Assignment : Science IV

1.) Boyles law

Boyle's law sometimes referred to as the Boyle-Mariotte law) is one of many gas laws and a special case of the ideal gas law. Boyle's law describes the inversely proportional relationship between the absolute pressure and volume of a gas, if the temperature is kept constant within a closed system. The law was named after chemist and physicist Robert Boyle, who published the original law in 1662.[3] The law itself can be stated as follows: For a fixed amount of an ideal gas kept at a fixed temperature, P [pressure] and V [volume] are inversely proportional while one doubles, the other halves.

The mathematical equation for Boyle's law is:

where: p denotes the pressure of the system. V denotes the volume of the gas. k is a constant value representative of the pressure and volume of the system. So long as temperature remains constant the same amount of energy given to the system persists throughout its operation and therefore, theoretically, the value of k will remain constant. However, due to the derivation of pressure as perpendicular applied force and the probabilistic likelihood of collisions with other particles through collision theory, the application of force to a surface may not be infinitely constant for such values of k, but will have a limit when differentiating such values over a given time. Forcing the volume V of the fixed quantity of gas to increase, keeping the gas at the initially measured temperature, the pressure p must decrease proportionally. Conversely, reducing the volume of the gas increases the pressure. Boyle's law is used to predict the result of introducing a change, in volume and pressure only, to the initial state of a fixed quantity of gas. The before and after volumes and pressures of the fixed amount of gas, where the before and after temperatures are the same (heating or cooling will be required to meet this condition), are related by the equation:

2.) Charles law

Charles's law (also known as the law of volumes) is an experimental gas law which describes how gases tend to expand when heated. It was first published by French natural philosopher Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac in 1802,[1] although he credited the discovery to unpublished work from the 1780s byJacques Charles. The law was independently discovered by British natural philosopher John Dalton by 1801, although Dalton's description was less thorough than Gay-Lussac's. The basic principles had already been described a century earlier by Guillaume Amontons. Taylor Buchanan was the first to demonstrate that the law applied generally to all gases, and also to the vapours of volatile liquids if the temperature was more than a few degrees above the boiling point. His statement of the law can be expressed mathematically as:

where V100 is the volume occupied by a given sample of gas at 100 C; V0 is the volume occupied by the same sample of gas at 0 C; and k is a constant which is the same for all gases at constant pressure. Gay-Lussac's value for k was 12.6666, remarkably close to the present-day value of 12.7315. A modern statement of Charles' law is: At constant pressure, the volume of a given mass of an ideal gas increases or decreases by the same factor as its temperature on the absolute temperature scale (i.e. the gas expands as the temperature increases).[3] which can be written as:

where V is the volume of the gas; and T is the absolute temperature. The law can also be usefully expressed as follows:

The equation shows that, as absolute temperature increases, the volume of the gas also increases in proportion.

3.) Avogadros law

Avogadro's lawsometimes referred to as Avogadro's hypothesis or Avogadro's principle is a gas law named after Amedeo Avogadro who, in 1811, hypothesized that two given samples of anideal gas, of the same volume and at the same temperature and pressure, contain the same number of molecules. Thus, the number of molecules or atoms in a specific volume of gas is independent of their size or the molar mass of the gas. As an example, equal volumes of molecular hydrogen and nitrogen contain the same number of molecules when they are at the same temperature and pressure, and observe ideal gas behavior. In practice, real gases show small deviations from the ideal behavior and the law holds only approximately, but is still a useful approximation for scientists.

Avogadro's law is stated mathematically as:

Where: V is the volume of the gas. n is the amount of substance of the gas. k is a proportionality constant. The most significant consequence of Avogadro's law is that the ideal gas constant has the same value for all gases. This means that:

Where: p is the pressure of the gas T is the temperature in kelvin of the gas

4.) Gay Lussacs law

The expression Gay-Lussac's law is used for each of the two relationships named after the French chemist Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac and which concern the properties of gases, though it is more usually applied to his law of combining volumes, the first listed here. One law relates to volumes before and after a chemical reaction while the other concerns the pressure and temperature relationship for a sample of gas.

