PYC3703/201/1/2025

Tutorial Letter 201/1/2025

Cognition: Memory, Thinking and Problem

Solving / Cognitive Psychology

PYC3703 / PYC3713

Semester 1

Department of Psychology

Feedback – Assignment 01

BARCODE
Dear Student

In this tutorial letter, we provide the correct answers to Assignment 01, with short explanations of why a
particular alternative is correct. Note that the ordering of questions and answers in this tutorial letter may
not correspond to the ordering you received on the online platform on myUnisa as the questions were
randomised. If you answered a question incorrectly, please read the explanation in conjunction with the
discussion in the prescribed book. Use the page references given or the index in the prescribed textbook
to locate the appropriate page in the book where the topic is discussed. In the comments below, CP
stands for the currently available edition of the prescribed book: Goldstein, E.B. & Van Hooff, J.C.
(2024). Cognitive Psychology (3nd EMEA edition). Australia: Cengage.

The assignment is compulsory, and you must submit it to get admission to the examination.

This assignment is based on chapters 1, 2, 3, 5 and 6 of the prescribed book: Cognitive Psychology
(2024).

Please note that this assignment contributes to your final mark. The two assignments together count
towards 20% of your final mark, and the online examination makes up 80%. Your final mark for the
module will consist of your year mark (20%, the average of the two assignments) for the two
assignments (Assignments 01 and 02) plus your examination mark (maximum of 80%).

Select the most appropriate option in cases where you think that more than one could be correct.

Your PYC3703 teaching team.

Assignment 01
Semester 1 Closing date: 4 April 2025 Unique Code: 649653

NB Please note that your total out of 30 will be converted to a percentage mark. This percentage mark is
the credit you obtain for the assignment.

QUESTION 1

- - - - - conducted the reaction time experiment to determine how long it takes for a person to make a
decision.
a. John Watson
b. William James
c. Willem Wundt
d. Franciscus Donders

Option d is correct. Donders was interested in determining how long it takes for a person to make a
decision (CP, p. 4). John B. Watson was an influential American psychologist best known for establishing
the psychological school of behaviourism (option a), while William James (option b) was a pioneering
American psychologist and philosopher, often referred to as the “Father of American psychology.” His
contributions to psychology and philosophy, particularly through his promotion of pragmatism and his
development of functionalism, were foundational in shaping modern psychological thought. Wilhelm
Wundt (option c), who is associated with structuralism, is often regarded as the “Father of Modern
Psychology” because he established psychology as a distinct scientific discipline separate from
philosophy and biology. Wundt founded the first laboratory dedicated to psychological research at the
University of Leipzig in 1879, marking the formal beginning of psychology as a field of experimental
science.

2
 PYC3703/201/1/2025

QUESTION 2

In terms of Donders’ experiment, mental processes cannot be measured directly but must be inferred
from observing behaviour. This principle holds for - - - - -.

a. only Donders’ experiment

b. all research in cognitive psychology
c. all research in psychology
d. all scientific research

Option b is correct. Donders principle holds for all research in cognitive psychology (CP, p. 5).

QUESTION 3

Willem Wundt’s approach to psychology was driven by an idea to create the - - - - -.

a. periodic table of the elements

b. periodic table of the mind
c. spiral periodic table
d. random periodic table

Option b is correct. Wundt wanted to create a periodic table of the mind (CP, pg. 7). His goal was to
break down consciousness into its simplest, most basic components in order to understand how complex
mental processes are built from these fundamental elements.

QUESTION 4

John Watson’s aim was to limit psychology to observable behavioural data and rejected making
conclusions about unobservable mental operations (unconsciousness). Thus, his focus was more on the
relationship between the stimuli, environment, and behaviour which gave rise to - - - - - in the field of
psychology.

a. behaviourism
b. interactionalism
c. humanism
d. personism

Option a is correct. John Watson introduced behaviourism in 1913 (CP, p. 10). Interactionism (option b)
in psychology refers to the idea that human behaviour and mental processes result from the interaction
between biological (internal) and environmental (external) factors. Humanism (option c) is a
psychological perspective that emphasises the study of the whole person and their unique, individual
potential for growth, emphasising positive aspects of human nature, while personism (option d) isn't a
widely formalised or established psychological or philosophical term, it can refer to a person-centered
approach in psychology, emphasising the subjective experience and personal growth of individuals.

