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4. S0ud states:
Eour quahtum n0s, that specifu the state ohe in an atom.
Pauu ExclusiOn: no two e in an atorm can have same set
quanturn nos fn, d,ma, m,
Ihe inthe outmost shel (valence shetL) ane called aA
Nalencee
Band The ory:
Tne emodel givea us agoodinsi
-GOnducn -ght into the heat capacity, mag-
For bidden band
susepti bility thermal cord. B
Encrgy valence electrodyna mia o metal.
| But they fail tohlpus with
the other large questio ns like;
tntere distinction betwe en metals,
Ihe band formed b [Link] o eneay eve semi conductors , semimetals
KOOWn aA NGUenCe hand &insulators.
3) Thisis why band theory
wab oarried.
crystal is aperiadit arrangementnwnth suwc
is built up by regulan repitition withthe small unit o
tos Galed ntce
2Ihe avQ. time between colision inthe crystal is called
mean force time. Ihe ienqth o the path duwing tuia fre e
tme is called as' mid free potn
the in acrustal ane arrangtd in energy bands seperated by.a
reqion nhere no wave uike e or bital ezlsts. such reqion
i scalled
torbiddern aps
Band aapiSthe difference in QFermi Eneroy:
eneg ybetweenthe lowest
Point of Conductlon band and 6) Acording th Poulis ExcluAion YOUVA
highest point of valence ba nd Principal ,tNo ferminions
|(which ote e) cannot oCupu
Rand qap model: the same enerqs states
[Link] at cbsolutC nero, thee
witl have a sea diff energy
Gonductjon band states. The highest ernergy or
top of th is sea jsthe ferrmi
|evel.
En
leonduction band
Valence bond valen ce band valehce band
Insuator 25emi-Conductor A. conductor
8 Fermi enerqs
)If the s0lid is composed of Natoms, eachatomic lev el splits
Int olage no-of closels packed levels and hence energ y
bands ane formed
Alectron oh lbwest enerqus e eiled first
alhthis WOy, highest filled stoat e is called fernilevel 8& its
coresponding enerqs is called ferni enerqy EÇ:
Magnitud e o Eç depe nds anthe no eper unt voluhae inthe
Solid.
5) AIl the states inthe enerqy hand upto E a1e fulLA al the
states ahove Eç ane empry
@in semiconductors:
As We KnOV Ar intrinsic semiconductor s, me have completly
tille d states called valence handnhich is sepLrated from
concduction band d which states ae unoccupeid
}Ikio seperaHorh is knownas enerqy sepeaion (EG)
a) Now, for thio caDe o intrihsic semiconductors, terni level
Iies at the centre o the handgap
hia indicateo that statea ocCupeidinthe conductionbacl
aMe equal to thestateo un0ccupeid in valernce band.
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OFerntilevelin semiconducto:
) Fermi levelin semiconductors is the
enero s which corresponds to the centrc conduction band
holesfrom
conduction es andmeasUcd
Band
alence band- when vweted according
energy g
to their eneries.
vauence bond
Pa) Fermi Dìro c_Probobilitu distribution
function electtons in solid obes termi-dira c statistica:
reSUltant statistical arrangement gives the distributio n
h over a ran4e oh the loud energslevels at the thernal
edullibnum.
(F-D) distribution ^pE) :
Thia function gives the prababilits that an energ state
0f energ4 LE) will be occupeid by ah eo at absolute te op.
) wh ere Ef is fermi enerqs
1
E> stake oh nerqt
PCE)
K’ Boltzman's constant
T’ Absolute Temp
Intrinsic semiconductors
pure torm (no doping)
) they ate chamcterised as semiconductos which have egual chance.
of finding a hole oasthat of an e
3) This implels thct they have cqual chance oh finaling ahole Ae
S0, fermi-level is exactls between the conduchon band &
the vclence
band
.Lets put Ee
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PE) 50%
1+e &-tlRTY
the ferml
this medA there is 50% chance to find att an e At
Level
4 In n-tåpe ’ more e than holes
thatis why fermi Jevel iD closex to conduction bard
which indicateo a high ex prob. o finding e near
that level.
S) In p-tspe ’ more holeo th¡h e
’the pro bo finding e near the valence band is
Way more than that o conduction band.
Drift CUrrent
pfuaon current Pa 56-59
conductivits oh conductos
conductivi d semiconductox
Energs band fór P-NJunchon diode )
a nthis caAe eqiunlibium conditiona aHe distnbuted.
b) As the ntupe is conne cttd to the e) sise oh the battey,
the e inthe n-tupe increas eA bau an amount. eV, whbre
y=oitaa the battey
) Fermi leNel arisea hs eV for that reqion, enerqy band aiuats
accordingy
d) NeW potential barrjer e(Vg-v]
) Hence e can e aailscross the. conoucn
junction. bond
bond
1)
no v¹ (rom (ve)tb (1Ve) ftrminal W
holes move (rom (tve) to (ve) Png W56 YOUVA
Dato
soLid stad e)
Drift GUrrent
nsemiconductor, the e- inthe electrical field will move
towards, the itve) terminal d appleid voltaqe wnie while.
continuousls colliding with ion cores LLatti ce. After
eVers colisiön, e ane redirected toWards electrie tild
direcYiohnThis tlow$ dheis called drift current
Drift urrent
Imp D0fUsion Current.
