International Journal of Progressive Sciences and Technologies (IJPSAT)

ISSN: 2509-0119.
© 2024 Scholar AI LLC.
Vol. 45 No. 2 July 2024, pp. 748-755

Comparative Study of the Penetrability of Steel, Concrete, and

Composite Glass Materials Against Small Caliber Ammunition
Ballistics
Mohtar Suyitno¹, Sovian Aritonang¹, Ansori¹, Erzi Agson Gani¹, Gita
Amperiawan¹, Imanuel Dindin¹
¹ Republic Indonesia Defense University
mohtarsuyitno@[Link]

Abstract— This research uses a literature review method that aims to compare the ballistic performance of individual weapons using
small calibers, especially the 5.56 mm and 7.62 mm calibers, in terms of penetrating different types of materials. The research method
included a series of firing tests using standard weapons and ammunition of the calibers under study, fired at diverse material samples,
including steel, concrete, and composite glass fiber. The results showed significant differences in ballistic performance between 5.56 mm
and 7.62 mm caliber weapons when penetrating these materials. The 5.56 mm caliber tends to excel at penetrating non-metallic materials
such as concrete and composite glass fiber, while the 7.62 mm caliber is more effective at penetrating metallic materials such as steel.
Additional analysis revealed that factors such as projectile kinetic energy, bullet deformation, and target material strength play an
important role in determining the relative ballistic performance of the two weapon calibers. These findings provide valuable insights for
weapon designers and military personnel to select the caliber that best suits the combat situation and target at hand.
Keywords— Material; Penetration; Ballistics; Small Caliber; Ammunition

I. INTRODUCTION
Research into the ballistic performance of small-caliber personal weapons is a topic of great depth and relevance in the military
and security context. The 5.56 mm and 7.62 mm calibers are the focus of this research due to their popularity and wide use in the
modern battlefield. In the current issue of the Russia-Ukraine war, sniper rifles such as the SVD or Dragunov with a caliber of 7.62
mm are used by Russian troops to shoot from a long distance with high accuracy and great destructive power. Then the AK-74
assault rifle, which has considerable popularity among Russian troops and pro-Russian armed groups in Ukraine, originally used
5.45 mm caliber ammunition, but the AK-74 can be modified to use 5.56 mm NATO caliber ammunition. The difference in ballistic
characteristics between these two calibers has been the subject of a long debate, with crucial questions about their penetration
capabilities against various materials that may be encountered in the field. Therefore, the aim of this study is to provide a deeper
understanding of the performance of weapons with these two calibers in penetrating different materials (Zvîncu et al., 2021).
The importance of this research also lies in its influence on weapon design strategies and military tactics. By understanding the
differences in ballistic performance between the 5.56 mm and 7.62 mm calibers in the context of diverse material penetration, it can
improve the effective use of these weapons in various combat situations. The findings from this research can also make important
contributions in the development of new weapons or the modification of existing weapons to improve effectiveness and
responsiveness on the battlefield. In addition, this study will highlight the importance of key factors such as projectile kinetic energy,
bullet deformation, and target material resistance in determining the relative ballistic performance of the two weapon calibers. With
a better understanding of the mechanisms behind this penetration process, we can better understand the strengths and weaknesses
of each caliber, thus enabling more efficient and effective use in the dynamic combat of the modern era (Davis et al., 2021).
II. RESEARCH METHODS
This research uses qualitative research methods with Systematic Literature Review (SLR) which are steps to investigate,

Corresponding Author: Mohtar Suyitno 748

Comparative Study of the Penetrability of Steel, Concrete, and Composite Glass Materials Against Small Caliber Ammunition Ballistics

