a) SYNTHESIS OF RC NETWORKS

▪ The properties of RC driving-point impedance are: -

(i) Poles and zeros lie on the negative real axis.

(ii) The poles and zeros alternate on the negative real axis.

(iii)The singularity nearest to (or at) the origin must be a pole whereas the
singularity nearest to (or at)  = − must be a zero. Since there is no pole at
infinity, the degree of numerator can’t exceed that of the denominator.

(iv) The residues of the poles must be real and positive.

▪ Example of RC impedance is

Z(s) =
( s + 1)( s + 4 )( s + 8 )
s ( s + 2 )( s + 6 )

▪ Examples of impedances that are not RC are

( s + 1)( s + 8) ( s + 2 )( s + 4 ) ( s + 1)( s + 2 )
(i) Z(s) = (ii) Z(s) = (iii) Z(s) =
( s + 2 )( s + 4 ) ( s + 1) s ( s + 3)

(i) The First Foster Canonical Form

▪ Given a general RC driving-point impedance

F(s) = H
( s +  )( s +  ) ...
z1 z2
[1]
s ( s +  )( s +  ) ...
p1 p2

This can be expanded as

K0 n Ki
Z(s) = H + + [2]
s i =1 s +  i

with 0   z1   p1   z2   p2  ... [3]

▪ Thus, the poles and zeros of an RC impedance alternate along the negative real
axis. This property is sufficient to characterize the RC impedance function. This
can be implemented in a network as shown in Fig. 3.19.

Page 1 of 17
 K1  1 Ki  i
H

1 K0
1 K1 1 Ki

Z (s)

Fig. 3.19 First Foster form RC impedance function

Example 1: Synthesize the following impedance function

Z(s) = 4
( s + 2 )( s + 5)
( s + 1)( s + 4 )
Solution:

Z(s) = 4
( s + 2 )( s + 5) = 4 + K1 + K 2
( s + 1)( s + 4 ) s +1 s + 4

where

4 ( s + 1) ( s + 2 ) ( s + 5) 4 ( −1 + 2 ) (−1 + 5) 16
K1 = ( s + 1) Z ( s) s =−1 = = =
( s + 1) ( s + 4 ) ( −1 + 4 ) s =−1
3
s =−1

4 ( s + 4 ) ( s + 2 ) ( s + 5) 4 ( −4 + 2 ) (−4 + 5) 8
K 2 = ( s + 4 ) Z ( s) s =−4 = = =
( s + 4 ) ( s + 1) ( −4 + 1) s =−1
3
s =−4

Hence,

Z(s) = 4
( s + 2 )( s + 5) = 4 + 16 3 + 8 3
( s + 1)( s + 4 ) s +1 s + 4

With the network realization being

Page 2 of 17
 16 3 2 3
4

3 16 F 3 8F

Z (s)

Fig. 3.20

(ii) The second Foster Canonical Form

▪ The second Foster canonical form is obtained by expanding Y ( s ) s , in a partial
fraction and then multiplying the resulting equation by s. The reason is that a
direct partial-fraction expansion of Y ( s ) will yield negative residues. Hence,

K1s Ks
Y(s) = sK + K0 + + ... + i [4]
s + 1 s +i
▪ Implementation of equation [4] results as

1 1
1 K1 Ki
Y ( s) K0 K
K1 Ki
1 i

Fig. 3.20

Example 2: Synthesize the following impedance function in the second Foster

canonical form.

Z(s) = 4
( s + 2 )( s + 5)
( s + 1)( s + 4 )
Solution:
1
For the second canonical form, Y ( s) = , is considered first. Y ( s ) is directly
Z ( s)
expanded by partial fraction expansion as

Page 3 of 17
Y(s) =
( s + 1)( s + 4 ) = 1 + K1 + K 2
4 ( s + 2 )( s + 5 ) 4 s + 2 s + 5

where

( s + 2 ) ( s + 1) (s + 4) ( −2 + 1) (−2 + 4) = − 1
K1 = ( s + 2 ) Y ( s) s =−2 = =
4 ( s + 2 ) ( s + 5) 4 ( −2 + 5) s =−2 6
s =−2

( s + 5) ( s + 1) (s + 4) ( −5 + 1) (−5 + 4) = − 1
K 2 = ( s + 5) Y ( s) s =−5 = =
4 ( s + 5) ( s + 2 ) 4 ( −5 + 2 ) s =−1 3
s =−5

showing that the residues at the poles are negative. The proper function to
expand is Y ( s ) s yielding

Y (s ) (s + 1)(s + 4) kˆ kˆ kˆ
= = 0 + 1 + 2
s 4s(s + 2)(s + 5) s s + 2 s + 5

NB: Since the function has the order of the numerator less than that of the
denominator, then extraction of a constant is not done but direct partial fraction
is done.
Where

