Link] uei s1855. 4m
THESEAMI LE Theseami l
ei st hel engt hofonemi nut eofar c( 1’)measur edal ongwi th
themer idiani nt hel at itudeoft heposi tion.
THELENGTHOFTHESEAMI LEThe l engt h oft he sea mi lei s shor testatt he equat or
(1842. 9m)andl ongestatt hepol es( 1861. 7m) ,wi thameanval ueof1852. 3m at45degr ee
l
at i
tude.
THELONGI TUDE Thel ongi tudeofapl acei st heangl ebet weent hepl aneoft hepr i
me
(Greenwi ch)mer i
di anandt hemer idianoft hepl acemeasur edf rom 0t o180degr eeeastor
westofGr eenwi ch.
THELATI TUDE Aposi tionont heEar th’ssur facei sexpr essedbyr efer encet ot hepl ane
oft heequat orandt hepl aneoft hepr i
memer [Link] at i
t udeofapl ace( alsocal ledt he
geodet i
c,geogr aphi calort r
uel at itude)i sangl ewhi ch t heper pendi cul art ot heEar th’ s
surf aceatt hepl acemakeswi tht hepl aneoft heequat or .Iti smeasur edf rom 0t o90degr ee
nor thorsout hoft heequat or .
THEEARTH Theear t
hi snotaper fectspher e;i ti ssl ight lyf lattened,t hesmal l
erdi amet er
beingabout24mi lel esst hant hel ar ger .TheEar th’ sshapei sknownasanobl at espher oi d.
POSI TION Aposi t i
onmaybeexpr essedbyi tsl atitudeandl ongi tude,orasar angeand
bear ingf rom aspeci f
icobj ect .Itmaybepl ot tedont hechar tusi ngapar allelr ule,di vider s,
andt hescal eofl atitudeandl ongi tudeappr opr iat et ot hechar titsel f.
THEPOSI TI ONLI NE Thenavi gat orf indshi sposi tionusi ngl andmar ks, heavenl ybodi es
orr adioai dsand,f rom hi sobser vat ions,obt ainswhatar eknownasposi ti
onl ineAposi t i
on
l
inei sanyl i
nedr awnont hechar t,onwhi cht heshi p’sposi ti
oni sknownt ol i
e.I tmaybe
straightorcur ved.
THEFI X Ift woormor eposi tionl inescanbeobt ainedatt hesamemoment ,theposi t i
on
oft heshi pmustbeatt heirpoi ntofi nter sect i
[Link] tiont husobt ainedi sknownasaf i
x.
DEADRECKONI NG( DR) DeadReckoni ngi st heexpr essi onusedt odescr ibet hatposi t i
on
obtai ningf rom t het r uecour sest eer edbyt heshi pandherspeedt hr ought hewat er,andf rom
noot herf act ors
ESTI MATEDPOSI TI ON( EP) Thi sposi ti
oni st hemostaccur atet hatt henavi gat orcan
obtai nbycal culat ionandest imat iononl y.I tisder ivedf rom t heDRposi tionadj ustedf ort he
estimat edef fect sofl eeway, t
idalst ream, cur rentandsur facedr ift
TIDALSTREAMS At idalst ream i st heper iodi calhor izont almovementoft heseasur face
causebyt het ide-rai singf or cesoft hesunandmooni sknownast idalst ream.
CURRENT Themovementofwat eri scal lcur rentwhenwat ermovi nghor izont al l
y.
TIDES Peopl el ivingont heseacoastknownt hatf orsi xhour st heseawat eradv anced
towar dt hecoastandf ort henext6hr si t
’sgr adual lyr [Link] n24hr st heseawat er
ri
sesandf alltwi [Link] sf lowandebbofseawat ert wi cei nabout24hr sincalledt ide.
CAUSESOFTI DE Ti desar ecausedbyt heat tr
act ionofmoonont hesur f
aceofwat erand
cent eroft heear t
[Link] t
ract stheseawat ert oi tsselfcausi ngl i
[Link]
attr
act sbuti tissof arawayf rom t heear th.I tsat tract i
oni snotact ionabl
et opul lthesea
wat ert oitsself.I nt hebayoff unday( eastcoastofNor thAmer i
ca)t idessomet imeat tainof
heightof70f eett hehi ghestt idesi nthewor ld.
SPRI NGTI DESSpr i
ngt idesar et i
deswher et her iseandf allofwat eri sabovet henor mal .
Thisaccr uesatnewmoonandf ullmoon.I nt heretoday’ sthesunt hemoonandt heear thar e
i
nlineandhaveacombi nepul l
.
NEEPTI DES t heset i
desar ewher er iseandf aceofwat eri sbelow t henor malst [Link] s
accr uesatt hef i
rstandt het hir dquar t
eroft hemoonI nt heredayst hesunandt hemoon
makesr i
ghtangl ewi tht heear thwi thr espectofeachot [Link] ue
ADVANTAGEOFTI DES Ti deskeept heseawat eri nmot ionthust hewat erneverf r eez es.
Tideswashawayt hegashofci t ylyi
ngneart hecoast .Ti desespeci allyhelpf ulltot [Link]
washawayal lt hemudwhi chr iversbr ingsneart her emout [Link] ght i
demanyt hingssuch
asshel l
,conchar ewashedashor e.
BOREThebor ei sahi ghwal lofwat erwhi choccasi onal lyrushesupst r
eam f rom t hemout h
ofar i
[Link] sgener all
yt akespl acei nt henar rowf unnelshapedmout [Link] i
me
abor eattainsahei ghtof15mt rorev en18met er
.Bor esar ever yfrequenti n( Hugl ici t
y)
EQUATOR Theequat ori sani magi naryliner oundt hegl obhavi ngequaldi stancef rom t he
twopol es.Itis0’ l
at [Link] i
tudemeasur ef rom her e.
MERI DIANS Mer idiansar ei magi naryl inesjointt wopol esandoutt heequat ionatl ightangl e.
LATI TUDE Lat it
udei st hedi stanceofapl acenor thorsout hpr om t heequat oral onga
mer [Link] s di st ance uncaused i n degr [Link] xty mi nutes make a degr ee and si xty
se4condsmakesmi nut es.
LONGI TUDE:Longi t
udet hedi stanceofapl aceeastorwestoft hepr i
memer i
dianal onga
paral l
elofl ati
tudet hi sdi stancei smeasur edi ndegr ee
FIXINGBYATRANSI TANDANANGLEA t ransi ti s obser ved att he same t ime as a
horizont alsext antangl ei st akenbet weent henear erobj ectoft het r
ansi tandat hirdobj ect.
Theposi ti
oni st hei ntersect ionoft het r
ansi tandt hear coft heci r cl
eobt ai
nedf r
om t he
horizont alsext antangl esuchaposi ti
onhast headvant aget hatnocompassi sr equi red
whenusi ngthismet hod.

POSI TIONANDDI RECTI ON On t he Ear th’s Sur f

ace Navi gat i
on ist he pr ocess of
planni ngandcar ryingoutt hemovementoft ranspor tofallkindsf rom onepl acet oanot her )
atsea,i nt heair,onl andori [Link] gationofshi psandal lwat erbor necr afti s
calledmar inenavi gati
ont odi stingui shitf rom navi gat i
oninot hersur r
oundi ngs,andi ti s
mar i
nenavi gati
ont hel astt hi r
tyyear shaveseengr eatadvancesi nnavi gationalt echni ques.
Manhasl andedont [Link] af
tar eexpl ori
ngt heout erregi onsoft hesol arsyst em.
Thenew t echni quesdevel oped f orspacenavi gati
on havebenef i
ted mar i
nenav i
gat ion:
detai l
edst udyoft hef i
rstsat ellit
esi nor bitaroundt heEar thhasl edt othedevel opmentofa
wor ld-widenavi gat i
onsat ellitesyst em whi chcant ellashi p’
snavi gatorhisposi ti
onwi than
accur acyofaf ew hundr ed met [Link] omat ed comput er
-assist ed navigationalsy stems
enabl et henavi gat ortomai nt ainacont i
nuousandaccur at
et rackandt oavoi dcol li
sions.
Hand- heldcalculator sanddesk- topcomput ersenabl ehi mt or eckoncour sesanddi stances
aroundt hegl obewi thgr eatpr ecision,takingi nt
oaccountt het rueshapeoft heEar thThe
principles ofmar ine navi gat ion r emai n unchanged by new t echniques;t her ef
oret he
treatmentoft hesubj ecti nt hismanualhasbeendesi gnedt or e-statethepr incipleswhi l
e
reflectingt helat estmet [Link] umeIdeal swi tht heessent ialsofmar inenav i
gation)
posi ti
onanddi rectionont heEar th’ssur face,mappr ojecti
ons,char tsandpubl icationschar t
wor k, ti
des,coast alnavi gationandpi l
[Link] iesofpl aneandspher icalt r
igonomet ry,
proof soff ormul ae,et [Link] oundi nt heappendi cesatt hebackoft [Link] s
openi ngchapt eri ntroducest hebasi ct er
msdeal i
ngwi thpositionanddi rectionont heEar th’s
sur
face.

THEEARTH TheEar thi

snotaper fectspher e;i
tissl
ightl
yfl
att
ened,thesmall
erdi
ameter
beingabout24mi l
eslessthanthel [Link]’
sshapei sknownasant heEarth
revolvesabouti
tsaxi
sinthedir
ect
iont hedirecti
onofrevol
uti
oniscall
edeast,t
heopposi
te
directi
[Link]
hPoleisont hel ef
tandt heSouthPoleontherightoft
heobser
ver
facingeast.

LATITUDEANDLONGI TUDEAposi t
ionontheEarth’ssurfaceisexpressedbyreferenceto
thelaneoftheequatorandt heplaneoftheprimemer i
[Link]
tudeofapl ace( al
so
cal
ledthegeodet
ic,geographi
calortr
uelat
it
ude)istheangl ewhichtheperpendi
culartothe
Eart
h’ssur
faceatthepl acemakeswi t
htheplaneoft heequator.I
tismeasur edfrom 0°to
90°nort
horsouthoftheequator.

THELONGI TUDE Theplaceoft

heanglebetweent heplanesoft heprime(Greenwi
ch)
meri
dianandthemer
idi
anoft
hepl
acemeasur
edfrom 0°to180°eastorwestofGr
eenwich

DIFFERENCEOFLATI TUDE, LONGI TUDE Thediff

er enceofl atitude(d.l
at)betweent wo
placesist hearcoft hemer idi
anbet weent het wopar allel
sofl ati
[Link] pis
proceedingfrom oneplacetoanot her,
d.l
atisnamednor thorsout haccor di
ngt owhetherthe
parall
eloft hedesti
nationisnor t
horsout hoft hepar all
eloft hepl aceofdepar [Link]
diff
erenceoflongit
ude( d.
long)betweent woplacesisthesmal l
erar coftheequat orbetween
theirmeridi
[Link] pisproceedingfrom onepl acet oanot her,d.l
ongisnamedeast
orwestaccor di
ngt owhet herthemer i
dianofthedestinat i
oniseastorwestoft hemer idi
an
oftheplaceofdepar t
ure.

THESEAMI LE Theseami l
eisthelengthofonemi nuteofarc(1')measur
edalongthe
meri
diani
nthelat
it
udeoftheposit
[Link]
s,wherethesymbolM isused,
thesea
mil
eisdenot
edby',whichist
hesymbolf [Link],
10'.
8means10.8seami l
es.
Thesymboli
salwaysplacedbef
orethedecimalpoint
.

THELENGTHOFTHESEAMI LETher adi

usofcur vatur
ei nthemeri
dianincreasesasM
movesf rom theequatort
ot hepol
e;t
hus,thedist
ancesubtendedby1'
ofarcalsoincreases.
Thel engthoft heseamile isshort
estattheequator(1842.
9m)andl ongestatthepoles
(1861.7m) ,
wi t
hameanval ueof1852.3m at45°l
ati
tude.

THEGEOGRAPHI CALMI LE Thegeogr aphicalmi l

eisthelengthof1'ofar cmeasured
al
ong t he equat
or(i.e.1'ofl ongit
ude).As t he equatoris a ci
rcl
et he length ofthe
geographicalmil
eisthesameatal lpart
soft heequat orandisequalto(asin1' ofar
c),
where
aisther adi
[Link]
ernational(1924)Spher
oid,i
tsvalueis1855.4m.

THEI NTERNATI
ONALNAUTICALMI LEThisisast andar
dfi
xedlengt
[Link]
rect
abbrevi
ati
onisthet
erm nmil
[Link] ntheAdmiral
tyDist
anceTabl
esandi n
OceanPassagesoft
heWorl
darei
ni nter
nat
ionalnauti
calmi
les.

THESTATUTEMILE Thest
atueorl
andmi
lei
stheuni
tofdi
stanceof1760yar
dsor
5280f
eet(
1609.
3m).

THEKNOT I nnavigati
on,itisconveni
entt ohaveaf i
xedorstandar
dunitformeasuri
ng
[Link] nter
nati
onalnauticalmile(1852m)perhourandi scall
edaknot ,
abbrevi
atedtokn.I nnor malpracti
ce,theer r
orsarisi
ngfrom usingi
nter
nat
ionalnaut
ical
milesinstead ofsea mi l
esar everysmal l(lessthan 0.5%)
.Sometimes,however,i
ti s
necessarytodeter
mi netheerr
orandthisissetoutinAppendix5.

LI
NEARMEASUREMENTOFLATI
TUDEANDLONGI
TUDE Thel
inearl
ati
tudeofapl
acei
s
thel engthoft hear coft hemer idianbet weent heequat orandt hatpl ace.I tismeasur edi n
seami l
esnor t
horsout hoft heequat or
.Thel i
nearl ati
tudeofM i s3600seami l
esnor thoft he
equat [Link] aceM1i ssi tuated1800seami l
essout hoft heequat or,itsl atit
udei sThe
l
inearl ongi t
udeofapl acei st hesmal lerar
coft heequat orbet weent hepr i
memer i
dianand
themer i
dianoft hepl [Link] ongt heequat oritismeasur edi ngeogr aphicalmi leseastorwest
ofthepr ime
THEEARTHASASPHEREAl t
hought heshapeoft heEar thi st hatofanobl atespher oid,f or
mostpur posesofnavi gationi tmaybeassumedt obeaspher e,wi thr adiusequalt ot he
meanoft hegr eatestandl eastradi iandmeasur ingappr oximat ely3440i nternat i
onalnaut ical
mi l
[Link] ei sthef iguref ormedbyr otat
ingasemi -cir
cleabouti t
sdi amet [Link] ane
throught hecent r
eoft hespher ecut sthesur facei nwhati sknownasagr eatci [Link]
planewhi chcut st hesur faceoft hespher e,butdoesnotpasst hr ought hecent re,iscalleda
smal [Link],whent heEar t
hi sr egar
dedasaspher e,mer idiansofl ongi tudebecome
semigr eatci rclesjoi ning( butnotpassi ngt hrough)t hepol escut t
ingt heequat oratr ight
[Link] orisagr eatci rclebutallot herpar al
lelsofl atitudear esmal [Link]
Earthasaspher ethisf igur eistakenf r
om theI nternati
onal( 1924)Spher oid,whi chhasmean
radiust hegr eatci rclei simpor tantinnavi gationbecausei tgi vest heshor testdi st
ance
betweent wopoi [Link] sot hepat ht akenbyanel ectro-magnet i
cr adiationneart heEar th’s
surface( radio,radar ,l
ight ,etc.).