3
QUESTION 5

The idea that behaviour is strengthened by the presentation of positive reinforcers (i.e. food, social
approval) or withdrawal of negative reinforcers (i.e. social rejection) was introduced by - - - - - in his
theory of - - - - -.

a. Franciscus Donders, reaction time

b. William James, principles of psychology
c. Willem Wundt, analytical introspection
d. B. F. Skinner, operant conditioning

Option d is correct. Skinner introduced the concept of operant conditioning (CP, p. 11). Donders’ (option
a) experiments on reaction time were among the first to apply quantitative measurements to
psychological processes, which helped solidify psychology as a scientific discipline. His methods
provided an empirical basis for studying mental operations and laid the groundwork for cognitive
psychology and neuroscience. Reaction time studies continue to be widely used in cognitive research,
psychometrics, and human-computer interaction. William James (option b) is one of the most influential
figures in the history of psychology, and his book, “The Principles of Psychology” (1890), is considered a
foundational text in modern psychology. In this work, James explored a wide range of topics and
introduced concepts that shaped the field of psychology as both a scientific and philosophical discipline.
Wilhelm Wundt (option c) is often referred to as the “father of experimental psychology.” He is credited
with establishing psychology as a distinct scientific discipline, separate from philosophy and physiology.
One of his significant contributions to the field is the method of analytical introspection, which he used in
his laboratory at the University of Leipzig, where he founded the first psychological research institute in
1879.

QUESTION 6

The term Artificial Intelligence was first coined in - - - - -.

a. 1950’s
b. 2000’s
c. 2020’s
d. 1940’s

Option a is correct. The term Artificial Intelligence was coined in 1956 by John McCarthy (CP, p. 14-15).
He used it while organising the Dartmouth Conference, which is considered the birth of AI as a field of
study. In 1950, however, Alan Turing made significant contributions to the conceptual foundations of AI
by introducing the Turing Test in his seminal paper “Computing Machinery and Intelligence”. In this
paper, he posed the famous question, “Can machines think?”, which set the stage for the field of AI
research.

QUESTION 7

- - - - - flow diagram revealed that when people focused on the attended message, they could also hear
the sounds of the unattended message, but they were unaware of the contents of that message.

a. Tolman’s
b. Cherry’s
c. Broadbent’s
d. Ebbinghaus’s

Option c is correct. The flow diagram was invented by Broadbent (CP, p. 14).

4
 PYC3703/201/1/2025

QUESTION 8

The three basic components of a neuron are - - - - -, - - - - -, and - - - - -.

a. synapse, neural circuits, receptors

b. cell body, dendrites, axons
c occipital lobe, temporal lobe, parietal lobe
d. frontal lobe, parietal lobe, temporal lobe

Option b is correct. The basic components of a neuron are cell body, dendrites, and axons (CP, p. 28).

QUESTION 9

Specialised neurons responsible for gathering information from the environment through physical parts
of the body such as the eye, ear, and skin are called - - - - -.

a. receptors
b. neural circuits
c synapse
d. nerve impulses

Option a is correct. These neurons in the eye, ear, and skin are called receptors as their function is to
pick up information from the environment (CP, p. 28, Figure 2.3b). Neural circuits (option b) are
interconnected groups of neurons that work together to process specific types of information, perform
tasks, and coordinate functions in the nervous system. A synapse (option c) is a critical junction between
two neurons (or between a neuron and a target cell, such as a muscle or gland) that allows for
communication in the nervous system. Synapses play a key role in transmitting signals and facilitating
the processing of information throughout the brain and body. Nerve impulses (option d), also known as
action potentials, are electrical signals that propagate along the membrane of a neuron. They play a
crucial role in transmitting information throughout the nervous system, enabling communication between
neurons and between the nervous system and muscles or glands.

