Homeostasis: The maintenance of relatively stable (fluctuating) conditions (PH, Sodium ions, etc.

) In the
ECF (extracellular fluid) despite external changes.
Diffusion: movement from high to low concentration using kinetic energy

Simple Diffusion: moving across the phospholipid bilayer, must be small and non-polar (no charge,
lipid-soluble) ex. Oxygen going in and co2 going out

Carrier Mediated Facilitated Diffusion: using a protein to move across the membrane, allows molecules
to cross ex, glucose

Osmosis: diffusion of water molecules through a specific channel protein (aquaporin) or the lipid bilayer

Channel Mediated Facilitated Diffusion: using a channel protein, have to be small with a charge (how
ions move across the membrane) sodium (Na) potassium (k), and calcium (ca2+).
Sodium- ECF to ICF
Potassium- ICF to ECF
Calcium- ECF to ICF
Know the typical value in ECF
Sodium: 135-145mmol/L in the ECF, 10mmol/l in the ICF using facilitated
Potassium: 3.5-5mmol?L in the ECF, 140-150mmol/L in the ICF using facilitated
Calcium: 2.12-2.62mmol/L in the ECF, <2.5mmol/L in the ICF goes in during facilitated

Filtration: moving from high to low-pressure gradient, ex. Kidneys filter blood from blood into the urine,
movement across a membrane using a high to low-pressure gradient

Active Process: a process that requires ATP supplied by cells. sodium-potassium pump
●​ High-ECF
●​ Low-ICF

Sodium Pump, Low to High Concentration(also enzyme):

1.​ pump loads up 3 sodium ions from ICF by using ATP split it into ADP
2.​ Releases sodium into ECF
3.​ Then binds 2 potassium to the pump from the ECF and releases them into the ICF

Vesicular transport: Requires ATP

●​ Endocytosis, ECF to ICF
●​ Phagocytosis: large external particle becomes enclosed by vesicle, ex. Phagocytes, macrophages
in alveoli
●​ Pinocytosis: membrane edges fuse, forming a fluid-filled vesicle, ex. Absorption cells of the
kidney
●​ Receptor-mediated cytosis: external substance binds to membrane receptors, ex. Intake of some
hormones, cholesterol, etc.
 ●​ Exocytosis (ICF to ECF): secretion or ejection of substances from a cell, ex. Secretion of
hormones, mucous

●​ Channels can stay opened, close like doors etc.

●​ Protein attaches to molecule before crossing

Functions of Blood:
●​ Transport waste and nutrients
●​ Maintain body temperature
●​ Site for immunity (WBC)

Upper Layer: Plasma

●​ main ingredient: water
●​ Electrolytes, calcium, magnesium, iron, ion
●​ nitrogenous substances
●​ respiratory gases
●​ proteins, globulins antibodies-immune system transport hormones, clotting factors
●​ Fibrinogen

Formed Elements
●​ buffy coat
●​ red blood cells (erythrocytes)
●​ white blood cells (leucocytes)- different types and amounts because they are defence, good for
fighting different things (don’t always need the same amount)
●​ Platelets

Red Blood Cells (erythrocytes)

●​ Structure:
●​ biconcave disc shape that increases the surface-to-volume area allowing them to carry more
oxygen
●​ Cytoplasm is close to membrane
●​ Center it is packed with protein hemoglobin
●​ Center of hemoglobin is iron, oxygen attaches to the iron
●​ No nuclei, loose them as they mature
●​ Lacking nearly all organelles
●​ Single red blood cells thousands of hemoglobin and carry 4 oxygen

Erythropoiesis: Production of red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets
●​ Red Bone Marrow: In flat bones, hip bones, sternum, pectoral, skull bones
●​ Stem cells (hemocytoblast)
●​ early in development/umbilical cord can turn into any cell
 ●​ once it divides into proerythroblast it is committed into becoming a rbc
●​ Continues to become packed with hemoglobin
●​ Before it is released it is called reticulocyte (no nucleus)
●​ Before it leaves red bone marrow is rejects the nuclease, still has mRNA and ribosomes so it can
continue to make hemoglobin
●​ Last for 120 days
●​ Hemocytoblast, proerythrocyte, reticulocyte, erythrocyte

How and Why RBC production is Regulated?