evaluate, and analyze all findings around the research topic to answer predetermined research questions (Thomé et al., 2016). The
SLR method is carried out systematically by following stages and protocols to avoid bias and subjective understanding from
researchers (Xiao & Watson, 2019). The objectives of this study are to determine the ballistic performance of small caliber
ammunition, specifically 5.56 mm and 7.62 mm individual weapons, in the context of material penetration, identify patterns and
trends that emerge in the comparison of ballistic performance between 5.56 mm and 7.62 mm individual weapons, and evaluate the
differences in penetration capability between 5.56 mm and 7.62 mm small caliber ammunition against different types of materials.
In this study, there were evaluation standards consisting of inclusion and exclusion criteria. Inclusion criteria that must be met
include: 1) scientific articles written in English (international journals), 2) literature sources consisting of scientific articles or
conference proceedings, 3) publications originating from reputable international journals, 4) works published between 1994 and
2024 (within the past 30 years), 5) research using primary data, 6) discussion of small caliber personal weapons, and 7) research
that applies ballistic performance. On the other hand, the exclusion criteria included: 1) scientific papers that are only abstracts, 2)
articles published on platforms such as Blogspot, Wikipedia, or social media, and 3) publications that have a cross-section design
(Linnenluecke et al., 2020).
By using SLR, data from hundreds of literatures can be accessed quickly without having to read everything. Then a PRISMA
(Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) analysis is performed to provide a structured framework to
organize the process of searching, selecting, evaluating, and synthesizing relevant literature as in figure 1 (Moher, D., Liberati, A.,
Tetzlaff, J., & Altman, 2010). The next step involves evaluating the quality of the article to assess whether the scientific article
meets the minimum criteria that have been set. In this study, we used the Standards for Reporting Qualitative Research (SRQR)
evaluation tool which consists of 21 quality evaluation components. The researcher then set a minimum threshold of 10 components
for the article to be included as a literature source in this study (O’Brien et al., 2014). Of the 16 articles evaluated, 12 articles met
the minimum threshold set. Meanwhile, 4 other articles did not meet the same criteria, resulting in a collection of articles as listed
in table 1.

Figure 1. PRISMA diagram

III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The research results of a systematic literature review (SLR) focused on a comparative study of the ballistic performance of small
caliber ammunition in the penetration of different materials, by reviewing individual weapons of 5.56 mm and 7.62 mm caliber, as in
the literature in the following table:

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Table 1. Relevant research on ballistic performance of small caliber ammunition against material penetration
No Researcher (Year) Object Ballistic Research Result

1. Roland Stoughton, et al Shock waves External Wavefront distortion and amplitude variations were
(1997) quantified over shock propagation distances between 3-55
m (Stoughton, 1997).
2. Rhestu Pradhipta Jati, et al Speed, External The standard specification of 7.62 mm ammunition is a
(2015) pressure, and minimum speed of 837 m/s, pressure of 324 MPa and
accuracy accuracy of the farthest distance of 14 cm, while 5.56 mm
ammunition is a minimum speed of 915 m/s, pressure of 412
MPa and accuracy of the farthest distance of 14 cm (Jati &
Ore, 2022)
3. Neculai-Daniel Zvîncu, et Speed and External Velocity and pressure are measured using piezoelectric
al (2018) pressure pressure sensors and Doppler radar for velocity (Zvîncu et
al., 2021).
4. Beat Vogelsanger, et al Pressure Internal The peak pressure is mainly determined by the
(2011) concentration of DBP in the outer 20-40 µm of the grain,
and that the specified amount of DBP diffusion determined
can result in an increase in peak pressure by 60-100 Mpa
(Beat Vogelsanger, Bruno Ossola, Ulrich Schädeli & Ryf,
2001).
5. L. Jedlicka, et al (2012) Kinetic External For practical evaluation of each cartridge and its use against
energy moving targets, the flight time to target range t30 is
important. Heavier projectiles have longer flight times and
in this case exceed 0.14 seconds (Jedlicka et al., 2012).
6. Dyckmans, et al (2003) Ballistics Terminal Soap and gelatin are materials commonly used to simulate
soap soft human body tissue in wound ballistics experiments.
These materials are considered as tools to compare the
effectiveness of different projectiles (Dyckmans et al.,
2003).
7. Hui Xu, et al (2023) Dynamic Terminal Compared with lead fillers, aluminum filler projectiles will
engraving cause a slight increase in maximum chamber pressure and a
process slight decrease in projectile muzzle velocity, an increase in
sliding friction force and a decrease in maximum
deformation force (Xu et al., 2023).
8. Zvîncu, et al (2021) Shooting External Using the right tools and software, the trajectory of the
range projectile can be calculated if the given values are correct
(mass, diameter, initial angle, initial velocity). The created
tool has different weapon-ammunition specifications and
loaded initial condition parameters that can be combined
with existing drag laws known in ballistics (Siacci's law,
1930 law or 1943 law) to describe the movement of the
projectile in the atmosphere (Zvîncu et al., 2021).
9. Mark G. Stewart, et al Variability Terminal This perforation fragility analysis considers the random
(2020) and fragility variability of impact velocity, bullet mass, plate thickness,
plate hardness, and model error. Such probabilistic analysis
enables reliability-based design, where, for example, the