QUESTION 10

- - - - - is a chemical that is released when action potentials reach the synapse at the end of the axon.

a Resting potential
b. Nerve impulse
c Electron
d. Neurotransmitter

Option d is correct. A neurotransmitter is a chemical that is released when action potentials reach the
synapse at the end of the axon (CP, p. 31). Resting potential (option a) refers to the electrical potential
difference (voltage) across the membrane of a neuron when it is not actively transmitting a signal. This
state is crucial for the generation and propagation of nerve impulses (action potentials). A nerve impulse
(option b) is an electrical signal that travels along the membrane of a neuron. This rapid change in
electrical potential is essential for the transmission of information within the nervous system, enabling
communication between neurons and with other types of cells (like muscle cells). An electron (option
c) is a subatomic particle with a negative electric charge, fundamental to the structure of atoms and
essential in various physical and chemical processes.

5
QUESTION 11

- - - - - identified an area for producing language, while - - - - - identified an area of the brain that is
responsible for comprehending language.

a. Wernicke, Broca
b. Wernicke, Ebbinghaus
c. Watson, Broca
d. Broca, Wernicke

Option d is correct. Broca identified an area for producing language, while Wernicke identified an area of
the brain that is responsible for comprehending language (CP, p. 38).

QUESTION 12

- - - - - refers to the inability to recognise faces by patients who suffered damage to the temporal lobe on
the lower right side of the brain.

a. Prosopagnosia
b. Parahippocampal place area
c. Fusiform face area
d. Extrastriate body area

Option a is correct. Prosopagnosia refers to the inability to recognise faces by patients who suffered
damage to the temporal lobe on the lower right side of the brain (CP, p. 39). The parahippocampal place
area (option b) is a region in the brain's medial temporal lobe that is involved in the processing of visual
scenes and spatial information. It plays a crucial role in how we perceive and interpret our environment,
particularly in recognizing places and navigating through space. The fusiform face area (option c) is a
region in the brain that is specialized for recognising and processing faces. The extrastriate body area
(option d) is a region of the brain that plays a crucial role in the perception and recognition of human
body parts and bodies. It is part of the extrastriate visual cortex, located in the occipital lobe, and is
involved in processing visual information related to body shapes and movements.

QUESTION 13

- - - - - is suitable to determine how various types of cognition stimulate different areas of the brain.

a. Ultrasound and x-ray

b. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)
c. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
d. Scanning

Option b is correct. An fMRI is suitable to determine how various types of cognition stimulate different
areas of the brain (CP, p. 40).

QUESTION 14

If a brain surgeon wanted to temporarily alter the brain activity as part of her research to establish the
association between the structure of the brain and cognitive function, which instrument is suitable for this
purpose?

a. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

b. Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)
c. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)
d. Electroencephalography (EEG)

Option b is correct. Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is regarded as a safe method to temporarily
alter brain activity, which can be used to study the causal link between brain structure and cognitive

6
 PYC3703/201/1/2025

function (CP, p. 49). Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) (option a) refers to a non-invasive medical
imaging technique used to visualise internal structures of the body in detail. Transcranial Magnetic
Stimulation (TMS) (option c) is a non-invasive neurostimulation technique used to modulate neuronal
activity in the brain. It involves the application of brief magnetic pulses to the scalp, which can stimulate
or inhibit neuronal function in targeted areas, while electroencephalography (EEG) (option d) measures
the electrical activity of cortical brain areas and can also be used to study how different cortical regions
of the brain work together.

QUESTION 15

- - - - - measures the electrical activity of cortical brain areas and can also be used to study how different
cortical regions of the brain work together.

a. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

b. Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)
c. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)
d. Electroencephalography (EEG)

Option d is correct. Electroencephalography (EEG) measures the electrical activity of cortical brain areas
and can also be used to study how different cortical regions of the brain work together (CP, p. 46).
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) (option a) is a non-invasive medical imaging technique used to
visualise internal structures of the body in detail. Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) (option b) is a
non-invasive neurostimulation technique used to modulate neuronal activity in the brain. It involves the
application of brief magnetic pulses to the scalp, which can stimulate or inhibit neuronal function in
targeted areas. Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) (option c) is a specialised form of
magnetic resonance imaging that measures and maps brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow
and oxygenation levels. This technique allows researchers and clinicians to observe brain function in real
time and is widely used in neuroscience, psychology, and clinical applications.