●​ Not enough: not enough oxygen, low in energy
●​ Too many: Blood becomes thick, heart would be overworked, blood pressure would be too high
●​ In high elevation we need more RBC, heart then works harder

Negative Feedback Loop for Oxygen Deficiency:

1.​ Stimulus: hypoxia (inadequate O2 delivery), decreased RBC count
2.​ Control Center: Kidney releases erythropoietin
3.​ Effector: Erythropoietin stimulates red bone marrow
4.​ Enhanced erythropoiesis increases RBC
5.​ O2 carrying ability of blood rises

5 Main Types of Leukocytes Structure and Function:

Neutrophils 50-70%: Multilobed nucleus, granulocytes, pale red and blue, phagocytize bacteria
Eosinophils 2-4%: Bilobed nucleus, granulocytes, red, kill parasitic worms
Basophils 0.5-1%: Bilobed nucleus, granulocytes, purplish-black release histamine and other mediators
of inflammation
Lymphocytes 25-45%: Spherical or indented nucleus, agranulocytes, pale blue, mount immune response
by direct cell attack
Monocytes 3-8%: U or kidney shaped nucleus, agranulocytes, gray-blue, phagocytosis; develop into
macrophages in tissue

Leukocyte Formation:
1.​ Hemocytoblast (stem cell)
2.​ Divides into myeloid cell
3.​ Divides into myeloblast
4.​ Then forms either neutrophil, eosinophil, basophil
Or
1.​ divides into monoblast
2.​ Forms monocyte
Or
1.​ Divides into lymphoid cell
2.​ Becomes either B lymphocyte or T lymphocyte
B and T Lymphocyte Production:
1.​ Made and matured in the red bone marrow
2.​ (B) Go into blood stream, some end up in lymph nodes
3.​ (T) Go into blood stream further processed in the thymus gland many end up in lymph nodes

Define the Term Platelet:

●​ Example of positive feedback loop
●​ Role in preventing blood loss
●​ Formed in Red Bone Marrow: Hemocytoblast>Megakaryoblast>Megakaryocyte, pieces of it then
break off into the blood stream

Hemostasis: Prevention of blood loss

●​ Physiological mechanisms of hemostasis

Vascular Spasm:
●​ Blood vessels are constricting
Platelet Plug:
●​ 3 chemical platelets produce: ADP, Serotonin, Thromboxane A12
●​ ADP- sticky, aggregate
●​ Serotonin + Thromboxane A12- vasoconstriction, and sticky + aggregate
●​ Could cause clog in small blood vessel
●​ Endothelial lines the blood vessel: secrete nitric oxide and prostacyclin (prevent platelets
sticking)
Coagulation:
●​ Wants to form fibrin, turned liquid part of plasma to solid
●​ Intrinsic pathway: activate first protein(acts like enzyme) initiates the process, aside from the use
of calcium which you get from plasma
●​ Extrinsic pathway: Tissue Factor(protein) is release after cut
●​ Difference: everything is there for the intrinsic pathway, for extrinsic you needs things that are
outside of the cell
●​ ^ends at same place, both happen at same time, MEMORIZE PATHWAY

Phase 1 pathway: Intrinsic

12-11 9/7-8 10 -5

Phase 1 pathway: extrinsic

3-7-5

Myeloid cell: in hematopoiesis myeloid cells are blood cells that arise from hemocytoblast for
granulocytes monocytes, erythrocytes, or platelets
Simple diffusion: movement across the phospholipid membrane, ex. Oxygen
Osmosis: movement of water across the membrane using the protein channel aquaporin
Endo moves substances from the extracellular fluid to the intracellular fluid