TRUEDIRECTION Thet
ruedi
rect
ionbetweentwopoi
ntsontheEar
th’
ssur
facei
sgivenby
thegr
eatci
rcl
ebet
weent
hem;i
tisexpressedi
nter
msoftheangl
ebetweent
hemeridi
anand
thegr
eatci
rcl
e

TRUENORTH Truenor
thist
henort
her
lydi
rect
ionoft
hemer
idi
anandi
sther
efer
ence
fr
om whi
cht
ruebeari
ngsandcour
sesar
emeasured.

TRUEBEARING Thetr
uebear
ingofanobj
ectistheangl
ebetweent
hemer
idi
anandt
he
di
rect
ionoft
heobj
ecti
smeasur
edclockwi
sef
rom 000°t
o360°.

POSITI
ONOFCLOSEOBJECTS I ti
softenconveni
enttoindi
catetheposi
tionofanobjectby
i
tsbeari
nganddist
ancefr
om aknownorkeyposi t
ion,r
atherthanbylati
tudeandlongit
ude.
Ashoal
,forexampl
e,mi
ghtbedescr
ibedasbeing239°,7mi l
esfrom acer
tainl
ight
house.

THECOMPASS Thenavi gat

ionalcompassisani nstrumentwhi chpr ovidesthedat um
from which coursesand bear ingsmaybemeasur [Link] ear et wo pr i
ncipaltypesof
compass)thegyr o-compassandt [Link] alpri
nci pl
esoft hetwo
typesofcompassar esetoutbelowwi t
hanexplanati
onast ohowt ruecour sesandbear i
ngs
maybeobt ai
nedf rom them.
THEGYRO- COMPASS Thisinst
rumentisarapidl
yspi nningwheelorgyr oscope,theax i
s
ofwhichismadet opointalongthemeridi
antowardstruenor [Link] sesandbear i
ngswhi ch
aremeasuredusi ngagyr o-compassar etr
ueprovi
dedt her eisnoer r
orint hecompass,and
aremeasuredcl ockwisef r
om 000°t o360°.
Foranumberofr easonst hegyr o-
compasswi ll
notalwayspointexactlytowardstruenort
[Link] acyofgyr o-compassesused
i
nt heRoyalNavyi ssucht hatthemaximum errorisoft heor derof½°att heequat orand1°
atlat
it
ude60°.However ,i
nanumberofcommer ci
alcompassest heer r
ormayexceedt hi
sby
oneortwodegr ees.

THEMAGNETI CCOMPASS Thisinstrumentmaybeconsi deredasabarmagnetf r

eely
suspendedi nthehorizontalplaneandact eduponbyt heEar th’
smagnet i
cf i
eldandt he
magnetic proper
ti
es oft he [Link] Ear th maybe consi dered as a gi
gantic magnet.
Magneticlinesofforceemanat ef r
om aposi ti
onnearKi ngGeor geV LandinAnt ar
ctica
knownast heSouthMagnet i
cPol [Link] oxi
matesemigr eatcir
cle
pathstotheNor thMagnet icPol e,nort
hofBat hurstIsl
andi nt heCanadianAr cti
[Link]
magneticpolesarenotstationarybutar econtinual
lymovi ngoveral argel
yunknownpat hi n
acycl
eofsomehundr
edsofyear
s.

THEMAGNETI CMERI DIAN Afreel

ysuspendedmagnet iccompassneedleact edupon
bytheEarth’
smagnet icfi
eldal onewi l
lli
eint hevert
icalpl
anecontai
ningthelineoft otal
for
ceoftheEar t
h’smagnet i
cf iel
[Link]
calplaneisknownast hemagneticmer idian.
Magneti
cmer i
dians,however,donotnecessar il
ypointtowar
dsthemagneticpolesbecause
theEar
th’
smagnet i
cf i
eldi
sirregular
.Inadditi
on,themagneti
cpolesarenot180°apart;thus,
i
tisrar
eforthemagnet i
cneedl etopointtowardsthemagneti
cpole.

MAGNETI CNORTHMagnet icnort

hist
henamegivent
othedirect
ioninwhicht
he‘north’
end
ofamagnet i
cneedl
e,suspendedsoastoremai
nhori
zont
al,wouldpointwhensubjectonl
y
totheinfl
uenceoftheEar th’
smagneti
[Link]
therlydir
ecti
onoft hemagnet i
c
meri
dian.

VARI ATION Var iati

oni st
heanglebet weenthegeogr aphic(true)andmagnet i
cmer i
diansat
anypl [Link] edeastorwestf r
om t r
uenor t
hVar iati
onhasdi fferentvaluesat
dif
ferentplacesandi sgradual
lychanging.I
tsvalueatanypl acemaybef oundf rom t
hechar t
whichgi vesthevar i
ationforacertai
nyeart ogetherwi t
hanot eoft [Link]
navigatormustal waysal l
ow [Link] i
at i
onmayal sobeobt ai
nedf r
om
specialisogonicchartsonwhichallplacesofequalvar i
ati
onar ejoinedbyi sogonicli
nesand
knownasi sogonals(nottobeconfusedwi t
hmagnet icmer idians,whi charelinesofforce).

DEVI ATION,COMPASSNORTH I famagnet i

ccompassi sputinashi p,
thepresenceofiron,
steelorelect
ri
calequipmentwi llcausethemagnet iccompasst odeviat
efrom themagnet i
c
mer i
[Link] ebetweent hemagnet icmer i
dian(magneticnor t
h)andt hedirecti
onin
whicht heneedl
epoi nts(compassnor th)iscall
edthedeviati
[Link]
fr
om magnet [Link] icfi
eldoftheshipchangesdi rect
ionandamount ,i
npart,
as
MAGNETI CANDCOMPASSCOURSESANDBEARI NGS Magnet i
ccoursesandbear i
ngs
aremeasur edclockwisefrom 000°to360°f r
om magnet i
cnort
h( t
hemagnet i
cmer idi
an)

CONVERSION OFMAGNETIC AND COMPASS COURSES AND BEARINGS TO TRUEThe

fol
lowi
ngrul
eshoul
dbeappl
iedfortheconver
sionofmagnet
icorcompasscoursesand
beari
ngst
otrue:

East
erl
yvari
ati
onanddeviati
onareaddedorappl
iedcl
ockwise.
Wester
lyvar
iat
ionanddeviat
ionar
esubtr
actedorappl
iedanti
-cl
ockwi
se.

Thisrul
emaybememor i
zedbythemnemonicCADET:
CAD ETCompassAddEastTr uei
.[Link]
ti
ngf
rom compasst
otr
ue,addeast
,
subtr
actwestandvi
ceVersa.

Analt
ernati
vemnemonicwhichmaybeusedi
s:
Er
rorWest,CompassBest
.
Er
rorEast,
CompassLeast.

Remembert hat,asexpl
ainedearl
ier,var
iat
ioni
st hedi
ff
erencebet
weenTr
ueandmagnet
ic,
whil
edeviati
onisthedif
ferencebetweenmagneticandCompass,i.
e.
True±Variat
ion=Magnet i
c
Magneti
c±Devi ati
on=Compass

Therearetwomet
hodsavai
labl
eforlayi
ngofft
hecompasscourseorbearing.
Method1
Deviat
ion(f
ort
hecompasscoursest
eered)andvar
iat
ion(
cor
rectedtodate)
areappli
edtot
hecompasscourseorbeari
nginaccor
dancewit
ht heabove
r
ulet
oobtai
nthet
ruecourseorbear
[Link]
all
elr
uleri
sthenpl
acedat
t
hetr
uereadi
ngonthetr
uerose.

Method2
Theparall
elrul
erisplacedont hegivencompassbear i
ngorcourseonthe
magneticrose.I
tisthenslewedt hroughasmallangleinaccor
dancewitht
he
aboveruletoall
owfor :
[Link] nvar
iati
ont obringituptodate.
[Link]
onforthecompasscour sebei
ngst eer
ed.
Thealgebrai
csum (+vef oreast,-
veforwest)ofthedevi
ati
onandthechange
i
nvariati
oniscall
edt herosecor r
ecti
on.

RELATIVEBEARINGS Thel i
neofr ef
erencei sthefore-
and-af
tlineoft heship,i.
[Link]
shi
p’scour
[Link]
ngsarer el
ati
vetothisli
neandar emeasur edf r
om t hebow from 0°to
180°[Link]
boardbearingsareGr een,por
[Link] ati
vebear i
ngs
mayalsobemeasuredclockwisefr
om 000°to360° f
rom t
hefore-
and-aftl
ineoftheship

THESAI LI NGSThesai li
ngsar
etermsusedtodescr
ibet
hevar
iousmathemati
calmet
hodsof
fi
ndingcour seanddi stancef
rom oneplaceontheEar
th’
ssurf
acetoanother
.Thevari
ous
sai
li
ngsar e:
[Link] l
ing.
[Link]
anesai li
ng.
[Link] rectedmeanlati
tudesai
li
ng.
[Link] sesai li
ng.
[Link] cat orsaili
ng.
[Link]-ci rcl
esailing.
[Link] tesail
ing.

THERHUMBLI NEThef
ir
stf i
vesail
ingsal
luset
her
humbli
ne,acur
vedrawnontheEart
h’s
surf
acecut
ti
ngal
lthemeridi
ansatt hesameangl
e(Fi
g.2-
1).Ashipsteer
ingaconst
ant
coursei
smovi
ngal
ongarhumbl i
ne.

Theequat or
,parall
elsoflati
tudeandmer idi
ansofl ongit
udearespecialcasesofrhumbline.
Alongtheequat orandpar all
elofl
ati
tude,therhumbl ineofconstantcourseis090°or270°,
whilstal
ongt hemer idianitis000°or180° .
Otherrhumbl i
nes,crossi
ngt hemer i
dianata
constantangle,
spiraltowardsthepol
eandi soft
enr ef
erredt
oasloxodromes.

DEPARTUREDepartur
eist
hedist
ancemadegoodi
naneast
-westdi
rect
ioni
nsai
li
ngf
rom
onepl
acetoanot
heral
ongarhumbli
ne.

PLANESAI LING
Whenashi ptravel
salonganyrhumbl i
neothert hanapar al
leloflati
tudeorameridi
anof
l
ongit
ude,herd. lat
,depar
tur
e,dist
anceandcour semaybeconsi deredasf or
mingapl ane
ri
ght-
angledtri
anglePlanesai
li
ngisthusamet hodofsolvingt herel
ati
onshipbet
weend. l
at,
depart
ure,di
stanceandcourse.I
tdoesnoti
nvolved. l
ongexceptindir
ectly

MEANANDCORRECTEDMEANLATI TUDESAI LI
NG Ther earet
womet hodsbywhichaship
maydeter
mineherlati
tudeandLongitudeaf
tert
ravell
ingal
ongar humblineot
herthani
na
nor
th-
southorEast-
westdir
ect
[Link] hodsusesthemeanorcorrect
edmean
Lat
it
ude,t
heotherusesMercat
orsail
ing

MERCATOR SAILI
NG Mer catorsail
ingpr
ovidesamet hodofdet er
miningpositi
onaf t
er
tr
avel
li
ngalongar
humbli
neot hert
haninanor t
h-sout
horeast
-westdi
rect
[Link]
ssimi
larto
pl
anesail
ingbutusesdi
fferenceofmer i
dionalparts(
DMP)i nst
eadofd. [Link]
i
nsteadofdepar
tur
[Link] i
dionalpart
sar eafeat
ureoft heMercat
orproj
ecti
ononwhi chthe
gr
eatmajori
tyofsmall
-scaleAdmi r
altynavi
gati
onalchartsarebasedandarediscussedat
l
engthinChapt
[Link]
ionsinvol
vedinMercatorsai
li
ngaresetouti
nChapter5.

THEGREATCI RCLE Astraightli

neistheshor t
estdist
ancebetweent wopoi nt
sand,
whent hetwopointsli
eont hesur f
aceofaspher e,thearcofthegreatcircl
ejoiningthem i
s
thecurvethatmostnear l
yappr oachesthestr
aightl i
ne,becauseithast hegreatestradi
us
andtheref
oretheleastcur
vatur
[Link] t
erarcoft hegreatcir
clejoi
ningtwopl acesonthe
Eart
h’ssurf
aceisthustheshort
estr out
ebetweent hem.

GREAT- CIRCLESAILING Ifashi pfol

lowedthegreat-
cir
cletrackshewoul dhavetochange
course conti
nuall
[Link] practi
ce,the great
-ci
rcl
et r
ack is di vi
ded int
o sui
tabl
el engt
hs,
successivepoi
ntsont hegreatci
rcl
ebeingjoinedtoform asuccessionofrhumbl i
[Link]
i
sknownasappr oximategreat
-ci
rcl
esail
ing,
orsimplygreat-
circlesai
li
ng.

THEVERTEXThepoi ntatwhichagr eatcir

clemostnearl
yapproachesthepol eiscal
ledt
he
ver
tex(
ofthatgreatcir
cle)Atthi
spoi nt,t
hegreatcir
cleceasestoappr oachthepoleand
begi
[Link]
anthroughthevertexatr i
ghtangl
es.
Themethodoffi
ndingthi
sposit
ioninvolvestheuseofri
ght-
angledspher
icaltr
iangl
es.