Y ( s) ( s ) ( s + 1) (s + 4) ( 0 + 1) (0 + 4) 1
K0 = s = = =
s s =0 4 s ( s + 2 )( s + 5) 4 ( 0 + 2 )( 0 + 5) s =−2 10
s =0

Y ( s) ( s + 2 ) ( s + 1) (s + 4) ( −2 + 1) (−2 + 4) = 1
K1 = ( s + 2 ) = =
s s =−2 4s ( s + 2 ) ( s + 5) 4 ( −2 )( −2 + 5 ) s =−2 12
s =−2

Y ( s) ( s + 5) ( s + 1) (s + 4) ( −5 + 1) (−5 + 4) = 1
K 2 = ( s + 5) = =
s s =−5 4s ( s + 5) ( s + 2 ) 4 ( −5)( −5 + 2 ) s =−1 15
s =−5

Hence,
Y(s)
=
( s + 1)( s + 4 ) = 1 10 + 1 12 + 1 15
or
s 4 s ( s + 2 )( s + 5 ) s s+2 s+5

Multiplying both sides by s gives

1 s s
Y (s ) = + +
10 12s + 24 15s + 75

Page 4 of 17
 With the realization being

12  15 

Y (s ) 10 
1 1
F F
24 75

Fig.3.21

(iii) The First Cauer Canonical Form

▪ The process of obtaining this form is similar to the LC case. The continued
fraction expansion of RC impedance Z ( s ) is performed to obtain

1
Z (s) = R1 +
1
C2 s +
1
R3 +
1
C4 s +
...
which is realized by the ladder network;

R1 R3 R5

C1 C4 C6

Fig. 3.22

Example 3: Synthesize the impedance function using first Cauer form

Z(s) =
(
4 s 2 + 7 s + 10 )
s + 5s + 4
2

Solution:
The continued fraction expansion is as shown in the next page

Page 5 of 17
s 2 + 5s + 4 4 s 2 + 28s + 40 ( 4
4s 2 + 20s + 16
8s + 24 s 2 + 5s + 4 ( s 8
s 2 + 3s
2s+4 8s + 24 ( 4
8 s + 16
8 2s+4( s 4
2s
4 8(2
8
The ladder network implementation is

4 4 2
1 1
F F
8 4

Fig. 3.24

(iv) The Second Cauer Canonical Form

▪ This is obtained by rearranging Z ( s ) such that the numerator and denominator
polynomials appear in ascending order of s and then a continued-fraction
expansion is performed with the general form being: -

1 1
Z (s) = +
C1s 1 1
+
R2 1 1
+
C3 s 1 + 1
R4 ...
▪ This yields the ladder network;

Page 6 of 17
 C1 C3 C5

R2 R4 R6

Fig. 3.23

Example 4: Synthesize the impedance function using second Cauer form

3 ( s + 2 )( s + 4 )
Z(s) =
s ( s + 3)

Solution: Expanding and rearranging the ascending powers of s as

24 + 18s + 3s 2
Z(s) =
3s + s 2
▪ The continued fraction expansion is shown in the next page.
▪ Hence the circuit becomes

1 1
F F
8 10 100
Z (s)  30
3

Fig. 3.25

3s + s 2 24 + 18s + 3s 2 ( 8 s → Z
24 + 8s
10s + 3s 2 3s + s 2 ( 3 10 → Y
3s + 9 10 s 2
1 2
s 10s + 3s 2 (100 s → Z
10
10s
1 2
3s 2 s (1 30 → Y
10
1 2
s
10

Page 7 of 17
Exercise: Synthesize the impedance function using second Cauer form

Z(s) =
(
4 s 2 + 7 s + 10 )
s + 5s + 4
2

SYNTHESIS OF R-L NETWORKS

▪ The properties of RL functions are:

(i) The poles and zeros of the RL driving point impedance function are located
on the negative real axis of the s-plane.

(ii) Poles and zeros alternate along the negative real axis.

(iii)The singularity at or near the origin, or s = 0 is a zero.

(iv) The singularity at near s = − is a pole.

(v) The residues at the poles of Z(s) are real and negative. The residues of Z(s)/s
are real and positive.

Example: Test whether the following function is RL.

5 ( s + 1)( s + 4 )
Z (s ) =
(s + 3)( s + 5)

(i) The poles are −3 and −5 while the zeros are −1 and −4 . Hence, the poles and
zeros are located on the negative real axis.

(ii) The poles are zeros alternate on the negative real axis.

(iii)The singularity near origin is s = −1, which is a zero and hence condition
number 3 is satisfied.

(iv) The singularity near s = − is s = −5 , which is a pole and hence condition

number 4 is satisfied.

