THERMODYNAMICS

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 WHAT IS THERMODYNAMICS..???
➢ Thermodynamics can be defined as the science of energy.

➢ Derived from Greek words

therme means heat

dynamis means power

➢ Fundamental Law – Law of Conservation of Energy

 Thermodynamics

Classical Statistical
Thermodynamics Thermodynamics
(Macroscopic (Microscopic
approach) approach)
 Classical Thermodynamics &
Statistical Thermodynamics

➢ Macroscopic approach/Classical Thermodynamics –

➢ does not require a knowledge of the behaviour of individual
particles.
➢ It provides a direct and easy way to the solution of
engineering problems.
➢ Eg. Pressure, Temperature etc.

➢ Microscopic approach/Statistical Thermodynamics

➢ considering the matter is composed of molecules, the analysis
is carried out by considering the position, velocity and energy
of each molecules
➢ The effect of molecular motion is considered.
Applications of Thermodynamics
DIMENSIONS & UNITS
 THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEMS

➢ System - Quantity of matter or a region in space chosen for study

➢ Surroundings - The mass or region outside the system

➢ Boundary - The real or imaginary surface that separates the system from
its surroundings
➢ the boundary has zero thickness, and thus it can neither contain any
mass nor occupy any volume in space.
Types of Systems

Open

Systems

Closed Isolated
 Open System (Control Volume)

➢ Both mass and energy can cross the boundary of a control

volume
➢ Eg. compressor, turbine, nozzle
 Closed System (Control Mass)

➢ Fixed amount of mass in system. No mass can cross its boundary

➢ Energy in the form of heat or work, can cross the boundary
➢ volume of a closed system does not have to be fixed
 Closed System (Control Mass)

➢ There is no interaction between system and the surroundings.

➢ The system is of fixed mass and energy, and hence there is no mass and
energy transfer across the system boundary
➢ Eg. Universe
 State of a System

➢ Condition of physical existence of a system at any instant

➢ State of a thermodynamic system is described by specifying its thermodynamic
co-ordinates or thermodynamic properties
➢ At a given state, all the properties of a system have fixed values
 Process

➢ Process - Any change that a system

undergoes from one equilibrium state
to another

➢ Transformation from one state to

another
Types of Process
 Reversible and Irreversible Process

➢ In reversible process, two states ➢ Irreversible process is usually

can be shown by a continuous line represented by a dotted line joining
the end states
➢ Reversible process is an ideal ➢ In a real process, the
process intermediate state points cannot
be located
 Path

➢ The series of states through which a system passes during a

process is called the path of the process

➢ To describe a process completely, one should specify the initial

and final states of the process, as well as the path it follows, and
the interactions with the surroundings
 Properties of a System

➢ Any characteristic of a system is called a

property. Some familiar properties are
Pressure P, Temperature T, Volume V,
and Mass m.

➢ Quantities which identify the state of a

system. Property must have a definite
value when the system is at a particular
state.
 Types of Properties

INTENSIVE EXTENSIVE

PROPERTY
 Types of Properties

➢ Intensive properties are those that are

independent of the mass of a system

E.g. temperature, pressure, density

➢ Extensive properties are those whose

values depend on the mass of the
system.
E.g. total volume, and total momentum
 Thermodynamic Equilibrium
➢ The word equilibrium implies a state of balance

➢ In an equilibrium state there are no unbalanced potentials (or

driving forces) within the system

➢ A system is said to be in thermodynamic equilibrium , if it satisfies

the following requirements of equilibrium

❖ Mechanical equilibrium
❖ Thermal equilibrium
❖ Chemical equilibrium
❖ Phase equilibrium
There is no Temperature
unbalanced is same
force acting throughout
on the system the entire
system

MECHANICAL THERMAL
EQUILIBRIUM EQUILIBRIUM

PHASE CHEMICAL
EQUILIBRIUM EQUILIBRIUM

Mass of each Chemical

phase reaches Composition
an equilibrium does not
level change with
time
 Path and Point Functions
Path Functions
❖ The value of the thermodynamic variable depends upon the path
followed in going from one state to another
❖ Path functions are not properties of the system
❖ Eg. Work(W), Heat(Q)

Point Functions

❖ The value of the thermodynamic variable doesn’t depend upon the path
followed but only on initial and final state in going from one state to another

❖ Point functions are properties of the system

❖ Eg. Temperature(T), Volume (V)

 CYCLE

➢ When a system in a given initial state experiences a series of processes and

returns to the initial state, the system undergoes a cycle.
➢ At the end of the cycle the properties of the system have the same values they
had at the beginning.