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plate thickness with 95% reliability (i.e., only 1 in 20 shots

will penetrate the wall) can be estimated by probabilistically
knowing the perforation distribution. Therefore, it was
found that the thickness of the slab to ensure a low
probability of 5% perforation needs to be 11e15% thicker
than that required to have a 50/50 chance of perforation for
mild steel slabs. The plate needs to be 20e30% thicker if the
probability of perforation is reduced to zero (Stewart &
Netherton, 2020).
10. Ritter, et al (2021) Burning Rate Internal Results from the experiments showed that both propellants
functioned well. The data showed some minor differences
between the two types, especially with regard to their burn
rates, but the values were within nominal tolerances.
Particle size seems to affect the burn rate, where larger
particles have a tendency to burn faster. This is most likely
a result of the deterrent process and the higher base grain to
deterrent ratio when compared to smaller particle sizes
(Ritter et al., 2021).
11. Brad Gregory Davis, et al Ballistic Terminal The Alekseevskii-Tate model was found to provide an
(2021) penetration accurate estimate of penetration depth when compared to
risk experimental and numerical results at ordnance velocities
evaluation and the estimated probability of failure was on the order of
1x10-5 (Davis et al., 2021).
12 Abo El Amaim, et al Ballistic Terminal Polyurethane rubber which has good impact properties
(2017) penetration provides acceptable results with Kevlar and does not
adversely affect its ductility. The armor produced from the
composite (multi-layered Kevlar with polyurethane resin) is
very light, very thin, reducing the number of layers and the
cost of the armor. In addition, it can defeat small calibers in
protection level IIIA according to NIJ standards (Abo El
Amaim et al., 2017).

The United Nation (UN) definition of small arms and light weapons distinguishes between small arms and light weapons. Small
arms are revolvers, self-loading pistols, carbines, assault rifles, machine pistols, and light machine guns (individual weapons) (Zvîncu
et al., 2021). Small arms have a caliber (internal diameter of the barrel) of less than 12.7 mm. Light weapons are heavy machine guns,
grenade launchers, air defense and portable tank missiles, rifles without bullets, portable rocket launchers, and mortars up to 100 mm
caliber (Grand-Clément & Kondor, 2022). The 5.56mm small caliber ammunition is a type of ammunition widely used in various
firearms, including assault rifles such as the M16 and variants of the AR-15, as well as submachine guns such as the M249 SAW. It
is also often used in civilian weapons such as the AR-15 semi-automatic rifle. 5.56 mm ammunition has distinctive dimensions, with
a projectile diameter of about 5.56 millimeters (about 0.22 inches). The 5.56 mm ammunition is one of the popular calibers because
it has a good combination of range, speed, and stable recoil, which makes it effective in various situations, both close and medium
range combat (Jedlicka et al., 2012). Small-caliber 7.62 mm ammunition is a type of ammunition often used in firearms such as the
AK-47 assault rifle, submachine guns such as the PKM, and sniper rifles such as the Dragunov. It is also commonly used in automatic
machine guns and sniper rifles. With a projectile diameter of about 0.30 inches, this ammunition is known for its strong recoil and
ability to effectively penetrate targets at both close and medium distances. The 7.62 mm ammunition also has a reputation for being
reliable in various terrain and weather conditions (Abo El Amaim et al., 2017; Ritter et al., 2021).

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Figure 2. Size comparison of small caliber ammunition, 5.56 x 45 mm NATO (left) and 7.62 x 51 mm NATO (right)
Small-caliber ammunition is usually designed to penetrate human or animal targets, not hard materials such as steel or concrete.
However, the penetration capability of small caliber ammunition can vary depending on several factors, including (Abo El Amaim et
al., 2017):
a. Projectile Type: Some types of projectiles, such as sharp or hard-pointed projectiles, may have better penetration capabilities
than regular projectiles.
b. Trajectory Speed: The higher the trajectory speed of a projectile, the more likely it is to penetrate the target better.
c. Firing Range: Firing distance can also affect penetration capability. At closer distances, projectiles have higher kinetic energy
and tend to have better penetration capability.
However, for harder target-materials such as concrete or steel, small caliber ammunition is usually ineffective in penetrating them.
For such purposes, large-caliber ammunition or anti-material weapons specifically designed to penetrate hard materials are usually
used (Davis et al., 2021; Dyckmans et al., 2003; Stewart & Netherton, 2020).
Table 2. Comparison of material penetration in 7.62mm and 5.56mm small caliber ammunition
Materials Thickness (mm) 5.56 mm ammunition 7.62 mm ammunition
Steel 10 Good penetration Excellent penetration
Reinforced Concrete 300 No penetration Medium penetration
Stone Wall 500 Medium penetration Good penetration
Ceramics 20 Good penetration Excellent penetration
Glass 15 Good penetration Excellent penetration