GENERAL
Fort hepur posesofnavi gationitisnecessar ytopr oj ectthef eat uresoft heEarth’ssurfaceon
toachar [Link] ojectioni sameansofr epr esent i
ngaspher icalsur faceont hepl [Link] s
usual l
yexpr essedasamat hemat i
calFor mul aforconver t
inggeogr aphicalco-ordinateson
thespher oidt opl anecoor dinatesont hechar [Link] ovi dedi tissui t
ableapr ojecti
on
maybeusedt or epresentanypor ti
onoft heEar th’ssur [Link] ncei tisimpossi blet of i
t
exact l
yapl anesur faceont oaspher i
calone, projectionsofanyt hingbutver ysmal lar
easwi l
l
containsomedi st ort
[Link] e,inFi g.4- 1i tcanbeseent hatt hreeidenticalcircular
areasont heEar th’ssur facear eeachr epr esent edbyaqui tedi fferentsi zeandshapewhen
theout li
nei sproj ectedf rom apoi ntofor iginatt hecent reoft heEar thont oapl anechar t
.
Thedi storti
onofapr oject i
onmusti nvolvesomeoral lofthef ollowi ngpr operti
es:[Link].2.
Bear i
[Link] [Link] [Link] spossi bl
et odevi seagoodpr ojectionwhi chwi lleliminateor
reducet onegl igibl epr oportionssomeoft hesedi stor t
ionswhi l
ekeepi ngt heot herswi thin
reasonableandt hususabl el i
[Link] ceofpr oj ecti
onf orachar tofmapi sgover nedby
ther equirement soft heuser .Themar inerr equi resachar twhi chwi l
lnotonl yshow t he
correctshapeoft hel andhei slookingat ,butal sogi vehi m hi scor r
ectposi ti
on,cour seand
speedwhenhepl ots

PROJECTI [Link] ON/CHARTTot henavi gator,themostusef ulchartis

oneonwhi chhecanshow t het r
ackofhi sshi pbydr awingast rai
ghtl i
nebet weenhi s
start
ingpoi ntandhi sdest i
nati
on, andt husmeasur et
hest eadycour sehemustst eerinorder
toarrivether [Link] catorchartper mi t
shimt odot hisbecausei tisconstructedsot hat
:1.
Rhumbl inesont heEar t
happearasst rai
ghtlinesont hechar [Link] esbet weent hese
rhumbl i
nesar eunaltered,asbetweenEar t
handchar [Link] efoll
owst hat:
[Link] or,whichi sar humbl i
neaswel lasagr eatci r
cl e,appearsont hechar tasa
strai
ghtl i
ne.
[Link] all
elsoflati
tudeappearasst rai
ghtlinespar alleltotheequat or
.
[Link] i
diansappearasst r
aightlinesper pendi cul
art ot heequat or.*
CORI OLISFORCETheef fectofther otat
ionoft heEar th( Coriolisforce)ist odeflectwater
movementt other i
ghtintheNor thernHemi sphereandt ot helef tintheSout hernHemi sphere.
Thispr oducesadi r
ectionofthesur facef l
owi nclined

OCEAN SOUNDING CHARTS TheHydrographi

cDepar t
mentmaintai
nsaser i
esofocean
soundi
ngchar
ts,cover
ingt
hewor
ld’
[Link]
enti
sli
mitedtoobser
vati
onsmade
seawar
doftheouteredgeoft
heCont
inent
alShelf
.Truedept
hsareshownont hechar
ts,al
l
obser vedsoundi ngshavi ngbeencor rect
edforthevariablevelocit
yofsoundi nwat er
.Most
oft hesheetsar enow i nmet ri
cuni [Link] tsar eusedext ensivel
yf orthe
compi l
ati
onofsmal lscal enavigati
onalchar t
s,suchast heInternationalchart
spubl i
shedby
variousHydr ographicOf ficesundert heauspicesoftheI [Link] herusersofoceansoundi ng
char t
s i ncl
ude cabl e-
laying shi ps, deep-sea dril
li
ng oper ators, geophysici
sts and
oceanogr [Link] ai
lsoft henumber sandlimitsoftheoceansoundi ngchar tsare
giveni ntheCatalogueofAdmi ralt
yChar t
[Link]
rangement sforobtainingcopiesare

Fixi
ngbyabearingandahorizontalangl
ef r
om whi
charangemaybe
Calcul
atedThismethodisusefulwhent heshipi
spassingasmalli
sland,t
hecompass
beari
ngsofthetwoedgesgi
vingtoosmallanangleofcut
,andar
angi
ngaid

usinghor izontalanglesIftheshipandt heobj ectsobservedareal lont hearcofthesame

ci
rclet hetwoposi t
ioncircl
esbecomeoneandt hetwoangl eswillcutatanypoi ntonthear c.
Ahor izontalanglefixisimpossibleintheseci [Link] g.9-29,thebeaconshoul d
havebeenchosenandnott [Link] dalsobenot edthat,ifsuchaf i
xisatt
empt ed
usi
ngbear ingsandt hereisanunknowner r
orint hecompass,t hiser r
orwi l
lnotberevealed
bypl otti
[Link] esbet weentheobj ect swi l
lbecor rectbutt hepl ott
edbearingswi l
l
al
waysmeetatapoi ntonthear coftheci [Link]
ed positi
onwi l
ldiff
erfr
om theact ual
positi
ondependentont heamountoft heunknowner r
[Link] ixt heshipbyhor izontal
anglesorbear i
ngswhent heshi pandt heobj ectsobservedar eallont hearcofthesame
ci
rcle

Posit
ionsandposi ti
onl i
nesAposi t
ionlineobtainedf r
om abear ingofat errestri
alobject
,
vi
suall
yorbymeansofanavi gat
ionalaid([Link] ingAposi ti
onlineobtainedf r
om an
astr
onomi calobservati
onorfrom t
her angeofat errest
ri
alobjectisdist
ingui
shedbyasi ngle
arr
ow atbot [Link] i
xisshownont hechar tasadotsur r
oundedbyaci rcle,wit
ht he
ti
meal ongside,andthepositi
onli
nes,ifappropri
ate,passingt
hrought heposit
ion

TheDeadReckoning(DR)positi
onisshownonthechar
tasasmalll
ineacrossthecour
se
bei
ngsteered,
wit
htheti
meal ongsi
[Link]
lcr
ossmaybeusedtoorigi
nat
et heDRifafi
x
orEst
imatedPosi
ti
onisnotavail
abl
e.

TheEsti
matedPositi
on(EP)i
sshownont hechar
tasadotsurr
oundedbyasmallt
ri
angle,
wit
hthetimealongsi
de,t
heesti
matedt
rackoftheshi
povertheground(
thegr
oundtrack)
passi
ngthr
oughthedot.

PLOTTI NGAPOSI TION Aposi ti

onmaybeexpr essedbyitslat
it
udeandl ongit
ude,orasa
rangeandbear i
ngfrom aspecifi
cobj
ect.I
tmaybepl ott
edont hechartusi
ngapar al
l
elrule,
divi
ders,andthescaleoflati
tudeandlongit
udeappropr
iatetothechartit
[Link]
led
techni
quesofplott
ingaregiveninBR454, NotesonNavigat
ion,whichi
savailableonsaleto
thegeneralpubl
ic.

TRANSFERRINGAPOSI TION Whent ransf

err
ingaposit
ionfrom onechartt
oanother,i
tis
bestt
ousebearinganddi
stancefr
om adisti
nguishi
ngf
eatur
ecommont obothcharts,
such
asapointofl
andorli
ght
.Thisshoul
dthenbecheckedbylati
tudeandlongit
udetoensureno
err
orhasoccurr
ed.

THEPOSI TIONLI NE Thenavigatorfi

ndshispositi
onusi
ngl andmarks,heavenl
ybodies
orradioai
dsand, from hi
sobservat
ions,obt
ainswhatareknownasposi ti
onl i
[Link]
ion
l
ineisanyl i
ne,dr awnont hechart
,onwhi chtheshi p’
sposit
ionisknownt oli
[Link]
str
[Link] hodsofobtai
ningaposit
ionlinear
edescr i
bedinthenextchapter
.
Thesimplestform ofpositi
onlinei
st heli
neofbearingobtai
nedf rom ater
restr
ialobj
ectof
knownposition.
THEFI
X Ift
woormoreposit
ionli
nescanbeobt ai
nedatt
hesamemoment,thePosi
ti
on
oft
heshi
pmustbeatt
hei
rpoi
ntofint
ersect
[Link]
ti
ont
husObt
ainedi
sknownasaf i
x.

CALCULATINGTHEPOSITI
ONWheni tisnotpossi
blet
oobtaintheshi
p’sact
ualposi
ti
onby
fi
xing,
aposi
ti
onmaybeworkedupbaseduponthemostrecentf
ix.

DeadReckoni ng( DR)DeadReckoni ngi st heexpr essionusedt odescr i

bet hatposi tion
obtainedf rom thet ruecoursest eeredbyt heshi pandherspeedt hrought hewat er,andfrom
noot herf [Link] ti
on*i st husonl yapproximat efor,whilethespeedt hrought he
waterwi llallow fort heamountbywhi cht heshi p’
sspeedi sreducedori ncreasedbywi nd
andsea,t hereisnoal l
owancef orleeway,t idalstream,cur rent,orsurfacedr ift
.Tr uecour se
steeredt hr ought hewat ermaybeobt ainedf rom thepl ott
ingtableorcour ser ecor derifei
ther
i
savai l
abl [Link] tcanonl ybedet erminedbyt heOf f
iceroft heWat chbyv er
ycl ose
obser vationoft hecour sebeingst [Link] hrought hewat ermaybeobt ainedf rom the
l
og, pr ovidedt hel att
erisreli
ableandt heer rorknownandal l
owedf or.I
fthel ogi sunr eli
able
ornotavai l
able,thent heaver ageengi ner evoluti
onsovert [Link]
revolut i
onsmaybeconv er
tedintospeedt hrought hewat erhavingregardt o:

Estimat edPosi tion( EP)Thi sposi tionist hemostaccur atethatt henavi gatorcanobt ainby
calcul at
ionandest imat iononl [Link] sderivedf rom t heDRposi ti
onadj ustedf ortheest imat ed
effect sofl eeway,t i
dalst ream,cur r
entandsur facedr i
ft
.TheEPmustal waysr emainan
appr oximat eposi t
ion,becauset hesef ourvar iabl ef actorsar ediffi
culttodet ermi neex actly,
alt
houghexper iencegoesal ongwayt or esolvingt hem.I tisessent ialf ort henav i
gatort o
estimat et heef f
ect sasaccur atel
yaspossi ble;eachi snowdescr i
[Link] stheef f
ectof
windi nmovi ngavesselbodi lytol eewar datr ightangl estot hecour sest eer [Link] f
ectof
windi nreduci ngori ncr easingt heshi p’sspeedt hr ought hewat erhasal readybeendescr i
bed
underDeadReckoni [Link] fectofwi ndvar ieswi thever ytypeofshi [Link] igator
shoul dcol l
ectasmuchi nformat ionaspossi bleconcer ningt heef fectsoft hef orceand
dir
ect ion*oft he wi nd on t he behavi orofhi s own shi p and r ecord such dat aint he
Navi gationalDat [Link] actors:
[Link] pspeed:t hehi ghert hespeed, thelesst hel eeway.
[Link] ndspeed:t hehi ghert hecomponentofwi ndspeedatr i
ghtangl est ot hecour se,t he
great ertheleeway.
[Link] tudinalar ea:t hegr eatert her atiooff or eandaf tar eaabovet hewat erli
net ot hat
below, t
hegr eat erthel eeway.
[Link] hofwat er:t heshal l
owert hedept hofwat erinr el
at i
ont othedr aught ,
thel esst he
l
eeway.

Posit
ionPr obabil
it
yArea( PPA)ThePosi ti
onPr obabi l
it
yAr ea( PPA)ist heareaderivedfr
om
a combinat i
on ofappr opri
ate posit
ion li
nes obt ai
ned f rom avai l
able navigat
ionalaids
(i
ncl
udingl ogandcompass) ,aft
erapplyi
ngt her elevantstatisti
calerrorcorrecti
ont oeach
posi
ti
onlinei ntur
[Link] hechar tinthef orm ofanel l
ipsewi t
hamaj oranda
[Link] t
hinthePPA,t heNavigati
ngOf ficerdet ermineshi sMostPr obablePosit
ion
(MPP)whi ch,dependentonthequal i
tyoftheinput,heshoul dt reatasaf ix,
anEPoraDR.

Compassbear i
ngWhent hecompassbearingofanobj ecti
st aken,theposi t
ionli
nethus
obtai
nediscal l
edal ineofbeari
ngWhenabear ingoftheedgeofanobj ecti
staken,i
tis
usualtodist
inguisht heri
ght
-handedgewi ththesymbolandt hel ef
t-handedgewi ththe
symbolAverticaledgegivest
hebestbeari
[Link] ort hehei
ghtofti
de
whent aki
ngthebear i
ngofaslopingedgeofland,asthechart
ededgei sthehighwaterli
ne
(MeanSeaLeveli nareaswherether
earenotides).

FI
XINGTHESHI
P
Afi
xist
heposi
ti
onobt
ainedbyt
hei
nter
sect
ion,atasui
tabl
eangl
e,oft
woormor
eposi
ti
on
l
inesf r
om terrestri
[Link]
esst hepositi
onl i
nesar eobtai
nedatpr act
ical
lythesame
ti
me, oneormor eofthem mustbet ransfer
red,asdescr ibedlat
er.
Themostcommonmet hodsofobtaini
ngaf ixareasf ol
lows:
[Link] i
ngs.
[Link] i
ngandar ange.
[Link] i
ngandasoundi ng.
[Link] i
ngandahor i
zontalangl
efrom whichar angemaybecal cul
ated.
[Link] e.
[Link] ingsofasi ngleobject
,withat i
meint ervalbetweenobservati
ons(runni
ngfix)
.
[Link] ngs.
[Link] er anges.
[Link]
ngai ds(describedinVolumeI I
I)
.
[Link] vati
ons(descri
bedinVol umeI I
).

Thecauseofacockedhatmaybeanyoft hef ollowing:

[Link] nt
ervalbet weenobser vati
ons.
[Link] r
ori
ni denti
fyingt heobj ect .
[Link] r
ori
npl ott
ingt hel i
nesofbear ing.
[Link] vat i
onr esulti
ngfrom thelimitati
onsofthecompass.
[Link] hesur veyort hechar t
.
[Link] rorunknownori ncorrect
lyapplied.
I
ft hecockedhati sl ar ge,thewor kshouldber evi
sedt oel
iminate(1)
,(2)and(3).Error(1)
maybeel i
mi natedbyr educi ngt hetimeintervalorbyapplyingthe‘r
un’,asi
[Link]
(4)shouldneverbegr eatert han¼°wi t
hmoder ncompassr epeat
ersandmaygener all
ybe
disregar
[Link] ror

Fixi
ngbyabeari
ngandar angeAvisualbear
ingmaybecombinedwi
thar angetoobt
aina
fi
[Link]
esofposi
ti
onl
inesfr
om r
angeshavealr
eadybeengi
venint
hischapter
.