True or False
a) Calcium ions move from the ECF to the ICF by channel mediated facilitated diffusion. TRUE
b) Facilitated diffusion always requires a protein carrier. FALSE, sometimes
c) When an ion moves across the membrane using a passive process it does not require ANY energy.
FALSE, Kinetic

Compare and contrast calcium and potassium entering the cell:

Similarities: both use channel facilitated diffusion, both require energy, both polar (ions)
Differences: Calcium goes against the concentration gradient, Potassium goes with the concentration
gradient,

A blood sample taken from a patient indicates a large amount of eosinophils. How do you identify
eosinophils and what might be the reason for the large numbers?
Identify eosinophils by if the cell is bilobed with a red cytoplasmic granules, the reason for a large
amount of eosinophils could be a parasitic worm or an allergy or asthma

Chaneel mediated vs carrier

Channel:

Sodium and potassium entering:

Similarites: Both use a protein, both use energy
Differences: Sodium moves from high to low concentration, potassium moves from low to high
concentration.

Exit: both use protein to leave the cell, both use energy to leave the cell
Differences: Sodium using the active transport pump, Sodium moves to a higher concentration,
Potassium is using channel facilitated diffusion, Potassium is moving to lower concentration

Calcium entering: going against concentration gradient, moving to higher concentration,

Chapter 1
1. What is physiology? Define the term physiology. What is the importance of studying physiology?
Physiology is the study of how the body functions, important because it shows the baseline function
2. Why is it important to have an understanding of the role of evolution in a physiology course?
Evolution is important because it allows good traits to be retained, and it occurring all the time
Everything influences everything else. It is like an arms race where a species must adapt to respond to
improvements in its competitors -or become extinct. For example, we are surrounded by microorganisms
and both they and we are trying to outcompete each other.
3. What are the structural levels of organization in the body?
Molecular, organelles, cellular, tissues, organs, organ system, organism
4. Name the main systems and provide two functions for each system.
Cardio, transport of nutrients, heart pumps blood
Integumentary, synthesis vitamin d, protects underlying tissues and organs
5. What is meant by the term homeostasis? Define Extracellular fluid and homeostasis. Note that the
definition must include specific terms such as ECF.
The maintenance of relatively stable (fluctuating) conditions (sodium ions, ph., etc.) in the ECF despite
external conditions.
6. Explain how homeostasis is controlled using the three main components (receptor, control center and
effector). Define negative and positive feedback. Describe using examples how negative and positive
feedback maintain homeostasis. P10-12+Audio Pod Negative Feedback and Negative Feedback
Temperature in Homeostasis resources What is the result of homeostatic imbalance?
Homeostasis is controlled by sending message's to the receptor, which is sometimes also the control
center, and then delivering that message to the effector to either reverse to change or further induce it.
Homeostatic imbalances result in disease
7. Why is homeostasis Key Concept number 1?
Homeostasis is a key concept because it is tells us when something is not working correctly, it’s the
baseline

Chapter 2 and 3
1. Why are organic molecules important in the human body? What is the characteristic of organic
molecules? Define organic molecule.
Organic molecules contain carbon, life on earth is carbon based, molecule that contains carbon and
various amounts of hydrogen and oxygen
2. How are organic molecules made and broken down? Define dehydration synthesis and hydrolysis.
Hydrolysis and dehydration synthesis. Hydrolysis is the addition of water to create an organic molecule
and dehydration synthesis is the removal of water to break down a molecule.
3. What are the four major groups of organic molecules?
Carbohydrates, lipids, protein, and nucleic acids
4. Describe the building blocks, general structure and biological functions of carbohydrates. In terms of
carbohydrates differentiate between mono, di and polysaccharides
Carbs general structure is c(h20)n with the general function being to provide energy (atp) to the cells.
Mono is a single sugar molecule (glucose, fructose, galactose) and are the building blocks for di and
polysaccharides. Disaccharides are two monos joined together by a dehydration reaction (sucrose,
lactose). Poly are long chains of mono or disaccharides (glucose). Must break down to use them.
Disaccharides: sucrose (glucose with fructose) , maltose (glucose and glucose) , lactose ( galactose and
glucose ), you have to break them down into monosaccharides to be able to use them
Polysaccharides: Glycogen (made of chains of glucose), we need carbohydrates for energy (ATP)
In the membrane:
●​ Short-chain carbohydrates bound to membrane proteins (glycoproteins) or lipids (glycolipids)
●​ Important roles in self-recognition and cell-to-cell interactions
5. Explain how glucose is regulated using negative feedback.
Ate carb (fruit, apple) - pancreas (receptor, control center) sends insulin to bloodstream - liver is signaled
to store glucose as glycogen - cells use glucose as energy - regulated