QUESTION 16

The - - - - - refers to the process of identifying the item accountable for a specific image on one's retina.

a. radiated wavelength paradox

b. inverse projection problem
c. serial location task
d. fusiform face role

Option b is correct. The task of determining the object responsible for a particular image on one’s retina
is called the inverse projection problem. This refers to the challenge the brain faces in determining the
three-dimensional shape and identity of an object based on the two-dimensional projection it creates on
the retina. Since multiple different objects can produce the same retinal image, the brain uses various
cues and prior knowledge to infer the most likely source of the image (see CP, p. 57). The radiated
wavelength paradox (option a) refers to the apparent contradiction that arises when considering the
relationship between the frequency of electromagnetic radiation (such as light) and its energy, especially
in the context of blackbody radiation and quantum mechanics. The serial location task (option c) is a type
of memory task used in cognitive psychology to study how people recall items or information in a
sequence, while the fusiform face area (FFA) (option d) plays a crucial role in the recognition and
processing of faces.

7
QUESTION 17

- - - - is the term for the experimental procedure that includes removing a portion of the brain.

a. Brain lesioning
b. Dissociation
c. fMRI
d. EEG

Option a is correct. In a classic experiment, Ungerleider and Mishkin (1987) studied how removing part
of a monkey’s brain affected its ability to identify an object and to determine an object’s location. This
experiment used a technique called brain lesioning – removing part of the brain (CP, p. 79). Dissociation
(option b) is a psychological term that refers to a disconnection or separation between a person’s
thoughts, memories, feelings, actions, or sense of identity, while fMRI (option c) and EEG (option d) are
two important neuroimaging techniques used in neuroscience and psychology to study brain activity.

QUESTION 18

Numerous studies have shown that patients with pathological pain benefit from placebos in terms of
actual pain alleviation. The most common explanation for these results in patients’ is due to - - - - -.

a. expectations
b. attention
c. cognitive control
d. all of these

Option d is correct. Expectation and attention can influence a person’s experience of pain, which
illustrates that that perception is created not only by signals from the environment (bottom-up
processing) but also by what the individual brings to it (top-down processing) – in other words, their
cognitive control (see CP, p. 63.)

QUESTION 19

According to the prescribed textbook, which of the following is NOT an illustration of a physical
regularity?

a. The oblique effect.

b. The light-from-above assumption.
c. Angled orientation.
d. Having one object that is partially covered by another “come out the other side”.

Option c is the correct answer. The term “physical regularity” generally refers to principles or patterns
based on physical properties or environmental cues that help us interpret visual information. The oblique
effect (option a) refers to the phenomenon where people are better at perceiving and recalling objects
oriented along horizontal and vertical lines rather than oblique ones. This is related to the statistical
regularity in visual environments but can be considered a perceptual regularity rather than a strict
physical one. The light-from-above assumption is the tendency to perceive light as coming from above,
which is a physical regularity related to how shadows and highlights are interpreted based on typical light
sources in our environment. Angled orientation (option c) refers to the orientation of objects in space,
which could be a factor in how we perceive and interpret visual scenes but is less specifically tied to
physical regularities compared to other terms. Having one object that is partially covered by another
“come out the other side” (option d) is related to the principle of occlusion and depth perception, which is
a physical regularity used to understand object continuity and depth. Among these options, (c) angled
orientation is the least directly associated with physical regularities in the same way the other terms are
(see CP, p. 68).

8
 PYC3703/201/1/2025

QUESTION 20

The findings of the "Greeble" experiment conducted by Gauthier et al. (1999) demonstrate that - - - - -.

a. neurons specialised to respond to faces are present in our brains when we are born
b. training a monkey to recognise the difference between common objects can influence how the
monkey’s neurons fire to these objects
c. an effect of experience-dependent plasticity
d. our nervous systems remain fairly stable in different environments

Option c is correct. The “Greeble” experiment illustrates the effect of experience-dependent plasticity,
which is a mechanism that causes an organism’s neurons to develop so they respond best to the type of
stimulation to which the organism has been exposed (CP, pp. 76-77).