(v) The residues of Z ( s ) are

Page 8 of 17
 5 ( s + 1)( s + 4 ) k k
Z (s ) = = 1 + 2
(s + 3)(s + 5) s + 3 s + 5

Where

5 ( s + 1)( s + 4 ) ( s + 3)
k1 = Z ( s ) = = −5
( s + 3) ( s + 5 ) s =−3

5 ( s + 1)( s + 4 ) ( s + 5)
k2 = = −10
( s + 3) ( s + 5 ) s=−5

Expanding Z ( s ) s we get

Z ( s ) 5 ( s + 1)( s + 4 ) k 0 k1 k
= = + 2
s s ( s + 3)( s + 5 ) s s + 3 s + 5

Where

5 ( s + 1)( s + 4 ) s 4
k0 = =
s ( s + 3)( s + 5 ) s =0
3

5 ( s + 1)( s + 4 ) (s + 3) 10
k1 = =
s ( s + 3) ( s + 5 ) 3
s =−3

5 ( s + 1)( s + 4 ) ( s + 5)
k2 = =2
s ( s + 3) ( s + 5 )
s=−5

Since the residues for Z ( s ) are negative and the residues for Z ( s ) s are positive,

the condition number 5 is satisfied. Consequently, the given function is RL.

Implementation of RL network Functions

a) Foster Form
(i) The Foster Form I

Page 9 of 17
▪ The first Foster form is obtained by partial fraction expansion of YRL ( s ) .

▪ If an RL admittance function is to be synthesize, then its partial fraction

is of the form.

K0 Ks Ks
Y(s) = K + + 1 + ... + i + ... [4]
s s + 1 s +i
▪ The network implementation is

1 i
 
1 K1 Ki
1
Y ( s) H 
K0 K 1 1
H H
K1 Ki

Fig. 3.28

Example 1: Synthesize the following RL admittance function

3 ( s + 2 )( s + 4 )
Y(s) =
s ( s + 3)

Solution:
3 ( s + 2 )( s + 4 ) K0 K
Y(s) = = 3+ + 1
s ( s + 3) s s+3

where

3 ( s ) ( s + 2 ) ( s + 4) 3 ( 0 + 2 ) (0 + 4)
K 0 = ( s ) Y ( s ) s =0 = = =8
( s ) ( s + 3) ( 0 + 3) s =0
s =0

3 ( s + 3) ( s + 2 ) ( s + 4) 3 ( −3 + 2 ) (−3 + 4)
K0 = ( s + 3) Y ( s) s =−3 = = =1
s ( s + 3) ( −3) s =−3
s =−3

▪ Hence,

8 1
Y(s) = 3 + +
s s+3

Page 10 of 17
 ▪ The implementation is as shown in Fig. 3.29.

3
1 1
Y ( s) H 
8 3
1H

Fig. 3.29

(ii) The Foster Form II

▪ In the second Foster form, we expand Z ( s ) as

K1s Ks
Z(s) = K s + K 0 + + ... + i + ... [1]
s + 1 s +i
The partial fraction expansion of RL impedance would yield terms as
K1
− [2]
s + 1

▪ To overcome this problem, Z ( s ) s is expanded to obtain the Foster form of Z ( s )

as

K0 Ks Ks
Z(s) = + K + 1 + .. + i ... [3]
s s + 1 s +i
▪ The general network becomes

K0 K1 Ki 
K H

K1  1 H Ki  i H

Z (s)

Fig. 3.26 First Foster form of RL impedance function

Example 2: Synthesize the following RL impedance function

Page 11 of 17
 2 ( s + 1)( s + 3)
Z(s) =
( s + 2 )( s + 6 )
Solution:
2 ( s + 1)( s + 3) K1 K
Z(s) = = 2+ + 2
( s + 2 )( s + 6 ) s+2 s+6

Where

2 ( s + 2 ) ( s + 1) ( s + 3) 2 ( −2 + 1) (−2 + 3) 1
K1 = ( s + 2 ) Z ( s) s =−2 = = =−
( s + 2) ( s + 6) ( −2 + 6 ) s =−2
2
s =−2

2 ( s + 6 ) ( s + 1) ( s + 3) 2 ( −6 + 1) (−6 + 3) 15
K 2 = ( s + 6 ) Z ( s) s =−6 = = =−
( s + 6) ( s + 2) ( −6 + 2 ) s =−6
2
s =−6

Which shows that the residues are negative, but the partial fraction expansion
of Z ( s ) s is

Z(s) 2 ( s + 1)( s + 3) K 0 K K
= = + 1 + 2
s s ( s + 2 )( s + 6 ) s s+2 s+6

Where

2 ( s ) ( s + 1) ( s + 3) 2 ( 0 + 1) (0 + 3) 1
K 0 = ( s ) Z ( s ) s =0 = = =
( s ) ( s + 2 )( s + 6 ) s =0 ( 0 + 2 )( 0 + 6 ) s =0
2