Fixingbyal i
neofsoundi ngsWhent herear enoobj ect ssui t
ableforobser vation,iti s
somet i
mespossi blet oobt ai naposi tionfr om soundi [Link] thought hismet hoddoesnot
strictl
yconformt ot hedef i
nitionofaf ixaspr eviousl ygi ven,i nt hatitdoesnoti nv olvethe
i
nt ersecti
onoft woormor eposi t
ionlines,aposi tivei ndicat i
onoft heshi p’
spositioncanbe
obt ai
nedasf [Link] egularinter
val s,not ingt hedept [Link] r
ectthesoundi ngsf or
thehei ghtoftide,alsof ordr aughtifmeasur edbel ow t hekeel .Onapi eceoft racingpaper
drawi namer i
dianofl ongit
udeandapar al
lelofl at i
[Link] ft heship’
sestimatedgr ound
trackatt hescaleoft hechar [Link] ongthist rackpl ott her educedsoundi ngsatt hescal e
oft [Link] acet het r
acingpaperont hechar tint hevi cini
tyoftheship’sEst imated
Posi ti
onand,usi ngt hemer idianandt hepar allelasagui dei nkeepingitappr ox imately
straight,movei taboutunt i
lt hesoundi ngsont het raci ngpapercoi ncidewi t
hthoseont he
char [Link]
equencyatwhi chsoundi ngsshoul dbet akendependsont hespeedoft heshi p
andt hespacingandnat ureoft hesoundi ngsont hechar [Link] ocedureisi
ll
ustratedi nFigs.
9-19and9- [Link] ion:Theappr oximat eposi tionf oundf r
om al i
neofsoundi ngsshoul d
alwaysbeusedwi thcaut i
on, becausei tisof t
enpossi blet of ital i
neofsoundi ngsi nsev eral
posi t
ionsonachar t.

BuoysBuoysar ef l
oatingst r
uctures,mooredtot hebot tom,usedt omar kchannel sand
fai
rways,shoals,banks,r ocks,wrecksandot herdanger st onavigat
ion,whereper manent
str
uctur
eswoul dbeeitheruneconomi [Link] st
incti
vecolour
andshape,theymaycar r
yat opmar kandexhibitli
ght s;alloftheseareofgreatimportance
becausetheyindicatethebuoy’ [Link] sobef i
tt
edwithradarrefl
ector
sand
maysoundbel ls,gongs,whi st
lesorhorns(seeFogsi gnals, page266).

BeaconsAbeaconisanavi
gat
ionalmar
kconstr
uct
edofwood,metal
,concret
e,masonr
yor
gl
ass-r
einf
orcedpl
ast
ic(
GRP),oracombinati
onofthesemater
ial
s,erect
edonori nthe
vicinit
yofdanger ,
oronshor e,asanaidtonavigati
[Link] ndi
catethei
rpur pose,beaconsar e
oftensur mountedbyt opmar kandmayhaveadi sti
ncti
vecolourandmayal soexhi bi
tli
ght s.
Thesef eatur
esallhavet hesamemeani ngasf [Link] geunlitbeaconsar eof ten
referredt oasdaymar ks(daybeaconsi ntheUSAandCanada) .Beaconsf r
equentlyhave
distinguishi
ngmar ksorshapes( refer
redtoas‘daymar k’intheUSAandCanada)bui ltinto
theirstructur
[Link] itt
edwithradarrefl
ectors.I
nitssimplestform,abeaconi s
knownasapi lebeaconandconsi stsofasi ngl
ewoodenorconcr etepileidenti
fi
edonl yby
colourandpossi bl
yanumber .

Sourcesofinf
or mationThebestgui detobuoysandbeaconsf oranyar eaist
helargestscale
chartoft
hepl [Link] ral
tySai
li
ngDi r
ecti
onsdescr ibethebuoyagesyst em
i
nusei nt heareacoveredbyt hevolumeandf requentl
yreferint hetexttoindi
vidualli
ght-
buoyswithoutgi vi
ngadet ai
leddescr ipti
[Link]
lsofbeaconsmayal sobefoundi nt he
Sail
ingDirect
[Link] ralt
yLi stofLightsandFogSi gnalsgi vesdetail
sofl ighted
beacons,andoflight-
buoysofanel evati
onof8met ersormor e.

TheI nternati
onalAssoci ation ofLi ght houseAut horiti
es( IALA)Syst em IALA i sanon-
government albody whi ch br ings toget herr epresent ati
ves f rom the aids t o navigation
servi
cesofvar i
ouscount r
iest oexchangei nformat ionandr ecommendi mpr ovement [Link]
IALAMar i
ti
meBuoyagesyst em cover st hewor l
di nt wor egions,Regi onAandRegi onB,as
showni nFi g.6-1( page105) .Theonl ydi ff
erencebet weent het woregionsi swi t
hr egar dto
thecoloursofl ateralmar ks( page258) .Thei mpl ement ati
onoft heIALASyst em i nRegi onA
i
sexpect edt obecompl etedi nthemi d- 1980s,Regi onBsever alyearslater
.Adescr ipt
ionof
thebuoyagesyst em inRegi onAi ssetoutbel [Link] ulldetai l
softhewor ld-widesyst em in
RegionsAandB,mar inersshoul dr efert oI ALAMar i
timeBuoyageSyst em (NP735)andt he
rel
evantvol umeoft heSai lingDi rections,al lissuedbyt heHydr ogr apheroft heNavy .In
areaswher et heI ALAsyst em hasnotyetbeeni mpl ement ed,i ti
spar t
icul
ar l
yi mpor t
antt o
consulttheSai l
ingDi recti
onsf ordetailsoft hebuoyagesyst em

.
BuoysTheposi tionofbuoysandsmal l
-si
zef l
oat i
ngst r
ucturesmustal waysbet r
eatedwi t
h
cauti
oneveni nnar rowchannel [Link] el
iabletheirposi t
ionsare,accountshould
bet aken oft hosesamef i
vef actorssetoutabovef orlight-vessels,[Link] n
parti
culart
hatbuoyscanqui teeasilydragorbr eakadr i
ft;t
hatt heyar efrequentl
ymov edasa
shoalextends;andt hattheymaynotal waysdi splaythecor rectchar acter
ist
[Link]
alsothatthechar tsymbolcanonl yshowt heappr oximateposi ti
onoft hebuoymoor i
ng,as
therear epracti
call i
mi t
ationsi npl aci
ngandkeepi ngbuoysi nt heexactposi ti
[Link] s
shouldnotbet reat edasi nfall
ibl
eai dstonavigation,parti
cularl
ywheni nanexposedposi t
ion.
Wheneverpossi ble,navi gatebyf ixingfrom char tedshor eobj ects;uset heechosounder ;
checktheDR/ EPagai nsttheposi t
ion;usebutdonotr elyimplicitl
yonbuoys.

TidesandTi dalStr
eamsThi schapterdealswit
ht hecausesandef fectsofthet ides,in
theoryandinpracti
ce,andwi t
ht i
dalstr
eamsandcur rents,andtheAdmi r
alt
yTideTabl es.
[Link]
icalmovement softhewat erontheEar th’[Link]
[Link]
isi
ngandf all
ingt
het i
desareaccompaniedbyper i
odi
chorizontalmovement sof
thewatercall
edti
dalstreams.(
InAmer i
canusage,t
idalst
ream iscal
ledtidalcurr
ent.)

TIDALTHEORYTi desarecausedbyt hegr avitat

ionalpul
lofaheavenlybodyontheEarth
andont hewat erovertheEar t
[Link] tudeoft hepul
lisdefi
nedinNewton’
sUniver
sal
Law ofGr avitat
ion,whichst at
esthat,foranyt woheavenlybodies,af
orceofatt
ract
ionis
exertedbyeachoneont heother,
theforcebei ng:
[Link] t
ionaltotheproductofthemassesoft het wobodies.
[Link]
ypr oporti
onaltothesquareoft hedistancebetweenthem.
[Link] thecentreoftheonetot hecent reoftheot
her.
Thislawmaybeexpr essedas
TheEar th-MoonSyst em TheEar thandMoonmaybeconsi deredasf ormi ngani ndependent
system rotat
ingaboutacommoncent reofgr avi
tyknownast heEar t
h-Moonbar ycent r e(The
barycentreli
esonal i
nej oini
ngt hecent er
sofgr avi
tyoft heEar t
handMoonatapoi ntabout
1000mi lesbel ow t heEar th’
ssur f
[Link] thdescr ibesaver ysmal lell
ipseaboutt he
Earth-
Moonbar ycentre,whi l
et heMoondescr i
besamuchl ar
gerel l
ipseaboutt hesame
barycentre,t
aking27½ daysappr oximatel
yt ocompl eteoneor bi
t.*Asexpl ainedi nVol umeII
ofthismanual ,theMoonr evol
vesar oundt heEar thwithr especttot heSunappr ox imat el
y
onceever y29½ [Link] speri
odi sknownast hel unarmont [Link] th-Moonsy st em the
gravit
ati
onalf orceoft heMoonact i
ngont heEar th* i
nasi milarmanner ,theEar th-Moon
barycentredescr ibes,anel li
pti
calor bitaroundt heEarth-Sunbar ycentrel ocatedi nsi det he
[Link]( 365¼daysappr oxi
mat el
y)fortheEar thtocompl eteoneor bitar ound
theSun.

Thegr avit
ati
onalf orceThegr avit
at ionalfor ceoft heMoonact sont heEar thasawhol e
affecti
ngt hest r
uctur eoft heEar t
hi tself
,ont heatmospher eandont hewat eront heEar t
h’s
surface,andi tist hisl att
erphenomenonwhi chisr el
evantwhenconsi der
ingt hecausesof
ti
[Link] sthedi amet eroft heEar t
hont helinejoiningthecentersoft heEar thandMoon, M
beingt hepointont heEar th’ssur facedi r
ectlyundert heMoonandknownast hesubl unar
point.M1i sont heopposi tesideoft heEar t
hawayf r
om M andi sknownast heantipode.A
andBar etwopoi ntsont hegr eatci rcl
ewhosepl anei sperpendiculartoMM1,andatal l
pointsont hi
sci rclet hedi stancef rom t heMoonmaybeconsi deredast hesame*ast hat
fr
om t hecentreoft heEar [Link] hegr avitat
ionalforceexert
edbyt heMoonanywher eon
ABi sthesameandi sdenot [Link] t hedi stancetotheMoonhasdecr eased;t
hus, the
gravit
at i
onalf orce act ing atM i si ncreased by a smal lamountδG,whi l
e atM1 t he
gravit
at i
onalforce

EffectofEar th’sr otation t he Ear th when t he Moon i s above t he Earth’

s equat or,i.e.
decl i
nation*0° .TheEar throt atesr elat i
vet otheMoononceever ylunardayof24hour s50
mi nutesappr oxi mat elyandt hus,dur ingt hisper iod,anobser veratpoi ntM wi llex perience
twohi ghwat ersonceever y12hour s25mi nutes,i nt
er sper sedwi t
ht wolow wat ersal so12
hour s25mi nutesapar [Link] si si l
lustratedi n* Decl i
nat i
oni sdef i
nedi nI tist heangul ar
distanceofaheavenl ybodynor t
horsout hoft hecel est ialequator,andcor respondst o
l
at i
tudeont heEar [Link] ghwat ert akespl aceshor tl
yaf tertheMoon’ st r
ansit(upperandl ower )
oft hemer idi
an*oft hepl [Link] i
ghtdel ayi sasi deef fectoft heEar t
h’sr [Link]
rangeoft hisequi l
ibri
um t i
deatt heequat or-t hati s,t hedi ff
erencei nhei ghtbet ween
successi vehi ghandl owwat ers-i sl esst han1met [Link] hedecl i
nati
oni szer o,thet i
de-
raisingf or
cesont heequat orwi l
lbeequal .Atanyot herpoi ntPont heEar t
h’ssur facenor th
orsout hoft heequat or,thet i
de- raisingf or ceswi l
lstillbeequalbutnotsogr eatasatt he
equat or,andwi l
lvar yappr oxi mat elywi tht hecosi neoft hel atit
[Link]*Thi sist het imeat
whi cht heMooncr ossest hemer i
dianoft hepl acet imei ntervalsbetweensuccessi vehi gh
and l ow wat erswi l
lst i
llbet hesameast hoseon t heequat or,6 hour s12½ mi nutes
appr [Link] i
de-raisingf orces,pr oduci ngt woequalmaxi maandt woequalmi ni
ma
perl unardayatequalt imei nter vals,ar et ermedsemi -diurnal( onecycleperhal f-day ).When
theMoon’ sdecl inationiszer o, thet i
de- raisingf orcesar esemi -
diur
nalforalllati
tudes.

ChangeofMoon’ sdecl inationTheef fectoft heMoon’ sdecl

inati
onisshowni nFi g.11-10.
Themaxi mum t i
deoccur sasbef or eatthesubl unarandant i
podalpointsM [Link]
pointPont heEar th’ssur f
ace,notonl yar etheheight sofsuccessivehi ghandl ow wat ers
diff
erent
,thet i
mei ntervalsal sochange,asi ll
ust
ratedi [Link] sef f
ectisknownast he
diurnali
nequali
ty,aphenomenoncommonl yfoundint [Link] heEar t
h’s
surfacewherethel ati
tudei sgr eaterthan90°mi nust heMoon’ sdeclinati
on,thetide-r
aisi
ng
forceneverreacheszer [Link] seffecti sil
lustr
[Link] urnalti
deAtQt hereisonl yone
highwaterandonel owwat ereveryl unardayandt hist ypeoftideiscall
eddiurnal(onecycl e
perday).TheMoon’ sdecl inati
onchangesf rom amaxi mum*nor thtoamaxi mum sout hand
backagai
nonceevery27adaysapproxi
mately;t
hus,asi
milareffectont
het
idecausedby
theMoon’
sdecl
inat
ional
onewil
lbeexperi
encedroughl
yever
yf or
tnight
.

Thedi stanceoft heMoonAst heMoonr otat

esaroundtheEar thapproximat
elyonceev ery
27½ days, thetide-
r aisi
ngforceisstrongestwhentheMooni sclosestt
otheEarth,thatis,at
peri
gee( peri
geant ide).Thet i
de-rai
singforceisweakestwhent heMooni sfurthestaway,
thati
s, atapogee( apogeant ide).Thevari
ati
onintheMoon’ sdist
ancecancauseadi ff
erence
i
nt helunart ideraisingforceofbet ween15%and20%;t hus,ti
desatper i
geearelikel
ytobe
appreciablyhighert hanthoseatapogee.

