INDEX

[Link]. Contents Page no.

1. Topic 2

2. Introduction 3

3. Electrical Resistance 3-4

4. Internal Resistance 4

5. Electrochemical Cells 4-5

6. Daniel Cells 5-6

7. Practical analysis 7

8. Objective 8

9. Apparatus Required 8

10. Circuit Diagram 9

11. Theory 9

12. Procedure 10-11

13. Observation 11-12

14. Conclusion 12

15. Precautions 13

16. Sources of error 13

17. Bibliography 14

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To study various factors on which the
internal resistance/EMF of a cell
depends

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 INTRODUCTION
There is a great need of batteries in our daily use electronic appliances and the use is increasing
every day. Thus, the batteries need to be made more powerful so that their potential can be
increased greatly.

Thus, this project report is based on practical analysis for the factors affecting the internal
resistance of a cell.

When the internal resistance of the cell is decreased, we can increase the potential difference
across it, and hence make it more reliable.

ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE
When an electric current flows through a bulb or any conductor, the conductor offers some
obstruction to the current and this obstruction is known as electrical resistance and is denoted
by R. Every material has an electrical resistance and this is the reason why conductors give out
heat when current passes through it.

According to Ohm’s law, there is a relation between the current flowing through a conductor
and the potential difference across it. It is given by,

V ∝ I V = IR

Where,

V is the potential difference measured across the conductor (in volts)

I is the current through the conductor (in amperes)

R is the constant of proportionality called resistance (in ohms)

The electrical resistance of a circuit is the ratio between the voltage applied to the current
flowing through it.

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Rearranging the above relation,

R=VI

 The unit of electrical resistance is ohms.

Electric charge flows easily through some materials than others. The electrical resistance
measures how much the flow of this electric charge is restricted within the circuit.

INTENAL RESISITANCE
Internal resistance is defined as the resistance offered by the electrolyte of the cell to the flow
of ions.
SI UNIT: Ohm(Ω)

For a cell of e.m.f. (E) and internal resistance (r), connected to an external resistance (R) such
that (I) is the current flowing through the circuit,

E = V + Ir

Internal Resistance,

r = E-V/I

ELECTROCHEMICAL CELLS
An electrochemical cell is a device by which electric energy is generated at the cost of chemical
energy due to chemical action taking place in the cell. They are of two types:

1. Primary Cells

2. Secondary Cells

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PRIMARY CELL: It is the cell in which electrical energy is produced due to chemical energy.
The chemical reaction in the cell is irreversible.

E.g. Daniel cell, Leclanche cell.

SECONDARY CELL: It is that cell in which the electrical energy is first stored up as chemical
energy and when the outside circuit is closed to draw the current from the cell the stored
chemical energy is reconverted into electrical energy. The chemical reactions in this case are
reversible.

E.g. lead acid accumulator, Edison cell.

DANIEL CELLS
A Daniell Cell is an Electro Chemical Cell which carries out Chemical reactions to produce
Electricity. In the Daniell Cell, Zinc metal is made of the anode, and copper metal is the cathode.
The zinc anode is dipped in Zinc salt solution and the Copper cathode is dipped in the copper
salt solution. At the anode, oxidation takes place and solid zinc converts into zinc ions. At the
cathode, copper ions get reduced to copper metal and get deposited.

 The Daniell Cell has a voltage of 1.1v.

Daniell Cell Chemical Reaction

Zn(s) + Cu+2(aq) -------> Zn+2(aq) + Cu(s)

The above reaction can be split into two as follows-

Anode reaction /oxidation half Cell reaction

Zn(s)-------> Zn+2 + 2 e-

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2 Electrons are released and zinc metal is oxidized.

Cathode reaction/ reduction half Cell reaction

Cu+2 + 2 e- ---------> Cu (s)

Copper ions are reduced to copper metal.

Daniell Cell Working

The zinc metal oxidizes at the anode and 2 Electrons are released. These Electrons travel from
anode to cathode through a metal wire that connects both the Electrodes. This flow of free
Electrons produces Electricity in the direction opposite to the flow of Electrons that is from
cathode to anode. Salt bridge completes the circuit.

Daniell Cell Representation

Zn | Zn+2(aq) || Cu+2(aq) | Cu

The symbol double vertical lines || represents the salt bridge. The left part is oxidation half Cell
and the right part is reduction half Cell.

Applications of Daniell Cell

Daniell Cells are used to generate Electricity or to store Electric Energy. Daniell Cells are used in
Battery development and Electrical telegraphy. Battery refers to a group of Cells combined.

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 ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE

Electromotive force is defined as the energy provided by a power source, like a battery or
generator, to make electric charge flow through a circuit. Despite its name, the electromotive
force is the energy per unit charge or potential difference created by the source.

EMF can mathematically be represented as: ε=W/Q

Where:

 ε is the EMF in volts,

 𝑊 is the work done in joules,

 𝑄 is the charge in coulombs.

The electromotive force unit is the volt, with one volt being the amount of energy needed to
move one coulomb of charge with one joule of energy. This relationship is used in
understanding how much energy would be required for the flow of current.

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 PRACTICAL ANALYSIS

OBJECTIVE

To study various factors on which the internal resistance/EMF of a cell depends.