The law of combining volumes states that, when gases react together to form other gases, and all volumes are measured at the same temperature and pressure: The ratio between the volumes of the reactant gases and the products can be expressed in simple whole numbers. For example, Gay-Lussac found that 2 volumes of Hydrogen and 1 volume of Oxygen would react to form 1 volume of gaseous water. In addition to Gay-Lussac's results, Amedeo Avogadro theorized that, at the same temperature and pressure, equal volumes of gas contain equal numbers of molecules Avogadro's law. This hypothesis meant that the previously stated result 2 volumes of Hydrogen + 1 volume of Oxygen = 1 volume of gaseous water could also be expressed as 2 molecules of Hydrogen + 1 molecule of Oxygen = 1 molecule of water. The law of combining gases was published by Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac in 1808. Avogadro's hypothesis, however, was not initially accepted by chemists until the Italian chemist Stanislao Cannizzaro was able to convince them at the First International Chemical Congress in 1860. Gay-Lussac's name is also associated erroneously with another gas law, the so-called pressure law, which states that: The pressure of a gas of fixed mass and fixed volume is directly proportional to the gas' absolute temperature. Simply put, if a gas' temperature increases then so does its pressure, if the mass and volume of the gas are held constant. The law has a particularly simple mathematical form if the temperature is measured on an absolute scale, such as in kelvins. The law can then be expressed mathematically as:

or

where: P is the pressure of the gas (measured in ATM). T is the temperature of the gas (measured in Kelvin). k is a constant.

This law holds true because temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of a substance; as the kinetic energy of a gas increases, its particles collide with the container walls more rapidly, thereby exerting increased pressure. For comparing the same substance under two different sets of conditions, the law can be written as:

5.) Combined Gas law

The combined gas law is a gas law which combines Charles's law, Boyle's law, Renault's law and Gay-Lussac's law. These laws each relate one thermodynamic variable to another mathematically while holding everything else constant. Charles's law states that volume and temperature are directly proportional to each other as long as pressure is held constant. Boyle's law asserts that pressure and volume are inversely proportional to each other at fixed temperature. Finally, Gay-Lussac's law introduces a direct proportionality between temperature and pressure as long as it is at a constant volume. The inter-dependence of these variables is shown in the combined gas law, which clearly states that: The ratio between the pressure-volume product and the temperature of a system remains constant.

This can be stated mathematically as

where: p is the pressure V is the volume T is the temperature measured in kelvins k is a constant (with units of energy divided by temperature). For comparing the same substance under two different sets of conditions, the law can be written as:

2.) Periodic Trends

The properties of the elements exhibit trends. These trends can be predicted using the periodic table and can be explained and understood by analyzing the electron configurations of the elements. Elements tend to gain or lose valence electrons to achieve stable octet formation. Stable octets are seen in the inert gases, or noble gases, of Group VIII of the periodic table. In addition to this activity, there are two other important trends. First, electrons are added one at a time moving from left to right across a period. As this happens, the electrons of the outermost shell experience increasingly strong nuclear attraction, so the electrons become closer to the nucleus and more tightly bound to it. Second, moving down a column in the periodic table, the outermost electrons become less tightly bound to the nucleus. This happens because the number of filled principal energy levels (which shield the outermost electrons from attraction to the nucleus) increases downward within each group. These trends explain the periodicity observed in the elemental properties of atomic radius, ionization energy, electron affinity, and electronegativity. Atomic Radius IoElectron Affinity nization Energy Electronegativity

3.) Methods of separating Mixture.

Mixtures can be separated into their constituents by using physical methods (i.e. nochemical reaction involved). Separation techniques are physical methods. Which techniqueto use depends on the different properties of the constituents? That is, different states,solubility, boiling and melting points. Below lists some of the most common separationtechniques: Chromatography - To separate different coloured dyes. The dyes travel up thechromatography paper at different distances before they cannot remain in [Link] more soluble dyes move further up than the less soluble ones, hence separatingfrom each other. Distillation - to separate and collect a liquid from a solution of a soluble solid. Thesolution is heated in a flask until the liquid boils. The vapor produced passes into thecondenser where it is cooled and condenses to a liquid. The pure liquid (distillate) iscollected in a beaker. Evaporation - This method is suitable to separate a soluble solid from a liquid. If thesolution is heated, the liquid evaporates leaving the solid behind. Fractional Distillation - This is a special type of distillation used to separate amixture of liquids. Different liquids boil at different temperatures. When heated,they boil off and condense at different times. The apparatus features afractionating column, which ensures that only the liquid boils at its boiling point willpass into the condenser. Filtration - To separate an insoluble solid from a liquid. The solid remains in thefilter paper and the liquid goes through the paper into the beaker.