➢ Cyclic integral of any property in a cycle is zero

∮dz =0 ;
‘z’ is any thermodynamic property
Temperature and
Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics

➢ Degree of hotness or coldness of a body

or environment

➢ The equality of temperature is the

only requirement for thermal
equilibrium
 Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
➢ The zeroth law was first formulated and labelled by R. H. Fowler
in1931
➢ If the system A and system B are in thermal equilibrium with
system C separately then the systems A and B are in thermal
equilibrium with themselves

➢ All temperature measurements are based on this LAW

Human Body Mercury
 Characteristic Gas Equation
➢ A perfect or ideal gas is the gas which strictly obeys all the gas laws under all
conditions of pressure and temperature. Also, a theoretical gas composed of a
set of randomly moving non- interacting point particles

PV/T = constant
P1V1/T1 = P2V2/T2 = PV/T = constant
PV = mRT (Characteristic gas equation )
m-mass & R-characteristic gas constant

For air R = 287 J/KgK

 Universal Gas Constant

➢ Product of molecular weight and characteristic gas constant of any gas is

constant
➢ Ru = R x M
➢ Ru = 8314 J/Kg mol K

Substance Atomic mass Molecular mass

Hydrogen 1 2
Oxygen 16 32
Carbon 12 -
Steam or water - 18
 HEAT

➢ Heat is defined as the form of energy that is transferred between

two systems (or a system and its surroundings) by virtue of a
temperature difference
➢ The transfer of heat into a system is frequently referred to as heat
addition and the transfer of heat out of a system as heat rejection
➢ Heat is transferred by three mechanisms: Conduction, Convection
and Radiation
➢ A process during which there is no heat transfer is called an
adiabatic process
 WORK

➢ Work is an energy interaction between a system and its surroundings

➢ Positive work is done by a system when the sole effect external to the
system could be reduced to the rise of a weight

➢ Work is the energy transfer associated with a force acting through a

distance.

➢ A rising piston, a rotating shaft, and an electric wire crossing the system
boundaries are all associated with work interactions
Sign Conventions
 Heat and Work
➢ Both are recognized at the boundaries of a system as they cross the
boundaries. That is, both heat and work are boundary phenomena

➢ Systems possess energy, but not heat or work

➢ Both are associated with a process, not a state. Unlike properties, heat or
work has no meaning at a state

➢ Both are path functions (i.e., their magnitudes depend on the path followed
during a process as well as the end states)

➢ Heat is low grade energy and work is high grade energy

 Specific Heats

➢ The specific heat is defined as the energy required to raise the temperature of
a unit mass of a substance by one degree

➢ The specific heat at constant volume, Cv can be viewed as the energy required
to raise the temperature of the unit mass of a substance by one degree as the
volume is maintained constant

➢ The specific heat at constant pressure, Cp can be viewed as the energy required
to raise the temperature of the unit mass of a substance by one degree as the
pressure is maintained constant
 Specific Heat Relations
Cp = Q/ [m(T2-T1)]
Cv = Q/ [m(T2-T1)]
Cp / Cv = γ, ratio of specific heats
Cp – Cv = R, Characteristic gas constant
For air, Cp= 1.005 KJ/Kg K,
Cv= 0.718 KJ/Kg K,
γ= 1.4

The specific heat at constant pressure Cp is always greater than Cv

because at constant pressure the system can expand and the energy
for this expansion work must also be supplied to the system
First Law of Thermodynamics

Work

First Law of
Thermodynamics

Internal
Heat Energy
 First Law of Thermodynamics
➢ First law of thermodynamics – Conservation of energy principle

➢ provides a basis for studying the relationships among the various forms of energy
and energy interactions

➢ States that “When a closed system executes a complete cycle the sum of heat
interactions is equal to the sum of work interactions”

Qnet = Wnet

∑Q = ∑W

∮δQ = ∮δW
 Thermal Reservoirs

➢ A hypothetical body with a relatively large

thermal energy capacity that can supply or
absorb finite amounts of heat without
undergoing any change in temperature.
Eg. Atmosphere, Furnace etc.