Notes:

 Excellent penetration: The ammunition is able to penetrate the material very easily and produce very significant damage that
includes additional effects such as fragmentation.
 Good penetration: The ammunition can penetrate the material well and produce significant damage opposite.
 Medium penetration: The ammunition can partially penetrate the material, but not effectively and without causing significant
damage opposite.
 No penetration: The ammunition is unable to penetrate the material at all.
The literature results show that 5.56 mm ammunition tends to be more effective in penetrating materials with thinner thicknesses,
such as mild steel and kevlar fiber, but has limitations in penetrating thicker materials such as concrete walls and ceramics. Meanwhile,

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Comparative Study of the Penetrability of Steel, Concrete, and Composite Glass Materials Against Small Caliber Ammunition Ballistics

7.62 mm ammunition shows more consistent performance in penetrating various types of materials, including materials with greater
thickness such as concrete walls and aluminum (Abo El Amaim et al., 2017; Davis et al., 2021). This suggests that ammunition
selection should be tailored to the conditions and characteristics of the target, where 5.56 mm caliber ammunition is more suitable
for operations in urban environments or in situations where penetration of thinner materials is a priority, while 7.62 mm caliber
ammunition is more suitable for operations on the battlefield or in situations where penetration of thicker materials is required (Stewart
& Netherton, 2020).
Table 3. Comparison of penetration capability and factors affecting penetration in 7.62 mm and 5.56 mm small caliber ammunition
Materials Caliber Penetration Ability Influence Factor
Lightweight 5.56 mm It tends to penetrate light body armor such Launch velocity, projectile design,
Body Armor as level IIIA bulletproof vests well. and firing range.
7.62 mm Generally, has better penetration Projectile power and material
capabilities, able to penetrate light body penetration capability.
armor more effectively.
Brick Wall 5.56 mm Able to penetrate ordinary brick walls Glide velocity, kinetic energy, and
well, especially when using penetrating wall structure.
special ammunition.
7.62 mm Usually has a good penetration ability, Projectile power and material
able to penetrate brick walls well without penetration capability.
the need for special ammunition.
Light 5.56 mm It may have difficulty in penetrating the Glide speed, angle of attack, and
Combat outer layer of light combat vehicles, but it structural strength of the vehicle.
Vehicle can penetrate glass well.
7.62 mm It is generally capable of penetrating light Kinetic energy, projectile force,
combat vehicles and can cause significant and material penetration
damage to vehicle components. capability.
Reinforced 5.56 mm May have difficulty in penetrating Projectile force, kinetic energy,
Bunkers reinforced bunker walls, especially with and wall thickness.
strong concrete structures.
7.62 mm It is generally more effective in Kinetic energy, projectile design,
penetrating reinforced bunker walls, and wall thickness.
especially if specialized penetrating
ammunition is used.
Thick Metal 5.56 mm It may have difficulty penetrating thick Glide speed, angle of attack, and
metals such as ballistic steel, especially at metal thickness.
long firing ranges.
7.62 mm It is better able to penetrate thick metals Kinetic energy, projectile force,
better, making it more suitable for fighting and metal thickness.
targets reinforced with metal.

IV. CONCLUSION
Based on a comparative study of the ballistic performance of small-caliber ammunition in the penetration of different materials, a
review of 5.56 mm and 7.62 mm caliber individual weapons revealed significant differences in their penetration capabilities. The
results showed that 5.56 mm caliber ammunition tends to have higher velocity, but lower penetration power compared to 7.62 mm
caliber ammunition. While 5.56 mm ammunition can penetrate materials such as mild steel or lightweight concrete well at close to

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medium range shooting distances, its ability to penetrate thicker or denser materials, such as thick steel or reinforced concrete walls,
is limited. Meanwhile, 7.62 mm caliber ammunition exhibits greater penetration capabilities, being able to penetrate denser materials
at longer firing ranges, making it more suitable for tasks where deep penetration is required, such as medium to long-range combat.
As such, the choice between a weapon with 5.56 mm or 7.62 mm caliber ammunition should be based on the mission context and
specific needs, including the type of material that may be targeted.
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