TheEar th-Sunsyst em
TheEar thandSunmaybeconsi der edasf orminganotheri ndependentti
der ai
singsystem
rotat
ingar oundt heEar th-
Sunbar ycentreAlthought heSunhasamuchgr eatermasst han
theMoon,t heSun’ st ider aisingforcei sneverthel
essonl yabout45%t [Link] s
i
sbecauset hetide-raisingf orceisinverselyproporti
onaltothecubeoft [Link] i
de
-rai
singef f
ect soft heSunont heEar tharesi mil
artot hoseoft heMoon,t houghofl esser
magni t
[Link], t
het idescausedbyt heSunwi l
lvaryaccordingto:
[Link] th’[Link] ardayi sapproximately24hour s;thus,t
hesol arequili
bri
um
semi -
diurnalt i
de,when t he sun’s declinati
on is* Overan 18. 6 yearcycle,the Moon’ s
maxi mum mont hlydecl inat i
onosci l
latesbetweenabout18½°and28½°andbackagai n.

Earth- Sunsyst em zer owillhavet wohi ghwat er s12hour sapart,inter

spersedwithtwol ow
wat ersal so12hour [Link] i
mei ntervalbet weensuccessi vehighandl owwat er
swillbe
6hour [Link]’ sdecl i
nat [Link]’ sdecl i
nati
onchangesmuchmor eslowl y
thant hatoft heMoonandr eachesamaxi mum ofabout23½°nor thandsout hoftheequat or
onabout22ndJuneand22ndDecemberr espect i
vely,thesedat esbeingknownast he
[Link] di stance oft he Sun.I tt akes the Ear t
h about1 year ,365¼ day s
appr oxi mat el
y,t ocompl eteitsellipti
calor bitar oundt [Link] iheli
on,whent heEarthi s
closestt otheSun, occursabout2ndJanuar y, andaphel i
on,whent heEarthisfur
thestaway,
i
sabout1stJul [Link],theSun’ st ide-r
aisingf or cewil
lbeati tsmaxi mum inJanuaryandat
i
tsmi ni mum i nJul [Link] i
ationi nthisf or
cei s,however,verysmal li
ndeed,oftheorderof
3%.

Spri
ngsandNeapsWhenthetide-
rai
singef
fect
softheMoonandSunar
ecombi
ned,t
hey
someti
meswor
ktoget
herandsometimesagai
nsteachot
her
.

Springtidestwiceeveryl
unarmonth, t
heMoonandSunar einli
newi t
heachot herandwith
theEarth,atnewMoon,t heMooni spassingbet weentheSunandt heEart
h;theMoonand
Sunar esaidt obeact i
nginconjuncti
on.About14¾ daysl at
er,atful
lMoon,t heEarthis
betweent heMoonandSun,whi charenowact i
nginopposit
ionThenetresulti
nbot hcases
i
samaxi mum t i
de-r
aisi
ng f
orce,producing whatisknown asaspr i
ng ti
[Link] i
ng,
ther
efore,higherhighwatersandl owerlow watersthanusualwil
lbeexper i
enced,these
occurri
ngataboutt heti
meofnewandf ul
lMoon.

Neapti
destwiceeveryl
unarmont
h,i.
[Link]
y14¾ days,
theMoonandSunareatr
ight
angl
estoeachother,
asshowninFig.11-
[Link]
imestheMoonandSunaresai
dtobe
i
nquadrat
ure.

Typesoft idalst
reamsTi dalstr
eamsar eoftwomai nt ypes,recti
li
nearandr [Link]
hasonl ytwodi r
ecti
ons( wit
hperhapssmal lvari
ati
ons) ,whichmaybecal ledthef l
ood(the
i
ncomi ngtidalstr
eam)ort heebb( theoutgoi
ngtidalstream)or ,preferabl
y,east-westgoing,
nort
h-southgoing,[Link]
idalstr
eamsar econt i
nuallychangingi ndir
ection;theyrot
at e
thr
ough360°i nacompl etecycl
[Link] at
eoft hetidalstream usuallyvariesthroughoutthe
cycl
e,wi t
ht womaxi mai napproximatel
yoppositedi r
ectionsinterspersedwi t
ht womi ni
ma
abouthal f
waybet weent hemaxi mai ntimeanddi recti
[Link] tapproaches,est uar
ies,
channelsandst rai
ts,wheret hedi recti
onoft heflowoft hetidalstream i
sconst r
ictedbythe
surr
oundi ng land and shoal s,t he t i
dalst reams ar erect i
li
near .Off
shore,wher e such
rest
ri
ctionsnol ongerex i
st,thetidalst reamsar er [Link]
dalst reams,li
ketides,havesemi-
diur
naland di urnalcomponent s( i
ncluding a di urnalinequality)and may be anal yzed
harmoni call
yornohar moni call
y.I nEur opeanwat ers,ti
dalst r
eamsar eforthemostpar tof
thesamet ypeast het i
des,thatis, theyar esemi -
diurnalinchar [Link]
esoft hestr
eam
arerelatedt ot her angeoft het ide,andt het i
mesofsl ackwat erarerel
atedt obutnot
necessar i
lyidenti
calwiththet imesofhi ghandl owwat erat

MeanHi ghWat erSpr ings( MHWS) ,MeanLow Wat erSpr ings( MLWS) .Thehei ghtofMean
HighWat erSpr ingsi st heaver ageoft hehei ght soft wosuccessi vehi ghwat ersdur ingt hose
periodsof24hour s( appr oximat elyever yfor tnight)whent her angeoft het idei sgr eatest.
Thisiscomput edt hroughoutt heyearwhent heaver agemaxi mum decl inationoft hemooni s
23½° .Thehei ghtofMeanLow Wat erSpr i
ngsi st heaver agehei ghtobt ainedf rom t wo
successi velowwat ersdur ingt hesameper [Link] ghWat erNeaps( MHWN) ,MeanLow
Wat erNeaps( MLWN) .Thehei ghtofMeanHi ghWat erNeapsi st heaver aget hroughoutt he
year,as above,oft he hei ght s oft wo successi ve high wat er s dur ing t hose per iods
(approximatelyever yf ortnight)whent her angeoft het ideisl east .Thehei ghtofMeanLow
Wat erNeapsi st heaver agehei ghtobt ainedf rom twosuccessi vel owwat ersdur i
ngt hesame
[Link] deLevel *( MTL) .MeanTi deLeveli st hemeanoft hehei ghtsofMHWS,
MHMW,[Link] *( MSL) .MeanSeaLeveli st heaver agel evelof
theseasur faceoveral ongper iod,pref erabl y18. 6year s,ort heaver agel evelwhi chwoul d
existint heabsenceoft [Link] gherHi ghWat er( MHHW) .Thehei ghtofMeanHi gher
HighWat erist hemeanoft hehi gheroft het wodai l
yhi ghwat er soveral ongper iodoft ime.
Whenonl yonehi ghwat eroccur sinaday, thisi stakenast hehi gherhi ghwat [Link]
HighWat er(MLHW) .Thehei ghtofMeanLowerHi ghWat eri st hemeanoft hel oweroft he
twodai lyhighwat ersoveral ongper iodoft i
[Link] yonehi ghwat eroccur sonsome
days,_i sprintedi nt heMLHW col umnoft heTi deTabl est oi ndi catet hatt het idei susual ly
[Link] gherLowWat er( MHLW) .Thehei ghtofMeanHi gherLowWat erist hemean
ofthehi gheroft het wodai l
yl owwat ersoveral ongper iodoft [Link] yonel owwat er
occur sonsomedays,_i spr intedi ntheMHLW col umnoft het idet ablet oindi catet hatthe
ti
dei susuallydi [Link] er( MLLW) .Thehei ghtofMeanLowerLowWat er
i
st hemeanoft hel oweroft het wodai lylowwat ersoveral ongper iodoft [Link] yone
l
ow wat eroccur sonaday,t hisist akenast hel owerl ow wat er.* TheMeanLev el( ML)
tabulatedint heTi deTabl esi sMeanTi deLeveli nVol ume1andMeanSeaLeveli nVol umes
[Link] deLevel satanyonepl acemaydi fferbecauseofdi stor t
ioni nthe
ti
dalcur veresul tingf rom shal lowwat eref f
ect s.

Echosounderthel
eastdept
hexpect
edoneachl
egofthepl anmustbeknownandthought
gi
ventothecourseofacti
ontobetakeni
ftheechosounderreadi
ngfal
lsbel
ow t
heleast
dept
[Link]
deacl eari
ngdept
hsimil
arinusetoa
cl
eari
ngbeari
ng.

Useoft heechosounderThei ntel

l
igentuseoft heechosounderisessent
ialt
othesafe
conductofpi l
[Link]
ctedhei ghtoft
idemustbetakenintoaccountatal
lti
mes.
Reportsfrom theechosounderoperatororthereadi
ngonthebr i
dgedispl
ayunitmustbe
givenproperattent
ion.

BuoysBuoy sar ean essent i

alaidin pil
otage,especial
lyin narrow channels,butt heir
posi
tionscanvar yfrom thatchar
tedwiththestateoftheti
[Link] ag,part
icul
arlyif
i
nanexposedposi ti
on;t heycanalsoberepositi
onedt omar kanext endi
ngshoaloraltered
channel,withoutimmedi atenoti
fi
cati
[Link] rustbuoysi mplici
tl
[Link] he
character
ist
icsbyni ght,andthename,number ,[Link] xfr
om charted
shoreobjectsinpreferencetobuoys,usi
[Link] einareaswherei ti
s
knownt hatchannelsshiftandthebuoysarereposit
ionedaccordi
[Link] t
sandSai li
ng
Dir
ecti
onsmaygi vewar ningofsuchar eas,forexamplethechannelsinthevi
cini
tyoft
he
Goodwi nSandsandi nt heThamesEst [Link] ngabuoy,i t
sposit
ionmaybe
checkedbyt r
ansit
switht wo,pref
erabl
yt hr
ee,[Link]
he
i
dentif
icat
ionofbuoysandi nchecki
ngtheirposit
ions.

Tides,t idalst r
eamsandwi ndForanumberofr easons,t hepr edictedhei ghtoftidemaybe
dif
f erentf rom t hatact uallyexper i
enced,per hapsbyasmuchas1oreven2met [Link] s
par ti
cular l
ydependentont heweat her,asexpl ainedi nChapt [Link] dalstreamsexper i
enced
maynotal waysagr eewi tht hepr edicti
ons,par ti
cul ar
lyatspr ings,andt heactualt i
meofa
changeofdi rectioncanbeasmuchas1t o2hour sdiff
[Link] hedirecti
onand
ratebynot ingt heheadi ngoft heshi psatanchorandt hewashoft het idalstream past
moor edobj [Link] endst odecei ve;theact ualstrengt hofthest r
eam in
knot sisnotal waysasgr eatasi tappear st [Link] eallowancef orcr oss-t
idal
stream andwi nd, becausei tisdiffi
culttor ecovert hetrackhavi ngbeensetdownst ream ofi t
,
especi allywhenspeedi [Link] esst hedi stancet othenext‘ wheelover ’positi
on, t
he
l
argermustbet hecor rectiont oregai [Link] pisupst ream oft hel i
ne,thereisno
dif
f i
cul t
yi nr [Link] eal l
owancemustbemadef ortidalst r
eamsandwi nd
whent ur ni
ng;t he‘ wheelover ’pointmayhavet obeadj ustedasexpl ai
[Link] nd
directionandst r
engt haf f
ectnotonl ytheleewaybutal sot heturningci r
clei t
self
.At urnmay
havet obest artedear lyorl ate,usingmor eorl esswheelasappr opr
iate,dependi ngont he
combi nedef fectsofst ream andl eewayont heturni ngcircl
e.

Reflectionfrom obj ectsMet alandwat erarebetterref l

ectorsofr adarthanar ewood,st one,
sandorear t
h.I ngener al,
however,theshapeandsi zeofanobj ecthaveagr eat ereffectoni t
s
echoingpr oper ti
est hani t
scomposi ti
[Link] hesi zeofanobj ectmaygi veamor e
extensivebutnotnecessar i
[Link] heobjectdictateswhet herthe
refl
ectedener gyi sdif f
usedoverawi dearcorconcent ratedintoabeam di r
ect edback
towardst her [Link] latplanemaypr oduceaver yst rongechowhenatr ightangl est othe
radarbeam butaver yweakoneot [Link] facest endt oscattertheener gyand
thuspr oduceapoorechoas,f orexampl e,withconi calshapedl i
ghthousesandbuoys.
Cornerr efl
ectorspr ovideameansofi mpr ovi
ngt her adarr esponsef r
om smal ltargetssuch
asbuoys,boat sorbeacons,whi chwoul dotherwisegi veapoorechoowi ngt ot heirsize,
shapeorconst ructi
onmat eri
al

Blunder sBl
underistheter
m usedt odescri
beami [Link],thenavigatormay
forgettoapplytheer
rorinthecompassort hedeckwat ch,orhemayappl yiti
nt hewrong
dir
ect i
[Link]
sar
enoteasi l
yreveal
[Link]
esneedt obedevel opedwhichhelpto
eli
mi natet
[Link]
ionalwor
kshouldalwaysbecr oss-
checked.