➢ A reservoir that supplies energy in the form

of heat is called a source, and one that
absorbs energy in the form of heat is called
a sink
Second Law of Thermodynamics

Refrigerators

Heat Heat
engines pumps

Second Law of
Thermodynamics
 Heat Engines
➢ A heat engine is a system that converts heat
or thermal energy to mechanical energy,
which can then be used to do mechanical
work.
➢ They receive heat from a high temperature
source
➢ They convert part of this heat to work
➢ They reject the remaining waste heat to a
low-temperature sink (the atmosphere,
rivers, etc.).
➢ Heat engines and other devices usually
involve a fluid to and from which heat is
transferred while undergoing a cycle. This
fluid is called the working fluid
➢ Eg. Internal combustion engine, gas turbine
 Thermal Efficiency of Heat Engine

➢ The fraction of the heat input that is converted to

net work output is a measure of the performance
of a heat engine and is called the thermal
efficiency(ηth)

Qin = Wnet,out + Qout

 Refrigerators

➢ The transfer of heat from a low-

temperature medium to a high- temperature
one requires special devices called
refrigerators

➢ Objective – maintain the refrigerated space

at a low temperature by removing heat from
it

➢ The working fluid used in the refrigeration

cycle is called a refrigerant
 Heat Pumps

➢ Another device that transfers heat from

a low-temperature medium to a high-
temperature one is the heat pump

➢ Objective – maintain a heated space at

a high temperature
 Second Law of Thermodynamics
Kelvin - Plank Statement
➢ It is impossible for any device that operates on a cycle to receive heat from a
single reservoir and produce an equal amount of work

➢ The Kelvin–Planck statement can also be expressed as no heat engine can

have a thermal efficiency of 100 percent
Clausius Statement
➢ It is impossible to construct a device that operates in a cycle and
produces no effect other than the transfer of heat from a lower-
temperature body to a higher-temperature body
Equivalence of Kelvin-Planck and Clausius Statements
 Entropy
➢ Entropy – a measure of molecular disorder, or molecular
randomness.
➢ As a system becomes more disordered, the positions of the
molecules become less predictable and the entropy increases.
➢ Entropy of a substance is lowest in the solid phase and highest
in the gas phase
➢ Entropy is the thermodynamic property of a working substance
that increases with the increase of temperature and decreases
with decrease of temperature
➢ It is a point function

dS = dQ/T
 Third Law of Thermodynamics

➢ The entropy of a pure substance at absolute

zero temperature is zero since there is no
uncertainty about the state of the
molecules at that instant .This statement is
known as the third law of thermodynamics

➢ The third law of thermodynamics provides

an absolute reference point for the
determination of entropy.
Constant Volume (Isochoric) Process

𝑷𝟏 𝑷𝟐
P/T= Constant =
𝑻𝟏 𝑻𝟐

W1-2= 0

Q1-2 = mcv(T2-T1)
Constant Pressure (Isobaric) Process

𝑽𝟏 𝑽𝟐
V/T= Constant =
𝑻𝟏 𝑻𝟐

W1-2= P(V2-V1)

Q1-2 = mcp(T2-T1)
Constant Temperature (Isothermal) Process

PV= Constant 𝑷𝟏 𝑽𝟏 = 𝑷𝟐 𝑽𝟐

W1-2= P1V1ln(V2/V1)

Q1-2 = P1V1ln(V2/V1)
Reversible Adiabatic (Isentropic) Process
 Adiabatic Process (P-V-T Relation)

P𝑽Ɣ = constant
Ɣ Ɣ
𝑷𝟏 𝑽𝟏 = 𝑷𝟐 𝑽𝟐

𝑻𝑽Ɣ−𝟏 = constant
𝑻𝟏 𝑽𝟏 (Ɣ−𝟏) = 𝑻𝟐 𝑽𝟐 (Ɣ−𝟏)
𝟏−Ɣ
( )
T𝑷 Ɣ = constant
𝟏−Ɣ 𝟏−Ɣ
( Ɣ ) ( Ɣ )
𝑻𝟏 𝑷𝟏 = 𝑻𝟐 𝑷𝟐

Q1-2 = 0

(P1V1 – P2V2)
W1-2 = U2 – U1 = mcv(T2-T1) =
Ɣ−𝟏
THANK YOU