6. Describe the building blocks, general structure and biological functions of lipids. Differentiate between
Triglycerides, phospholipids and steroids. (not testable) Describe the main categories of triglycerides
consumed by humans. Explain the role of lipoproteins to transport them around the body and the
importance of Omega 3 and 6
Lipids: Insoluble or slightly soluble in polar solvents, water
Saturated fat= no double bonds, majority solid, beef, butter, increases cholesterol
Unsaturated fat= double bonds, liquids, olive oil, avocados helps reduce bad cholesterol
Polyunsaturated fats several double bonds, liquids
Omega 3, flaxseed, salmon anti-inflammatory and omega 6, eggs, sunflower oil promotes inflammation
Ration 1:1 but now 24:1, need a balance of both
Transat produced artificially hydrogenate polyunsaturated fats, cause damage to cells
Triglycerides (insoluble): 3 fatty acid chains (COOH or a carboxylic acid is defining feature), glycerol
backbone. Stores energy and protects
Phospholipids (slightly soluble): a glycerol molecule, 2 fatty acid chains, phosphate head (hydrophilic),
phospholipids create two layers to make the cell's double membrane, both polar and non polar
Steroids: 4 interlocking carbon rings ( three 6 carbon rings and one 5 carbon ring), in the lipid family
because they are slightly soluble
Cholesterol: steroid found in the cell membrane that, Placed between phospholipids to prevent
crystallization of fatty acid chains, Helps stabilize phospholipids’ position, Provides rigidity, especially in
cold temperatures
It is a component of the cell wall, and it is used in the synthesis of steroids

7. Describe the building blocks, general structure and biological function of proteins. Why is the structure
of a protein so important? Why are proteins the second key concept in this course?
Structure: Carbon w/ 4 covalent bonds and an amine group NH2 and a carboxylic acid, amino acids are
the building blocks of protein
Use dehydration synthesis to combine amino acids and make a protein - peptide bond
Polypeptide chain is a chain of proteins, a lot of proteins are folded like the secondary structure
When you eat something you break down peptide bonds through hydrolysis
Growth and maintenance of body tissues and organs, transports other substances
Primary: The sequence of amino acids that are strung together in a polypeptide chain.
Secondary: Hydrogen bonding pulls or pushes parts of the chain into local structures such as helixes or
sheets. Folded into this
Tertiary: The overall shape of a polypeptide chain. Folded into compact globular molecule, bonds
between folds
Quaternary: Several polypeptide chains may be assembled into a protein complex.
The fold in the membrane is what allows them to have certain functions
If you cant fold the protein into the correct shape they cannot perform the function, if you heated it up
or changed the ph you could denature the protein

Functions of proteins:
Structural Proteins: Mechanical support, ex. Collagen is responsible for tensile strength in ligaments
Enzyme Proteins: Catalysts, and essential to every biochemical reaction in the body, ex. Disaccharidases
hydrolyze disaccharides
Transport Proteins: Moving substances (in blood, or across the membrane) ex. Hemoglobin transports
oxygen in blood
Contractile Proteins: Movement, ex. Actin causes muscle cell contraction and function in cell division
Communication Proteins: Transmitting signals between cells, can act as chemical messengers, ex. Insulin
acts at its receptor to regulate blood sugar concentration
Defensive Proteins: Protects against disease, ex. Antibodies released by immune cells are specialized
proteins that bind and inactivate foreign substances
Proteins in the membrane:
setccd