CELESTI ALSPHERE
BASI CDEFINI TIONSANDSTRUCTURE
TheCel est
ialSpher e
Toanobser veronEar th,theskyhast heappearanceofani nvert
edbowl ,sot hatthestar s
andot herheavenl ybodies,ir
respecti
veoftheiractualdistancefr
om t heEarth,appeartobe
si
tuatedont hei nsi
deofaspher eofi mmenser adiusdescr i
bedaboutt heEar thascent re.
Thisiscalledt heCel esti
alSpher e(Fig1-1).TheEar th’saxis,i
fpr oduced,woul dcutt he
Celesti
alSpher eattheCel est
ialPoles(P,P’
).TheEar t
h’sequat or
,ifproduced,wouldcutt he
Celesti
alSpher eattheCelestialEquat
or(Q,Q’).
Fi
g1-
[Link]
est
ialSpher
e,Cel
est
ialPol
esandCel
est
ialEquat
or

AngularDistanceBetweent heSt ar
s
Theappear anceofthest arsont heCelestialSphereconveysnoideaoftheiractualdistances
fr
om t [Link] arschosenatr andom mayact ual
lybeatvast l
ydiffer
entdi stances
fr
om earth,butasbot har edeemedt oresideont hesurfaceoftheCelesti
alSphere,t heonly
pract
icalmethodofmeasur ingtheirrel
ativepositi
onsistomeasur etheanglebetweent hem.
Thisanglei sknownasanAngul arDi [Link] hest ar
sarei mmenselyf araway,t he
AngularDistancesofst arsr emainvirt
ual l
yconst antwit
hintheordinar
ylimitsoft [Link]
posit
ionofaheavenl ybodyont hecelestialspherecanbedef i
nedbyt woAngularDi stances-
‘
Declinat
ion’and‘HourAngl e’

ApparentPat hoftheSuni ntheCelesti

alSpher e
[Link] ipti
[Link]
besanel l
ipti
calorbitar
oundt heSunwhi chtakesoneyeart o
[Link] entpathoft heSuni nt heCelesti
alSphereisknownasEcl i
pt i
[Link]
sa
GreatCircle,andmakesanangl eof23°27'( 23½° )wit
ht heCelesti
alEquatorbecauset he
Eart
h’saxi sofr ot
ati
onistilt
edbyt hatamountf rom theperpendicul
artot heplaneoft he
Eart
h’sor bit(Fi
g1-2).Theanglebetweent hepl aneoft heCelest
ialEquatorandt hatofthe
Ecli
pti
cisknownast heObliquit
yoftheEcl i
ptic

[Link]
ialEquator,
Planeoft heEcl i
pti
candFi r
stPointofAri
es
[Link],Tropics,Solst
icesandEqui [Link]
enceoft heEart
h’s23°27'til
tisof
fundamentalimportancetol i
feonear th,asi tdefi
nesthelimit
softhet ropi
cs,causesthe
seasonstochangeandt helengthofdayl i
ghtt ovaryduri
ngtheyear(outsidetheequat
orial
regi
onwher everyli
ttl
echanget akesplace).TheextentoftheSun’sapparentmovementcan
beest abli
shedbypl ott
ingtheLat i
tudeofposi ti
onsonEar thwher ethenoonsuni sdirectly
overheadatsomet i
medur i
ngtheyear( Fig1- 3).TheSunisdi r
ectl
yovert heEquatoratthe
Spri
ngEqui nox(21Mar ch)
,movesnor t
htoLat it
ude23½°att heSummerSol sti
ce(21June) ,
backtot heEquat oratt
heAut umnEqui nox( 23Sept ember
),movessout htoLati
tude23½°at
theWi nterSolst
ice(22December )andbackt otheEquatorattheSpringEquinox(21Mar ch).
Theseasonalchangescausedbyt hisapparentmovementoft hesunthroughtheyearhavea
prof
oundef fectonoceancur rents,weathersyst emsandover al
lcli
[Link] ol
ogical
ecosystemsi nthewor l
ddependont heseseasonalchangesf orthei
rexist
ence(Fig1-4)
.

TheFi rstPoi ntofAr ies

Tomeasur eAngul arDistances,af i
xedpoi ntinspacei sneededasadat um;ast arlocat ed
wheret heEcl ipti
ccut stheCel est i
alEquat orwoul dbei dealfort [Link] heear l
yGr eek
astr
onomer sst ar
tedt omakeobser vat i
ons, theEcl i
pticcuttheCel est i
alEquat oratt heSpr ing
Equinox( 21stMar ch)i nthevicinityoft heconst el
lati
onofAr i
es;onest aront heedgeoft he
constellat
ion, knownast heFi r
stPoi ntofAr i
es( _),wasper fectl
yal i
gnedandsowassel ected
asthisdat um ( Fi
g1- 2).Overtime,duet osl owPr ecessionoft heear th’stil
t(seePar a0544f
foraf ullexpl anationofPr ecessi on) ,therehasbeenabackwar dmovementoft hepoi ntof
i
ntersect i
onoft heEcl i
pti
candt heCel estialEquat [Link] esult,
Ar ieshas‘ apparentlymov ed
away’f rom t hisposi ti
[Link] ,thename‘ FirstPointofAr ies’(nor mal l
yabbr eviatedt o
|
‘Ari
esor_ _’
)f orthespr i
ngi ntersect ionoft heEcl ipti
candt heCel estialEquat orhasbeen|
ret
ainedast hedat um f orcalcul ationsandt abl eseversi nce,event houghnost arnow
occupiest hisposi t
[Link] t
ionoft heaut umni nter
sectionoft heCel estialEquat orand
theEcliptic(23r dSept ember)isknownast heFirstPoi ntofLibra.

Decl i
nationandPar allelsofDecl i
nation
Decl i
nationcor r
espondst ot err
estri
alLat i
tudepr ojectedont ot heCel esti
alSpher eandi st he
Angul arDi stanceoft heheavenl ybodynor thorsout hoft heCel estialEquat or( Fig1- 6).A
Par al
lelofDecl i
nat
ioncor r
espondst oat errestrialpar all
elofLat i
tudeandi saSmal l Ci
rcle
ont heCel estialSphere, withi tsplanepar alleltot hepl aneoft heCel estialEquat [Link] e1- 1.
Althought heconceptofpr ojecti
ngt errestrialLat it
udeont ot heCel estialSpher ei saver y
gooddescr iption,‘
Declinat i
on’shoul dneverbedescr i
bedas‘ Celest
ialLat i
tude’becauset his
termi susedbyast ronomer stomeasur eanAngul arDi st
ance,r eferencedt ot heEcl i
ptic
ratherthant heCel est
ialEquat or.‘
CelestialLat i
tude’ hasnousei nthenavi gationalpr oblem.
HourAngl es
HourAngl esl ooselycor respondt ot err
est r
ialLongi t
udepr ojectedont ot heCel estialSpher e,
butt heanal ogyi scompl i
cat ed byt heeast erl
yr ot ati
on oft heEar th whi ch cont i
nual ly
changessomeAngul arDi stanceswi tht i
me.I twasbecauseoft hi
sf undament alli
nkt ot ime
thatt het erm HourAngl eswasused t o descr i
bet hismeasur ement .Ther ear esev eral
variantsofHourAngl ewhi ch,dependi nguponwhi cht wobodi esar et ober eferencedf or
measur ement ,can beadded orsubt racted to calculatet her equir
ed Angul arDi stance.
Furtherdet ail
soft hesear eatChapt er4butdonotconcer nst udent sstudyingf ort heRoy al
NavyNWC ( NavigationalWat chkeepi ngCer t
if
icat
e)exceptf amili
ari
tywi tht het i
tl
esand
wher et ol ookupt hedat aifusi ngt heSt arFinderandI dentifi
er(Paras01312and0324)or
TheNaut icalAl manacPl anetDi agram ( Para0133) .Abr iefsummar yoft heset ermsi sas
foll
ows:
[Link] ealHourAngl e(SHA) .TheSi derealHourAngl e( SHA)i salmostst ati
cf orst arsandi s
tabulatedonceper3daysf orstar sandpl anetsinTheNaut icalAlmanac.
[Link] on( RA) .RightAscensi on( RA)isthesameasSHAexceptmeasur ed
eastwar ds( ratherthanwest war dsasi nSHA) .ThusRA=360°-SHA.
[Link] eenwi chHourAngl es(GHA) .TheGr eenwichHourAngl e( GHA)oft heFi r
stPoi ntAries(_
)andt heGHAsoft heSun,MoonandPl anetsar et abulatedhour -by-hour( andcanbe
establishedt ot hesecondusi ngI ncrementTabl es)inTheNaut i
calAlmanac.
[Link] e( LHA) .TheLocalHourAngl e(LHA)i sGHAoft hebody+/ -
theobser vers’Longi tude.
Not e1- [Link] t
hought heconceptofpr ojectingterr
estri
alLongi tudeont otheCel estialSpher eis
ausef ulanal ogy,‘HourAngl es’shoul dneverbedescr ibedas‘ Celesti
alLongi tude’because
thi
st ermi susedbyast r
onomer st omeasur eanAngul arDi stance,referencedt ot heEcl ipt
ic
ratherthant heCel estialEquat or
.‘ Celesti
alLongitude’ hasnousei nthenavi gational problem.

[Link] SIBLESUNRI [Link] si bleSunr iseorSunsetoccur swhent heSun’ sUpper

Limb( UL)appear sont heVi si
bl eHor i
zon( i
[Link] entAl titudeoft heSun( UL)i s0°00' ).
Thet i
mesofVi sibl eSunr iseandSunsetf orLat itudes60° St o72° N ar edi splayedonr ight
handpagesofTheNaut icalAl [Link] imes, whi char egi vent ot henear estmi nute,are
theUToft heSunr i
se/Sunsetont heGr eenwi chMer i
dianf ort hemi ddl edayoft het hree
dayscover edbyeachdoubl epage.
[Link]( THEORETI CAL)SUNRI [Link] ue( Theor etical )Sunr iseorSunsetoccur s
whent heSun’ scent rei sont heCel est ialHor i
zon,butduet oAt mospher icRef ract i
ont he
Sun’ sLowerLi mbappear st obeoneSemi -Diamet erabovet heVi si bleHor izon.
TWI LIGHT
Twi l
ighti st heper iodoft hedaywhent heSuni sbet ween0°and18°bel ow t heCel estial
Hor i
[Link] ingTwi light, al t
hought heSuni sbel owt heCel estialHor izon, theobser verisst il
l
receivingl ightr ef lect edandscat teredbyt heupperat mospher e.
[Link] VILTWI LIGHT( CT) .Thet imesofMor ni ngCi vilTwi l
ight(MCT)andEveni ngCi vilTwi l
ight
(ECT)ar et abulat edi nTheNaut i
calAl manacf ort hemomentwhent heSun’ scent reis6°
below t heCel est ialHor [Link] imesar eshowni nchr onol ogi calor derandt het erms
‘
Mor ning’and‘ Eveni ng’ar eomi [Link] si sr oughl yt het i
meatwhi cht hehor i
zonbecomes
clear( mor ni ng)orbecomesi ndistinct( eveni ng).
[Link] CALTWI LIGHT( NT).Thet imesofMor ningNaut i
calTwi light( MNT)andEv ening
Naut icalTwi l
ight( ENT)ar et abul atedi nTheNaut icalAl manacf ort hemomentwhent he
Sun’ scent reis12°bel owt heCel estialHor [Link] er ms‘ Mor ning’ and‘ Eveni ng’ar eomi tted
ast het imesar ei nchr onol ogicalor der .Mor ningandeveni ngst ar sar eusual l
yt akenbet ween
thet i
mesofCi vilTwi l
ight( CT)andNaut i
calTwi l
ight( NT) .
[Link] CALTWI [Link] imeofAst ronomi calTwi light( AT)i st hemomentwhen
theSun’ scent rei s18°bel owt heCel est i
alHor i
[Link] lsttheSun’ scent rei s18°orgr eater
belowt heCel est ialHor i
zon, ‘
Tot alDar kness’ (
withr espectt ot heSun)i sdeemedt oexi stand
obser vat i
onsbyast ronomer smayusef ullyt akepl [Link] imesofAst ronomi calTwi l
ight
(AT)havenosi gni ficancei nsol vingt heast ro-navi gationpr obl em andsoATt i
mesar enot
tabulat edi nTheNaut icalAl manac.
GEOGRAPHI CPOSI TI ONOFAHEAVENLYBODY
TheGeogr aphi cPosi ti
onofaheavenl ybodyi stheposi ti
onwher eal inedr awnf rom t hebody
tothecent reoft heEar t
h, cutst heEar th’ssur f
[Link] veratt heGeogr aphi cPosi ti
on,
theheavenl ybodywoul dappeart obedi rect l
yover head, i
[Link] heObser ver ’
sZeni th(Z) .
GREATCI RCLESANDSMALLCI RCLES
GreatCi r
cl esandSmal lCi rclesar edef inedanddi scussedi nBR 45Vol [Link] he
conveni enceofr eader st hei rdefiniti
onsar erepeat edher e:
GREATCI RCLEThei ntersect ionofaspher icalsur faceandapl anewhi chpassest hr ought he
cent reoft hespherei sknownasaGr eatCircle.I
ti stheshor t
estdi stancebet weent wopoi nts
ont hesur faceofaspher e.
SMALLCI RCLEThei ntersect ionofaspher icalsur faceandapl anewhi chdoesNOT
Passt hrought hecent reoft hespher eisknownasaSmal lCi rcle.
MERI DIAN
AMer i
diani sasemi-Gr eatCi rcleont heEar t
h’ssur facewhi chal sopassest hroughbot h
Poles.
GREENWI CHMERI DIAN
TheGr eenwi chMer idiani sal soknownast hePr imeMer idi an, andpassest hr oughGr eenwi ch.
Itist hest art
ingpoi nt( 0°)f ort hemeasur ementofLongi tude,EastandWestf rom this
Mer idian.
RHUMBLI NEAl i
neont heEar t
h’ ssurfacewhi chcut sMer i
dians( ofLongitude)andPar al
lels
(ofLat it
ude)att hesameangl eisknownasaRhumbLi ne.I tappear sonMer catorChar t
sasa
straightlineandequat est ot he( True)compasscour sest eer ed.I tisNOTal wayst heshor test
distancebet weentwopoi nt sont hesur faceofaspher e.
OBSERVER’ SZENI TH( Z)
TheObser ver’
sZeni th( Z)i st hepoi ntwher east r
aightl inef rom t heEar t
h’scentrepassi ng
throught heobser ver’st er r
est r
ialposi t
ioncut st heCel est ialSpher e,andmaybedescr i
bed
(l
oosel y)ast hepoi ntont heCel est i
alSpher edirect l
yabovet heobser ver
.TheDecl i
nationof
thispoi nt(Z)ont heCel est ialSpher ei sequaltot heobser ver ’
sLat itude.

CELESTIALHORIZON TheCel esti

alHor i
zonisaGr eatCir
cleont heCelesti
alSphere,
ever
ypointofwhichis90°from t
heObser ver
’sZeni
th(
Z).Itcor
respondstot
hepr oject
ionof
theterr
est
ri
alhorizonontot heCel esti
alSphere,butwithouttheer r
orsassociatedwith
atmospher
icopt
icalref
ract
ionattheVi si
bleHori
zon.

VISIBLEHORI ZON TheVi si

bleHor
izoni
sposit
ionontheEart
h’ssur
facewhereastrai
ght
l
inedr awnfrom anobser
ver,atagi
venHei
ghtofEye,
meetst
heEarth’
ssurf
aceasatangent
t
ot hatsurf
ace.

ALTITUDE( OFAHEAVENLYBODY) Al t
it
udeis(l
oosel
y)descr
ibedastheanglebet
ween
a‘horizon’andtheheavenl
ybody,butnor mall
yhast obequal i
fi
edasSextantAlt
it
ude,
ApparentAlti
tude,Obser
ved(Tr
ue)Alti
tudeorCalculat
ed(Tabulat
ed)Alt
it
udedepending
which‘hori
zon’i
susedandwhichcor
rect
ionsareappl
ied.

SEXTANTALTI TUDE Sext

antAlt
itudeofaheavenl
ybodyi stheangl
emeasur
edbya
sext
antbetweentheVi
sibl
eHor i
zonandt hebodyonaVert
icalCi
rcl
etowar
dst
heObser
ver
’s
Zeni
th(Z)andmustbecorrect
edbeforeuse.