QUESTION 21

When rehearsal is prevented, short-term memory (STM) has an effective duration of - - - - -.

a. just under a fraction of a second

b. 15-20 seconds or less
c. 1-3 minutes or more
d. indefinite

Option b is correct. Short-term memory (STM, as conceived by cognitive psychologists, lasts for only 15
to 20 seconds or less. This was demonstrated by Brown (1958) in the United Kingdom and Peterson and
Peterson (1959) in the United States, who used the method of recall to determine the duration of STM
(see CP, p. 136).

QUESTION 22

In a study conducted in 1980, Ericsson and colleagues tested a college student's memory by having him
recall random digit strings that were read aloud to him. They discovered that this student was able to
remember these numerical strings by drawing on his prior knowledge of running timings. The
significance of this finding was that - - - - -.

a. experts show larger primacy and recency effects than beginners

b. knowledge in an area of expertise increases a person’s digit span
c. expertise with some material reduces susceptibility to proactive interference with that material
d. chunking requires knowledge of familiar patterns or concepts

Option d is correct. The research by Ericsson and colleagues (1980) highlighted the importance of
chunking in memory, particularly in how individuals can significantly expand their working memory
capacity by grouping or “chunking” information into meaningful patterns. Chunking enables the limited-
capacity STM system to deal with the large amount of information involved in many of the tasks we
perform every day, such as chunking letters into words as you read this, remembering the first few
numbers of familiar telephone exchanges as a unit (area or city code), or transforming long
conversations into smaller units of meaning (CP, p. 137).

9
QUESTION 23

The word-length effect indicates that - - - - -.

a. native speakers of various languages have the same sort-term memory (STM) digit span.
b. generally speaking, larger words are easier to remember from long-term memory (LTM) and
more distinctive than shorter ones.
c. the central executive mechanisms of working memory information conveyed verbally as opposed
to visually or graphically
d. the working memory model's phonological loop has a finite capacity

Option d is correct. The word-length effect is related to the capacity of the phonological loop, a
component of Baddeley and Hitch's (1942) working memory model. The word-length effect refers to the
phenomenon where people have a harder time recalling longer words compared to shorter words, even
when the number of words is kept constant. This effect is attributed to the limitations in the phonological
loop, a component of working memory that deals with verbal and auditory information. The phonological
loop is responsible for temporarily storing and rehearsing verbal and auditory information. The word-
length effect reveals that the phonological loop of the working memory model has a limited capacity,
specifically in terms of the time available for rehearsal. This limitation impacts how well we can recall
items based on their length, with longer words being more challenging to remember due to the increased
time required for articulation and rehearsal (see CP, p. 146).

QUESTION 24

Even though a flashlight's light is only ever in one spot at a time, onlookers may perceive a trail of light
travelling across a wall when the light is swiftly moved back and forth across a wall in a dimly lit room.
This experience is an effect of memory that occurs because of - - - - -.

a. the visual delay effect

b. echoic memory
c. persistence of vision
d. top-down processing

Option c is correct. The experience of a continuous trail of light when you move a flashlight quickly is a
result of persistence of vision. This effect allows the visual system to integrate successive light stimuli
into a continuous perception, despite the light source being in different positions at different times.
Persistence of vision is thus the continued perception of a visual stimulus even after it is no longer
present. This persistence lasts for only a fraction of a second, so it isn’t obvious in everyday experience
when objects are present for long periods (CP, p. 131). The visual delay effect (option a) is closely
related to the concept of persistence of vision but can also refer to other phenomena involving a delay in
the visual system’s processing of stimuli. Echoic memory (option b) is a type of sensory memory that
pertains specifically to auditory information. It is part of the broader sensory memory system and is
responsible for temporarily storing auditory stimuli for a brief period after the sound has stopped. This
allows us to retain, and process sounds we’ve just heard, while top-down processing is a cognitive
process where our perceptions and interpretations of sensory information are influenced by our
preexisting knowledge, expectations, and experiences (option d).

10
 PYC3703/201/1/2025

QUESTION 25

Within the modal model of memory, control processes - - - - -.

a. do not require attention

b. have the ability differ from one task to another
c. preform without conscious awareness
d. are difficult to modify

Option b is correct. In the modal model of memory, control processes are essential components that
actively manage how information is processed and transferred between the different stages of memory
(sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory) (see CP, p. 130).