8. Describe the building blocks, general structure and biological functions of Nucleic Acids. Compare and
contrast DNA and RNA in terms of both structure and function.
DNA: blueprint directs protein synthesise, sequence of nucleotides (4 bases, form groups of.
three to make the coding)
To make protein you unzip the strand of DNA and make a copy the RNA then moves out into the
cytoplasm of the cell and copy the RNA into a chain of amino acids that will then make the protein
RNA: converts the information stored in DNA to carry out protein synthesis (large nucleic acid)
Subunits of DNA and RNA are nucleotides (has 3 parts to it)
Monosaccharide, a nitrogen containing base, phosphate
4 bases: thymine, guanine, cytosine, adenine ( A&T, G&C )
G+C triple bond vs. A+T double bond
Phosphate sugar backbone
RNA is single stranded
Nucleotide in RNA: ribose, phosphate, A + Uracil, Guanine + Cytosine

9. Describe the chemical structure of the cell membrane and relate it to membrane functions. P63-67
+Audio Pod Cell Membrane Cell Membrane in Cell Membranes and Audio pod Size Matters in Central
Ideas and Audio pod Key Concepts in Central Ideas. Why is the cell membrane the third key concept in
this course?
Structure: Phospholipid bilayer, inside the bilayer are different proteins, carbohydrates on the ECF side
along with proteins and lipids (cholesterol)
functions by allows cell division and transport of substance in and out of the cell
Carbs are always attached to the ecf side of the cell membrane
Selectively permeable membrane
Non polar- can go through the membrane, phospholipid bilayer
Have to be small and non polar
i.e. oxygen and carbon dioxide
Phospholipids are constantly moving, skipping in the cell membrane, liquid
Don’t want a rigid membrane because when the cells are dividing they can easily move apart, need
flexible membrane(based on bilayer)
Make then different based on the fatty acid attached, tails originally single carbon bonds, but when
double bond or triple it kinks instead of all having straight tails

Lipoproteins
●​ Several categories,
●​ Not enough cholesterol: ldl low density lipoproteins made up of proteins, cholesterol,
triglyceride, bind onto apoproteins to receptors on cell membrane to release cholesterol- may go
to liver may release cholesterol into the blood
●​ Too much cholesterol: hdl high density lipoprotein, carry lipid cells from the body back to the
liver
Self recognition- glycoproteins recognize which cells belong to the body and which are foreign, useful in
the immune system
Cell-to-to interactions- membrane carbohydrates how will one cell join to the next cell

Basic Functions of Nervous System

●​ Sensory input, integration, motor input

How is the Nervous System Organized

●​ Central nervous system: brain and spinal cord
●​ Peripheral nervous system: cranial nerves, spinal nerves, ganglia
●​ Sympathetic: fight or flight, heart rate increases, sweating, breathing quicker, exercises, running
●​ Parasympathetic: calm, day-to-day functions, bathroom, eating

In terms of histology two types of principles types of cells?

●​ Neurons (physiologically important) and neuroglial cells

Structural components of neurons and relate structure to role

●​ Dendrites: receive information, temperature, pain, light senses which is then converted, type of
electrical message collected is called graded potential which goes through the cell body then to
the axon
●​ Cell body: nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum, making proteins,
●​ Axon: long cell, piece of cell membrane with ICF, electrical message called action potential,
covered by Schwann cells
●​ Schwann cells: wraps around axon, layers of membranes, forms myelin sheath for insulation,
allows message to travel faster
Define Neuroglial cell- Central nervous system
Astrocytes: forms blood brain barrier- separates certain substances from entering the brain, they control
the potassium
Ependymal cells: Produces CSF
Microglial Cells: Immune response, engulf foreign pathogens
Oligodendrocytes: Generate myelin sheath (insulation), wrap around axons