DMovenent ohe Dlusion curent
due to oppl ed duetoditfusion
gcharqcarris
lectriceietd
electnc Even some armt
eneqy forthe helectrical enery
Proceos erough.
ts direchdenerda
cà thettowdcpenda 1tsdirection mainl
dependson +he
n appleid elect: charq witwin the
carriens
lerd its polarity concertrd'
"Diffuaion current
in semiconductor, it coarrier concentration qradient ezists,
charae coarri ens ternd to movt qradualls erom high.
GOncentraion region tÍ 10 concentration taion TAe
motion is called difusion ¤t produced hy taio a
called difeualon current
Gonductivits hcondutose
htn an electde ield is appleid to meral, random moion
conducion qOs hecomes directed. This motion is known as
drift yelgciYs It is given by
VWeE Eappleid electDc field
le electron
NOW, 0f A =conductor crOSS SectiDn atea
ne densits (NGoh fret e per unit yoluume)
s: lenqth d tonductor, then,
YOUVA
-sectioh A in unit time is
chai qe erossing cross
n :(VxA)e’ current
Hence
GurrentI nVA e : n leAe
,
NOW, WE Know Electri cau tiel d JE
voltaqk appleid
conductor
: lenath o
I nue Ae
A hue e
NOW, We know R:V
nWe e
A A
(8unit : ohm-m) conductiwin cerizocaurtis
NoW,
defìne 6 1
unit 9 = mhom
NOW GUrrent denslts
6=
"Gonductivì tå oh Semicon duet Si
-le : ne e dengit
mobiltity' halea np proton density
1: Ie+ lp
:(nee AVe) t (npe A Vp
: eA neVe t npVp
By OhmA law,
V=IR
l: V/R
: eA (neVe tnpp)
R
Ci' R 8L/A)
VA ex(neVe tnpvp) (
3L
.V: Ex VA E
E E
.6:
ecnele t
Sneetnp lp
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(S0ldslates)
’nfluence oh external factors on conductivity
TemperatuYe
Resjstivity
metals 5emiconductorResti
vity
TemP Temp
For metals, increcaue in temp increas6es vibration in lattict points
This decreases driftt velDcity Hence conductivits decrease
" Energu band of P-N JUncoh diode -
) Zero bias : we kno termi ley e of p-tuDeis at top oh yalence.
bohd andn-type is at dose to the botorm
conduction hand. As ferni level is lower on pside.
GOmpaned to nside e move acrossthe junchbn to
p-slde and hence equalixe the fermi levels on both
sides.
conducton band
Fermi(N) FN
YOUnce bon
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LSoLid st atea)
This movement ofe
efectively
moveo band edgeo into 2
6ides wnich shifts themsel
conduc tidnband -Ves to equill ze ef as shoun.
V8 isthe potential barrie.
Qcross the junction.
vlen(e ban
) NO Rquili brium state unbiased PN Juntioh
Me KnoWfermi level peis at the top oh valence
tonduction
ban d and n-tupe is dlose to the bottom o
ha nd.
movea
Fermi Level is lo wer on p-side conmpared to nside, e
actoss the junctioh to the pside
N-tUpe.
Gonducton
eVB
band
Ef
Valence
bgnd
Juncn
Barrie
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3) Revetse Bias:
1nthis case,n-side is_connected to conducrion
tVe) which lowers the termi level orn band
-0-side bu an amount eV This raises the
barrie r ht to e (VBAV) increasirnA,
the phualcal width depletion layer.
val ence
band
}[Link] dconductnr carruing a
cUrrent, is'placed in transvers.
Mag. tiel d, an electne £ield is produced
inside the conductor inthe dìrech fürtt
normal to both, tht current &the
mag-field.
1) This iA called as hal ecfect &
VOltage. qenerated due to thio etfectis caled as hall voltoqe
3) SuppoSe n-tupe semiconductor is connected as shû wn, then
e wiIl 4ow from rght to left inthe citcult. with drift veloc0ky ()
1f mag-fleld c)is appleid Ito the pa pointi ng ìnside tha'
movinge ill eOCDerience force ef fhe magnitude BeVinthe
downNard directon
electron WlL stOp when
Hence,we can wrte, Arift yeloit
NAWIt Iis current /n 2-direction theh
drietvelouity
( 2)
ne A
ANOW
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E BI-(3)
neA
Now, we KnOW electric f'eld is defined as
=) V=Ed
Hence, from eqc3),
neA ne A
:. VH =RH 3 BLidRH : Hal coeff for charge e
NDW, Curren t densits_ (unit axea, L:L
A
ne