2 ( s + 2 ) ( s + 1) ( s + 3) 2 ( −2 + 1) (−2 + 3) 1
K1 = ( s + 2 ) Z ( s) s =−2 = = =
s ( s + 2) ( s + 6) ( −2 )( −2 + 6 ) s =−2
4
s =−2

2 ( s + 6 ) ( s + 1) ( s + 3) 2 ( −6 + 1) (−6 + 3) 5
K 2 = ( s + 6 ) Z ( s) s =−6 = = =
s ( s + 6) ( s + 2) ( −6 )( −6 + 2 ) s =−6
4
s =−6

Z(s) 1 2 1 4 54
= + + or
s s s+2 s+6
1 1 4s 5 4s
Z(s) = + +
2 s+2 s+6
The synthesized network is

Page 12 of 17
 1 4 5 4
1

2 1 8H 5 24 H

Z (s)

Fig. 3.27

Exercise:
Synthesize the following RL impedance function in the two Foster forms

Z(s) =
( s + 1)( s + 5)
( s + 3)( s + 7 )
b) Cauer Form
(i) The Cauer Form I
▪ The continued fraction expansion of RL impedance, Z ( s ) is performed to
obtain

1
Z (s) = L1s +
1 1
+
R2 L s + 1
3
1 1
+
R4 ...
which is realized by the ladder network;

L1 L3 L5

Z (s ) R2 R4 R6

Fig. 3.30 b )

Example 3: Synthesize the following function using first Cauer form.

s ( s + 4 )( s + 6 )
Z(s) =
( s + 2 )( s + 5 )

Page 13 of 17
Solution:

1 s ( s + 4 )( s + 6 ) s 3 + 10 s 2 + 24 s
Z(s) = = = 2
Z(s) ( s + 2 )( s + 5 ) s + 7 s + 10

s 2 + 7 s + 10 s 3 + 10s 2 + 24s ( s
s 3 + 7 s 2 + 10s
3s 2 + 14s s 2 + 7 s + 10 (1 3
s 2 + (14 3 ) s

( 7 3) s + 10 3s 2 + 14 s ( (9 7 ) s
3s 2 + ( 90 7 ) s

(8 7 ) s ( 7 3) s + 10(49 24
( 7 3) s
10 (8 7 ) s (( 4 35 ) s
(8 7 ) s

Hence,

1
Z (s) = s +
1 1
+
3 9s+ 1
7 49 1
+
24 4 s
35
The synthesized network is

1H 9 4
H H
7 35
24
Z (s ) 3 
49

Page 14 of 17
 (ii) The Cauer Form II
▪ This is obtained by rearranging Z ( s ) such that the numerator and
denominator polynomials appear in ascending order of s and then a
continued-fraction expansion is performed with the general form being: -

1
Z (s) = R1 +
1 1
+
L2 s R + 1
3
1 1
+
L4 s ...

R1 R3 R5

L2 L4 L6

Example 4: Synthesize the following RL impedance function in the using the

second Cauer form:
6 + 8s + 2 s 2
Z(s) =
12 + 8s + s 2
Its continued fraction expansion becomes

12 + 8s + s 2 6 + 8s + 2s 2 (1 2
6 + 4s + 1 2 s 2

4s + 3 2 s 2 12 + 8s + s 2 ( 3 s
12+ 9 2s

7 2s+s 2 4s + 3 2 s 2 (8 7
4s + 8 7 s 2

5 14 s 2 7 2s+s 2 (49 5s
7 2s

s 2 5 14 s 2 (5 14
5 14 s 2

Page 15 of 17
 Hence, the synthesized network is

1 8 5
  
2 1 7 5 14
H H
3 49

Fig. 3.30

Exercise
Exercise
1. With suitable reasoning justify whether the given impedance functions are LC,
RC or RL.

s3 + 2 s
a) Z(s) = [LC]
s 4 + 4s 2 + 3

s 2 + 6s + 8
b) Z(s) = [RC]
s 2 + 4s + 3

s 2 + 4s + 3
c) Z(s) = 2 [RL]
s + 6s + 8

s 2 + 5s + 6
d) Z(s) = [It’s none of the three types of functions]
s2 + s
s 4 + 5s 2 + 6
e) Z(s) =
s3 + s

2. Synthesize the following function in all the four formats

Z(s) =
(
s s2 + 2 )
(s 2
)(
+1 s + 3 2
)
3. The following pole zero configuration has three diagrams. Pick up the one which
represents RL impedance function and synthesize in all the four formats.

Page 16 of 17
 j

− −4
 
−3 −2 −1
(a)

j

− −4
 
−3 −2 −1
(b)

j


− −4
 
−3 −2 −1
(c)
Fig. 3.32

Page 17 of 17