APPARATUS

 Potentiometer

 Battery (or battery eliminator)

 Two one-way keys

 Rheostat

 Galvanometer

 Resistance box

 Ammeter

 Cell (Leclanche cell)

 Jockey

 Setsquare

 Connecting wires and sand paper

 water bath

 thermometer(0-100°C)

 burner

 tripod stand

 wire gauge.

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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

THEORY

The internal resistance of a cell is the resistance offered by its electrolyte to the flow of ions.
The internal resistance of a cell

i. Is directly proportional to the distance between the electrodes.

ii. Is inversely proportional to facing surface area of the electrodes in electrolyte.

iv. Is inversely proportional to concentration of electrolyte.

The internal resistance of a cell is given by,

Where l1, l2 are the balancing lengths without resistance and with resistance

(shunt), respectively and R is the shunt resistance in parallel with the given cell.

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PROCEDURE

Step 1:
1. Draw the circuit diagram showing the scheme of connections.

2. Clean the ends of the connecting wires with sand paper and make tight connections
according to the circuit diagrams.

3. Tight the plugs of the resistance box.

4. Check the e.m.f. of the battery and cell and see that e.m.f. and see that e.m.f. of the battery
is more than that of given cell, otherwise null or balance point will not be obtained (E' >E).

5. Take maximum current from the battery, making rheostat resistance small.

6. To test the corrections of the connections. (Insert the plug in the key K1 and note the
ammeter reading. Take out 2000 ohm resistance plug from resistance box.

Place the jokey first at the end P of the wire and then at the end Q. If the

galvanometer shows deflection in opposite direction in the two cases the connections are
correct).

7. Without inserting the plug in the key K2 adjust the rheostat so that a null point is obtained
on the 4th wire of potentiometer.

8. Insert the 2000 ohm plug back in the position in resistance box and by slightly

adjusting the jockey near the previous obtained position of null point, obtain null point position
accurately, using a set square.

9. Measure the balancing length l1 between the point and the end P of the wire.

10. Take out the 2000 ohm plug again from the resistance box R.B. introduce plugs in the key
K1, as well as in key K2. Take out small resistance

(1-5 Ω) from the resistance box R connected in parallel with the cell.

11. Slide the jockey along the potentiometer wire and obtain null point.

12. Insert 2000 ohms plug back in its position in R.B. and if necessary, make further adjustment
for sharp null point.

13. Measure the balancing length l2 from end P.

14. Remove the plug keys at K1 and K2. Wait for some time and for the same value of current
(as shown by ammeter) repeat the steps 7 to 13.

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15. Repeat the observations for different values of R repeating each observation twice.

16. Calculate the internal resistance of cell by using the above relation for r.

Step 2:
To see the effect of distance between the electrodes on internal resistances keeping the other
factors constant, vary separation between electrodes and measure internal resistance in each
case.

Step 3:
To see the effect of the temperature of electrolyte on internal resistance by keeping other
factors constant.

Keep primary cells in water bath to heat the electrolyte. Determine the internal resistance at
various temperatures.

Step 4:
To see the effect of concentration (nature) of electrolyte on internal resistance by: - Keeping the
other factors constant, decrease concentration of electrolyte by adding the distilled water and
determine internal resistance of cell in each case.

OBSERVATIONS

(A)Internal resistance of a cell

[Link] for internal resistance: -

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(B) To study the effect of separation between the electrodes

2. Table for effect of separation between electrodes: -

(C) Effect of temperature of electrolyte on the internal resistance

3. Table for effect of temperature: -

CONCLUSION

1. The Electromotive Force of the cell is constant and is equal to E = 0.98 Volt

2. The internal resistance of a cell is directly proportional to the separation between the
electrodes.

3. The internal resistance of a cell is inversely proportional to the area of the

electrodes dipped in electrolyte.

4. The internal resistance of a cell is inversely proportional to the temperature of electrolytes.

5. The internal resistance of a cell is inversely proportional to the concentration of the

electrolyte.

PRECAUTIONS
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 The connections should be neat, clean and tight.

 The plugs should be introduced in the keys only when the observations are to be taken.

 The positive polls of the battery E and cells E, and E2 should, all be connected to the
terminal at the zero of the wires.

 The jockey key should not be rubbed along the wire. It should touch the wire gently.

 The ammeter reading should remain constant for a particular set of observation. If
necessary, adjust the rheostat for this purpose.

 The e.m.f. of the battery should be greater than that of the cell.

 For one set of observation the ammeter reading should remain

 Current should be passed for short time only, while finding the null
point.

 Rheostat should be adjusted so that initial null point lies on last wire of
the potentiometer.

 Cell should not be disturbed during experiment.

 Jockey should not be rubbed against the potentiometer wire.

 The e.m.f. of the battery should be greater than the e.m.f.'s of the
either of the two cells.

 Some high resistance plug should always be taken out from resistance
box before the jockey is moved along the wire.

SOURCES OF ERROR

1. The auxiliary battery may not be fully charged.

2. The potentiometer wire may not be of uniform cross-section and material density
throughout its length.

3. End resistances may not be zero.

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 BIBLIOGRPAHY

 [Link]
 [Link]
 [Link]
 [Link]
 [Link]
 [Link]
 Physics NCERT class XII
 [Link]

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