APPARENTALTI TUDE Appar

entAlt
it
udeofaheavenl
ybodyi
sSext
antAl
ti
tudecor
rect
ed
forI
ndexEr
rorandHei
ghtofEye(Di
p).

OBSERVED(TRUE)ALTITUDE Obser
ved(
True)Al
ti
tudei
sAppar
entAl
ti
tudecor
rect
edf
or
at
mospher
icref
ract
ionerr
ors.

VERTICALCI RCLESAllGreat Ci r
cles passing through t he Observer’
s Zeni t
h( Z) are
necessar
ilyper
pendicul
artotheCel est
ialHori
zonandar eknownasVer ti
calCir
cles.
METEOROLOGY
ATMOSPHERE Theairwhi chisref
er r
edtoasthe´ at
mospher e´coversthewhol esur
face
oftheEar t
hintheform ofat hinfi
[Link] fofthetotalweightofthisairiswithinabout3½
milesofthesurf
aceofearthiscall
edat mosphere.
PRESSURE Consi derthecol umnofai rrest
ingononesquar einchoft heEar t
h´ssurf
ace.
Thiscolumn hasa cr oss-secti
on ofone squar ei nch and heightequalt ot hatoft he
atmospher [Link] ghti sabout14½pounds, andt hi
swei ght ,whi chi scalledt heat mospher e
pressur e, measur edbyt hebar omet er .
WI ND Ai rmoveshor i
zont allyf rom onedi rect iont oanot herdi rect ionar ecal l
edwi [Link] nds
arecausedbyt heunequalpr essur eatdi ffer entpl acesoft heear [Link] ermai ntains
i
tsl evelsomeaswat erai rmai ntai npr essur eequabl [Link] izet hi
spr essur ewi nds
alwaysbel owf rom r egi onofhi ghpr essur et or egionofl owpr essur [Link] eneart he
equat ort heai ri sal way shotandi tspr essur ei sl [Link] ef oret heai rf rom hi ghpr essur e
areanor thandsout hoft heequat orbl owst owar dt heequat or.
BUYsbal lot´sLaw St andi ngf aci ngt heTr uewi nd,andt hecent reofl ow pr essur ewi l
lbe
about90ºt o130ºonyourr ighthandi nt henor ther nhemi spher eandonyourl efthandi nt he
sout hernhemi spher e.
BACKANDVEERI NG Whent hewi ndchangesi nacl ockwi sedi rection, thati sN- E-
S- W, i
t
i
ssai dt oveer ,wheni tchangesi nt her ever sedi rectioniti ssai dt [Link] ermsar e
usedi nbot hnor ther nandsout her nhemi spher e.
CYCLONI CWI NDS Awi ndci rcul at i
onaboutanar eaofl owpr essur ei ssai dt obecycl oni c.
ANTI CYCLONI CWI NDS Awi ndci rculat i
onaboutanar eaofhi ghpr essur ei ssai dt obe
anticycl one.
TEMPERATURE Thei nt erchangesofheatb/ w onebodyt oanot herbodyorcol dnessor
hotnessofbodyi scal ledt emper at ure.
HUMI DI TY Bet weent hepar ticlesoft heai rt herear epar ticlesofwat ervapourwhi ch
evapor at ionhasr eleasedi ntot heat mospher [Link] ervapouri nauni tmassof
airatanymomenti sknownast hehumi dity.
SATURATI ON War m ai rcanhol dmor ewat ervapourt hancol dai r,andwhent heai r
cont ainst hel ar gestpossi blequant ityofwat ervapourt hati tcanhol dwi thouti ncreaseof
temper atur e, i
ti ssai dt obesat ur ation
FOG Fogi sf or medbyt hecondensat ionofwat ervapouronsmal lhygr oscopi cpar ti
clesor
nucleiwhi char eal wayspr esenti nt heai [Link] ormat ionoff ogdependsupont henumberof
nucleii nt heai randuponr elativehumi ditywhi chi sabout75per cent
TYPESOFFOG
Ther ear et wot ypesoff og
[Link] ionorSeaf og
[Link] ationf og
ADVECTI ON( SEAFOG)
Whenwar m moi stai rmovesoveracol dersur f
aceofl andorsea
RADI ATI ONFOG
Duet ocool i
ngoft hegr oundandt heai ri ncont actwi t
hi tbyr adi at i
on
CLOUD Cloudi sf or medbyt hecondensat ionoft hewat ervapouri ntheat mospher eata
heightabovet heEar thsur [Link] ioni scausedbycool ing,t hecool i
ngi nitst urn
beingcausedbyt heascentofai rf orsomer eason.
PRECI PI TATI ON Rai ni st her esul toff urthercondensat ionoft hewat ervapourwi thina
cloud.
Q.1 Fi llint hebl anks:
1. GMTi s ZERO zone.
2. Posi tionobt ainedf r
om t het ruecour seandknownspeedi scal l
ed DEAD RECKONI NG
(DR)
3. Appar entpat hoft hesuni ncel estialspher ei scal l
ed ecliptic
4. Awi ndci rcul ationaboutanar eaof HighPr essur e isant i
cycl one
5. Tr uebear ingi sal wayswr itteni n t
hr ee figur es.
6. ALRSar er egul arlypubl ishedaf t
ert hei nt ervalof mont hi n
volume.
7. Shal lowar eai sdi stingui shedbya flatbl ue col or .
8. Theposi tionoft idalcycl ebet weenhi ghwat erandt hef ollowi ngl ow wat erknow as

9. Thecol
umnofai
rrest
ingononesquar
einchoft
heear
thsur
facei
scal
led
pr
essur
e
10. (HS-
4) wat
chi
sissuedt
osurveyvesselonly.
11. Thevert
icaldi
stancefr
om t
hechartdat
um tot heleveloft
hewat
eratanyt
imei
s

12. Theaverageatmosphericpr
essur
eatseal
eveli
s 1013 mb.
13. Thedir
ectionofti
dalstr
eam i
sshownby ar
row.
14. Phaseofthefloodstr
eam atthet
imeofmaxi
mum vel
ocit
yiscall
ed

15. Themagni t
udeofmooni s
16. Fi nalt act i
caldi amet ermeanwhenshi pt urned degree.
17. Zeni thi sthepoi nt wher east rai
ghtl inef rom theEar t
h’scentrepassi ngt hrought he
observer ’si
nt hecel est ialspher e.
18. Theamountofwat ervapouri nauni tmassofai ratanymovementi sknown
humidity
19. Ther ear etwomai nt ypesofcl oudsI st rati
for
m orl ayer i
i cumul if
orm
20. Thepoi ntont hesundi skneart hehor izoni sknownas
21. Equat orisagr eatci rclebutal lotherpar al l
elsof lati
tude aresmal lci
rcl
es.
22. WGSmeans= Wor ldGeodet icSyst em
23. Thegr eatci rcl
e isi mpor tanti nnavi gat i
onbecausei tgivestheshor t
estdi st
ance
b/wtwopoi nt.
24. Lunarmont hisequalt o 29½MeanSol arDays
26. Ter ri
tor i
alli
mi tscl aimedbycount ri
esar egi venin AnnualSummar y ofAdmi ralt
y
Noti
cest oMar iners
27. Thepoi ntont hesundi skneart hehor izoni sknownas
28. Theyearandsayar et hepr incipaldivisionsof
29. Shower shavemaxi mum f requencydur i
ngni ghtandmi nimum dur i
ngt he
overthesea.
30. Thedr um of dri
vencl ockwiseandmakesoner evolutioni nsev en
days
31. Thesmal l
erdiamet erofear this 24 miles.
32. Themostbr ight estst ari s Arcturus
33. I nnor thLat ,LHAgr eat ert han180Zn=
34. Ther ear e magnet icchar t
s,alloverthewor ld.
35. Whent heel evat edpol eanddecl i
nationhavet hesamenavet hepolardi stance.
36. Sext antal ti
tudecor rect edf or erroranddipi scal ledappar ent
al
tit
ude.
37. Audi bleai dt onavi gat ori nf ogis .
38. Al ightwhi chi swhi tei sophaseoccul ti
ngonel ongFl ashevery10seconds,i ndicate

39. Theshapeoft heear thi sassumedt obeaspher ewithradi

usapproximately3440
int
ernati
onalmi les.
40. Magnet icnor thisthenor t
herlydirectionoft he magneti
c mer i
dian.
41. Theposi tionpr obabili
tyar eamaybeshownonchar tasan ell
ipsewi th amaj orand
minoraxi
s.
42. Angul ardi stanceont heear thcanbecal culatedby tr
igonometry.
43. Mer i
dianar e greatsemi ci rclej
oiningNor thandSouthpoles.
44. Hygr omet erisusedt omeasur e
45. Thedecl inat i
onoft hezeni thmustbeequalt ot heobserver
’s Celest
ialSphere
46. Theazi mut hcannotbegr eaterthan
47. I ti
ssai dtobeappar entnoonwhent hesuni sont he mer i
dian.
48. Ther ear emai ntypesofcl ouds t
wos
49. Theear tht urnsabouti tsshor t
estdi ameteri scalled
50. Theval ueofgeogr aphi calmileiscal l
ed
51. Thepoi ntf rom whichagr eatcircl
emostnear lyapproachesthepole,iscall
ed ver tex

52. Dept
hment
ionedonchar
tsar
egi
venbel
ow
53. Al waysuset he scalechar
tappr
opri
atetothepur
pose.
54. Af i
xistheposit
ionalobtainedbythe oftwoormor epositi
on
l
ines.
55. Thenavi gati
onalli
ghtsmaybedi videdint
o cl
asses.
56. Aneddyi s ci r
cular movementofwat er
.
57. Cl oudsareformedbyt he condensati
on water vapour in the
atmosphere.
58. Themoon’ smagni t
ude( atful
l)i
s
59. Thei magi
naryli
nej oi
ningthenorthandSout hPol
eiscall
ed