QUESTION 26

Delaying the memory test for 30 seconds - - - - - when investigating the serial position curve.

a. has no effect on the curve

b. increases the primacy effect
c. decreases the recency effect
d. increases both the primacy and the recency effects

Option c is correct. The serial position curve illustrates how people tend to remember items at the
beginning (primacy effect) and end (recency effect) of a list better than those in the middle. The recency
effect is typically attributed to the items still being in short-term memory at the time of recall. When the
memory test is delayed by 30 seconds, especially if the delay involves a distractor task, the recency
effect diminishes. This occurs because the items that were in short-term memory (the most recent items)
are no longer easily accessible after the delay, causing their recall to decline. The primacy effect,
however, remains relatively unaffected because it is associated with items that have been transferred
into long-term memory (see CP, p. 168).

QUESTION 27

- - - - is attributed to the primacy effect.

a. Recall of information stored in long-term memory (LTM)

b. Investigating the serial position curve
c. Recall of information still active in short-term memory (STM)
d. Forgetting of early items in a list as they are replaced by later items

Option a is correct. The primacy effect is attributed to the recall of information stored in long-term
memory (LTM). Items presented at the beginning of a list are more likely to be transferred into long-term
memory because they have more time for rehearsal and processing. This makes them easier to recall
later, even after a delay (CP, p. 168 and Figure 6.3).

QUESTION 28

Neuropsychological research suggests that short-term memory (STM) and long-term memory (LTM)
- - - - -.

a. reflect several facets of the same mechanism

b. are caused by various interdependent mechanisms
c. both primarily depend on a semantic coding system
d. are caused by different mechanisms that act independently

Option d is correct. Neuropsychological evidence supports the idea that short-term memory (STM) and
long-term memory (LTM) are likely governed by different mechanisms that operate independently of

11
each other. This is demonstrated by cases where individuals have impairments in one type of memory
but not the other (CP, p. 172).

QUESTION 29

The memory functioning of patient H.M. (Henry Molaison), who underwent brain surgery to relieve
severe epileptic episodes, is covered in your prescribed textbook. For psychologists, H.M.’s case has
been highly instructive by demonstrating that - - - - -.

a. long-term memory (LTM) can operate normally while short-term memory (STM) is impaired
b. impairment of one memory system (long-term memory (LTM) or short-term memory (STM)
necessarily leads to deficits in the functioning of the other
c. a double dissociation exists for short-term memory (STM) and long-term memory (LTM)
d. short-term memory (STM) can operate normally while long-term memory (LTM) is impaired

Option d is correct. The case of H.M. has been pivotal in demonstrating that short-term memory (STM)
can function normally even when long-term memory (LTM) is impaired. H.M. underwent surgery to
remove parts of his medial temporal lobes, including the hippocampus, to treat severe epilepsy. As a
result, he developed profound anterograde amnesia, meaning he could no longer form new long-term
memories. However, his short-term memory remained largely intact. He could hold information in his
short-term memory for a brief period but could not transfer it to long-term memory. This case provided
strong evidence that STM and LTM are supported by different brain mechanisms and can operate
independently (CP, p. 172).

QUESTION 30

“I remember being really excited last Christmas, when my college team won the national championship
in tennis.” This statement is an example of - - - - - memory.

a. episodic
b. implicit
c. semantic
d. procedural

Option a is correct. The statement is an example of episodic memory. Episodic memory refers to the
ability to recall specific events or experiences from one’s personal past, often including the context in
which they occurred (such as the time and place) and the emotions associated with them. In the
statement, the person is recalling a specific event (“my college team won the national championship in
tennis”) and their emotional reaction to it (“being really excited”) (CP, p. 174). This type of memory is
contrasted with Implicit memory (option b) which refers to memories that are not consciously recalled but
influence thoughts, behaviours, or actions, semantic memory (option c), which involves general
knowledge or facts without a specific personal context, and procedural memory (option d), which
involves memory for skills or procedures.

[Total: 30]

12