60. Thedi rect ioni nwhi cht hevesselmovei scal led

61. Themer idianpassi ngt hrought heGr eenwhi chi scal led primemer idian
62. SHAi smeasur edwest war df rom
63 Ther ear e mai nt ypesofchar tpr oject ion.
64. Theear th’sr otat ioni nconj unct ionwi thmoon’ sor biti nt hesamedi r
ectionpr oducesa
ti
dal dayof
65. Ti desar ecausedbyt he
66. The occurwhent heear t
h, sunmoonar einl ineandt heirgr avi
t ati
onal
forcesr einfor ceeachot her.
67. Theangl ebet ween and i
scal ledvar iat i
on.
68. Thel atitudeofheavenl ybodi esar emeasur edi sal ongt he .
69. Hal foft het otalwei ghtofai ri swi thi
n mi l
esf rom t hesur faceoft he
earth.
70. Theuni tofmeasur ingpr essur ei s BAR
71. Thei nter changeofheatbet weenonebodyandanot heroccuri n one ormor e of
threedi fferent ways.
72. I fthesun’ scent reis 6 degr eebel owt hehor izont hent hist wil
ighti s cal l
ed
civiltwili
ght .
73. Al inej oini ngequalpr essur ear eacal led
74. Amer idianpassi ngt hroughGr eenwi chobser vat oryi scal led
75. Theangl ebet weenmer i
dianpassi ngt hroughf i
rstpoi ntofAr i
esandmer idianpassi ng
throughheavenl ybodymeasur edwest war discal led
76. LMTatanyi nst anti st he angl e ofmean sun att hati nstant
measur ed westwar d.
77. Thedepar tur ei s ift he shi ps cour se is nor t
her l
y or
sout herly.
78. Or dinancedat um i smeasur edf rom
79. Meanhi ghwat erspr ing( M. H. W. S)i sthemeanof
80. Rai ni sther esul tof fur t
hercondensat ionoft hewat ervapourwi thinacl oud
81. Wor l
di sdi videdi nt o 24 zone.
82. Theshor testdi stancebet weent wopoi ntsoncur vedsur facei sal ong
83. Theper cent ageofoxygeni nat mospher ei s
84. Thenavi gat i
onofshi psandal lwat erbornecr afti scal ledmar i
nenavi gation
85. Thel astt hi rtyyear shaveseengr eatadvancesi nnavi gat ionalt echni ques.
86 TheEar thi snotaper fectspher e
87. Theear thsmal lerdi amet erbei ngabout24mi lesl esst hant hel arger .
88. TheEar th’sshapei sknownasanobl atespher oidwi t
hgr eatestandl eastr adiiof
appr oxi mat ely3444and3432*i nt ernationalnaut icalmi l
es.
89. Themer idianpassi ngt hroughGr eenwi chi scal ledt hepr i
memer idi an
90. Ear thr evol vesabouti t
saxi st hedi rectionofr evol utioni scal ledeast ,t heopposi t
e
direct i
onwest .
91. TheNor thPol ei sont hel ef tandt heSout hPol eont her i
ghtoft heobser verfacing
east .
92. Thel atitudeofapl ace( alsocal ledt hegeodet ic,geogr aphi calort r
uel at i
tude)i sthe
angl ewhi cht heper pendi cul art ot heEar th’
ssur face
93. Pl anespar al l
elt ot hepl aneoft heequat orj oiningal lplacesoft hesamel atitudear e
knownaspar allel sofl [Link] eal soknownassmal lcir
cl es.
94. Theseami l
ei st hel engt hofonemi nut eofar c(1' )measur edal ongt hemer idi ani nt he
l
at itudeoft heposi tion.
95. Thel engt hoft heseami leisshor testatt heequat or1842. 9m
96. Thel engt hoft heseami l
ei slongestatt hepol es1861. 7m wi thameanval ueof
1852. 3m at45°l atitude.
97. Thegeogr aphi calmi lei st hel engt hof1' ofar cmeasur edal ongt heequat or( i
.e.1' of
l
ongi tude.i t
sval uei s1855. 4m
98. Thei nt ernat ionalnaut icalmi l
est andar df ixedl engt hof1852m.
99. Thest atueorl andmi lei st heuni tofdi stanceof1760yar dsor5280f eet
1609. 3m
100. Anypl anet hrought hecent reoft hespher ecut sthesur f
acei nwhati sknownasa
Gr eatci r
cle
101. Anypl anewhi chcut st hesur faceoft hespher e,butdoesnotpasst hr ought hecent re,
i
scal l
edasmal lci rcle
102 Theangl ebet weent hepl aneoft heCel est ialEquat orandt hatoft heEcl i
ptici sknown
astheObl iqui tyoft heEcl ipt i
c
103 Theexi stenceoft heEar th’s23°27' t
il
ti soff undament alimpor tancet ol if
eonear th
104. GPSst andf or
105. St uar tDi stancemet ercanef f
ect ivelymeasur er angeofanobj ectwi t
hknownhei ght
upt o cabl e
106. Shapeofear thi sknownasobl ate spher e
107 Usualor derf oromi ttingdet ailfrom l ightdescr i
pt ionsast hescal eofchar tsdecr ease
i
s Elevat ion, Per iod and Range
108. Asour cedat adi agr am i ndicat essour ce, dat eandscal eofsur veyi neachpar tofchar t.
109. Tit l
eofNP100i sMar inehandbook
110. Maxi mum decl i
nat ionofsunnor thofequat ori s23½º degr ee.
111. Whi l
echoosi ngt heobj ectf orf ixing,whent hreeobj ectsar eobser ved,i deal ly,t hey
shoul dbe 60º apar t.
112. Theoutgoi ngt i
dalst ream i scal ledebbandt hei ncomi ngt i
dalst ream i scal ledas
flood.
113. Aneddyi st heci rcul armovementofwat erdi amet erofwhi chr angesf rom f ewi nches
toaf ewmi l
es.
114. HATTi dei st hehi ghestl eveloft idewhi chcanbepr edictedunderanycombi nat ionof
ast ronomi calcondi tions.
115. Ar coft hesext anti sgr aduat edupt o
116. Inst rumentusedt omeasur eat mospher icpr essur ei scal led
117. At mospher epr essur e, measur edbyt hebar omet er
118 Thebari sder i
vedf rom t hemet r i
csyst em i nwhi chapr essur eof1, 000dy nesper
squar ecent imet eri sequalt oonemi l
libar
119. Theaver ageat mospher epr essur eatsea- leveli s1013mb
120 Absol ut etemper at ur et husequal sCel siust emper at ureincr easedby 273º
121. Thepr opor tionofmoi stur epr esenti nt heai ratanyt i
met ot het ot alamountof
moi stur enecessar yf orsat ur ati
oni sknownast her el
at i
vehumi dity
122. Thet emper at ur eatwhi chamassofai rr eachessat urat i
onatconst antpr essur eis
cal l
eddewpoi nt
Q.2 St ateTr ue/ Fal se:
1. Thedecl inat ionzeni thi ncel estialspher ei sequalt otheobser verl atit
ude. T/ F
2. Redconi calandgr eencanshapedbuoysar eusedt oindi catepor tandSt bdandhand
buoyofchanneli nr egi onA. T/ F
3. Hi ghcl oudsar ef leecyandusual lymor eorl esst ranspar ent . T/ F
4. I fLHAofabodyi sl esst han180, thebodywi llbei nt hewestofobser vermer idian/ F
5. Todenot et hedi fferenceofD–l at&D–l ongofanypl acecanf indbyt het er m of
sameaddandopposi tenamesubt racted.
T/F
6. Squati s100%ofspeedand3. 0met erf orever y5knotofspeed. T/F
7. Rai ni sther esul toff ur thercondensat ionofwat ervapourwi t
hi nacl oud. T/F
8. Char tdat um i snotahor i
zont alsur f
acebutmaybeconsi dersuchoveral i
mitedarea.
T/F
9. Aner oidbar omet erpar t l
yexhaust edofoxygenandher met i
callyseal ed. T/F
10. Whent hemoondecl i
nat ioni sNi l
,semidi ur nalt i
der aisingf orceismaxi mum. T/ F
11. Ti desar ecausedbyt hegr avi tat i
onalpul lofheavenl ybodyont heEar thandont he
waterovert hesea. T/F
12. Thepoi ntatwhi chagr eatci rclemostnear lyappr oachest heposei scal l
edver texT/F
13. I ti
si mpossi bl et ot akecour sesanddi st ancesf rom gnomoni cchar t.
T/F
14. Thel atitudeofpl acef rom whi cht heobser vat ioni smadei scal l
edt rueal ti
tude
ofheavenl ybody. T/F
15. AtGwadarPor tdur inalt i
deoccur redi neacht idalday.
T/F
16. Ci rcul ationofwi ndaboutanar eaofhi ghpr essur eisknownasant i
cycl onewi ndT/ F
17. Thesun’ ssemidi amet erof15’ .9i schangeddur ingtheper i
odofApr il-
Sep. T/F
18. Paki stanmet r ologi caldepar tmentwor kundert heDi rect orofMet r
ol ogies.
T/F
19. Thesuni saper fectt imekeeperbecausei tsappar entspeedal ongt he
Eclipt i
ci snotconst ant . T/F
20. Al owbar omet erpr essur ewi llt endt odepr essseal evelandhi ghbar omet er
willtendt or ai sei t . T/F
21. I ftheLHA ofbodyi sl esst hen180degr eet hebodywi llbei nt heeastobser ver
meridians T/ F
22. Cel est ialmer idi anar esemigr eatci rclesj oi ningt hecel est i
alpol es T/F
23. Decl inat ioni smeasur edal ongt hever ticalci rcl e. T/F
24. Theamountofdet ailr educesast hescal eofchar t T/F
25. ANTM i sdi videdi nt of ivesect ions. T/F
26. Mooncompl etest heor bi tsar oundt hebar ycent rein27½Days. T/F
27. Mat hemat i
cal lyl awofgr avi tationmaybeexpr essedF=Gm1m2 T/F
d
28. Whenwi ndchangesi ncl ockwi sedi rect ion( N- E-S-W)i tissai dveer T/F
29. At mospher epr essur eononesquar einchofear thsur facehast hewei ghtofabout19
½ pound T/ F
30. I ncar dinalmar ksyel low, black, yellowi ndi cat et hedi rectionofeast .
T/F
31. Di st ancegi veni nt heAdmi raltydi stancet abl esar einseami l
es. T/F
32. Magnet ic+Devi at i
on=Compass. T/F
33. WGSst andsf orwor ldgr aduat ionsyst em. T/F
34. OnMer cat orPr oject i
on/ char t, thepar al lelofl atitudeappear sasst raightl i
ne T/ F
35. Angl eb/ wt hemer idianandt hedi rect i
onofanobj ecti sknownasr el ati
veBr g. T/ F
36. D.l ongi stheshor t estdi stanceal ongt heequat orbet weent het wopl aces.
T/F
37. Radi usofcur vat ur ei nt hemer idi andecr easesasmovef rom equat ort ot hepole.
T/F
39. Ver ticalci r
cl epassi ngt hrought heeastandwestpoi ntcal ledpr imever ti
calcircle
T/F
40. I ALAbuoyagesyst em pr ovi desf ourt ypesofmar ks. T/F
41. West erlyVar iat i
onanddevi ationar esubt ract edandappl i
edant iclockwi se. T/F
42. NAVTEXst andsf orNavi gat ionalTextSer vi ces. T/F
43. DRposi tioni smor eaccur atet hanEP. T/F
44. TheGeogr aphi calr angei st hemaxi mum di st anceatwhi cht hel i
ghtcanbeseenand
det
er minedonl ybyt hei nt ensi tyofl i
ghtandt hevi sibi l
ity. T/F
45. Thepoi ntont heear th’ssur f
acedi r ectlyundert hemooni sknownassubl unarpoint
T/F
46. Ref r act i
oni st hebendi ngofl ightf r
om i tspat h. T/F
47. Ci vi lt wi l
ighti ssai dt oendorbegi nwhent hesuncent rei s18degr eebel ow the
cel
est i
alhor izon
T/F
48. Thewi ndi ssai dt obeveer ingwheni tchangesi tsdi rectioncl ockwiseinthenor t
hern
hemispher e. T/F
49. Theaver ageat mospher icpr essur eatseal evelis1023mn. T/F
50. Col dai rcanhol dmor ewat ervapourt hanwar m ai r. T/F
51. Twohi ghl owwat ersar eexper iencedi ndi urnalt i
de. T/F
52. Ecl ipticmakesandangl eof23degr ee27;wi thcel estialhor izon. T/F
53. Azi mut hi sanangl eatpol e. T/F
54. St atuemi lei st hedi stanceof1760yar dsor5280f eet( 1609. 3m) T/F
55. Acabl ei sappr oxi mat elyequalt o200yar ds. T/F
56. Angl eb/ wt hemer i
diananddi r
ect ionofanobj ectiscal ledt ruecour se. T/F
57. Met eor ologyi st hesci enceofat mospher e T/F
58. Psychr omet eri susedt omeasur et heai rpressur e. T/F
59. Ar ayofl ighti sr ef l
ectedt hricei nsext ant. T/F
60. Ar cofsext anti sgr aduat edupt o360degr ee T/F
60. Seami leist hel engt hof1´ofar cmeasur edal ongt heequat or T/F
61. Weekl yedi t i
onscont ainsfivesect ions T/F
62. Anypl anewhi chcut st hesur f
aceoft heear t
hbutdonotpasst hr
ought hecentreis
cal
ledassmal lcircui t
T/F
63. NP- 131i st heoceanpassagesoft hewor ld T/F
64. NP- 320i st heNor ri
e’sNaut i
calTabl e T/F
65. Magnet iccompassi stobeswungatl eastonceever y5year s T/F
66. Sext antcanmeasur ever ti
calaswel lashor i
zont alangl es T/F
67. I sobari sthel ineofequalpr essur e T/F
68. Ther evisednumberofShi psl ogi sF( OP) -
4 T/F
69. Bar omet ri
cpr essur eusedt obemeasur edini nchesofmer cur y T/F
70. Thi sr esul tf rom at mospher icpr essur ewaves,wi thaper i
odofnear l
y12hour swhi ch
sweepr egul ar l
yr oundt heear thf rom eastt owest . T/F
71. Ar oundacent reofhi ghpr essur eacl ockwi seci rculat i
oni ssetupi nt henor t
hern
hemispher e. T/F
72. Theat mospher eder i
vesi t
sheati ndi rect l
yf r
om t hesun T/F
IntheTabl eofMer i
di onalPar ts(NP239)
Hydrogr aphi cSuppl iesHandbook( NP133)
CatalogueofAdmi ral tyChar tsandot herHydr ographi cPubl icat i
ons( NP131) ,
TheMar iner ’sHandbook( NP100)
Publi
cat ionsusedbyt heNavi gatingOf ficerar edi videdi nt otwocat egor i
es:
[Link] icat ionssuppl iedbyt heHydr ogr aphi c(theNPser i
es) .
[Link] books, r
efer encebooks, handbooksandf or msobt ainedf rom t heCB
Offi
cerort heSuppl yDepar t
ment( CBs,BRs,and‘ S’ser iesf or ms) .Navigati
onalpubli
cations
(NPs)ar emadeup i nt o set s,det ailsofwhi ch ar egi ven i nt heHydr ographicSuppl i
es
Handbook( NP133) .
ThehandbookMet eor ologyf orMar i
ner s( NP407)
Admi raltySai li
ngDi rect ions,al socal ledPi lots,wer efirstr egul arlypubl ishedin1829Ocean
Passagesf ort heWor ld( NP136)
Q.3 whatst andf or
NDA, PI MCD, HOT, ANT, ANTM, TPOD,
Navigat ionPubl i
cat i
ons( NP1TO72)
Localsi der ealTi me( LST)
Localhourangl eoft heTr ueSun( LHATS)
Localhourangl eoft heMeanSun( LHAMS)
Greenwi chhourangl eoft heTur nSun( GHATS)
Greenwi chhourangl eoft heMeanSun( GHAMS)
TimeZone ( ZT)
Greenwi chDat e( GD)
Admi ral
tyl istofl i
ght sandf ogsignal(ALLFS)
Aut omat icI dent ificat ionSyst em ( AI
S)
HighestAst r
onomi calTi de( HAT)
LowestAst ronomi calTi de( LAT)
MeanHi ghWat erSpr ings( MHWS)
MeanLowWat erSpr ings( MLWS)
MeanHi ghWat erNeaps( MHWN)
MeanLowWat erNeaps( MLWN)
MeanTi deLevel( MTL)
MeanHi gherHi ghWat er( MHHW)
MeanLowerHi ghWat er( MLHW)
MeanHi gherLowWat er( MHLW)
MeanLowerLowWat er( MLLW)
Estimat edt imedepar tur e( ETD)
Estimat edt imear rival( ETA)
Circul arer rorpr obabl e( CEP)
MostPr obabl ePosi tion( MPP)
Posi tionpr obabi li
tyar ea( PPA)
Aut omat icRadarPl ottingAi d( ARPA)
Elect roni cChar tSyst em ( ECS)
Elect roni cChar tDi spl ay&I nformat i
onSystem (
ECDI
S)
Rootmeansquar e( RMS)
ChannelNavi gat ionI nf or mat i
onSer vice(CNI
S)
BlindSaf etyOf ficer( BSO)
Closestpoi ntofappr oach( CPA)
Act ioni nf or mat ionor gani zati
on( AIO)
Rendezvous( R/ Vs)Di st ancet orun( DTR)
Saf et yswi ngi ngci rcle( SSC)
Limi tingdangerl i
nes( LDL)
Dist ancet onewcour se( DNC)
Admi ral
tyLi stofRadi oSi gnal s(ALRS)
HighestAst r
onomi calTi de( HAT)
LowestAst ronomi calTi de( LAT)
Hor izont alSext antAngl es( HSA)
Posi tionPr obabi lit
yAr ea( PPA)
Tonnespercent i
met er( TPC)
Estimat edPosi tion( EP)
DeadReckoni ng( DR)
Posi tionPr obabi lit
yAr ea( PPA, )
Admi ral
tyTi deTabl es( ATT)
Uni ver salTr ansver seMer cator(UTM)
Saf et yofl ifeatsea( SOLAS)
Inter nationalMar iti
meor ganization(IMO)
Traf ficSepar at ionScheme( TSS)
MeanHi ghWat erSpr ings( MHWS
MeanLowestWat erSpr i
ngs( MLWS)
Mor ningCi vi lTwi li
ght( MCT)
SpeedoverAl l( SOA)
Mor ningNaut icalTwi light( MNT)
Naut icalTwi light( NT)
MeanLowerLowWat erMLLW
Coor di
nat edUni versalTime( UTC)
Dayl ightSavi ngTi me( DST)
Greenwi chMeanTi me( GMT)
InternationalAt omi cTi me(TAI )
TrueZeni thDi st
ance( TZD).
Cal culatedZeni thDi stance(CZD)
Ast ronomi calTwi li
ght( AT)
Hor izontalPar all
ax( HP)
InternationalDat eLi ne( I
DL)
LocalMeanTi me( LMT)
LocalSi der ealTime( LST)
Greenwi chHourAngl e(GHA)
LocalHourAngl e(LHA)
RightAscensi on(RA)
Sider ealHourAngl e( SHA)
IndexEr r or( I
E)
InternationalAssoci ati
onofLi ghthouseAut
hor
it
ies(
IALA)
Wor l
dgeodet icsystems( WGS)