What is the purpose of graded potential and the action potential

●​ The purpose is to communicate, move, nothing would work

Define Resting Membrane Potential

●​ Need to know what happens when we have to little or too much potassium
●​ Inside - outside +
●​ Resting membrane potential: -70mV
●​ If it weren't negative we would be alive
●​ The permeabilities of sodium and potassium across membrane are different
●​ Has lots of potassium channels
●​ Sodium enters through leakage channels reduces the negative membrane potential slightly
●​ The pump maintains the concentration

How is an Action Potential Generated

●​ Inside of cell goes from -70 to +30ish (depolarization) then jumps down (repolarization) to
(hyperpolarization)
●​ then back to resting

○​

●​ Sodium leakage channels moves into making cell +, (lock at +30) to make it negative you add
potassium (voltage channels) that comes out
●​ Threshold: minimum strength of stimulus (light, temperature) required to create an action
potential
●​ When we hit threshold all of our voltage channels open but they open at different voltages, all
open at -55mv
●​ To make sure they all open called positive feedback what every neurons uses to help you hit
threshold
 ●​ How does it propagate (in unmyelinated axon)? The sodium ions diffuse throughout the cell,
they are also attracted to the negative making it more positive opening the voltage gated
channels, the voltage channels lock after so it can't go backwards
●​ Absolute and relative refraction period
●​ Absolute refractory period: impossible to create another action potential because they are
already opening and later in this period the sodium voltage channels are locked
●​ Relative refractory period: period begins during hyperpolarization to the normal level, it is
possible to create another action potential but you need a strong stimulus because the threshold
is very low

How do nerves code for stimulus intensity

●​ Frequency of the action potential in a set time period
●​ Nerves are bundles of axons and each axon has different thresholds
●​ As you up the strength of stimulus more axons are fired
●​ Individual axons with own thresholds and bundles, each use frequency

What influences conduction velocity? Define saltatory and continuous conduction

●​ Myelin makes it faster because it is insulated

Continuous Conduction
●​ No myelin, slow, have to keep recreating the action potential

Saltatory Conduction
●​ Myelinated, fast, no voltage channels under myelin because ions wouldn’t be able to enter, at
the gaps you recreate the action potential fewer time

Synapse
●​ The gap between an axon and a dendrite, muscle, gland
●​ Presynaptic neuron brings in the message, and the cell you make the connection with is the post
synaptic neuron
●​ Start with action potential
●​ Cannot jump across synaptic cleft (gap)
●​ have to convert electrical message to chemical (neurotransmitters)
●​ opens voltage-gated calcium channels and calcium enters the axon
●​ when calcium enters cell the vesicles release the neurotransmitter (ACH) by exocytosis
●​ Diffuse into the synaptic cleft where they will look for protein receptors
●​ This creates a graded potential, a small change in potential, where the chemical regulated
channels open and the sodium moves in
●​ Chemically gated channel sodium moves in and potassium leaves the cell because it is attracted
to the negative charge
●​ After the neurotransmitter is reuptake through transport proteins, enzymatic degradation, or
diffusion
 ●​ Move from graded potential to action potential by sodium diffusing to the negative charges
creating a positive feedback loop

Excitatory Synapse (EPSP)- more positive potential, action potential, bring in sodium and potassium
Inhibitory Synapses (IPSP)- hyperpolarize, more negative, prevent an action potential, potassium or
chloride moves in

Summation- only graded potentials, refers to adding graded potentials together

Spatial Summation- 2 simultaneous stimuli at different locations cause EPSP that add together
Temporal Summation- 2 excitatory stimuli close in time cause EPSPs that add together

Compare and Contrast graded potentials/action potentials

Differences: actions travel far distances, graded travel shorter distances
Action potentials are all or none, graded potentials get smaller as they move along
Similarities:

Compare and Contrast nervous and endocrine systems

Key concepts and role in nervous system

Functions of the Immune System:

●​ To protect against foreign substances and identify what is foreign, viruses, bacteria, chemicals

Innate defence system: rid of 95% of infections- old, works well

Surface barrier: external, skin, mucous membranes
●​ Skin: stratified squamous, keratinocytes, dendritic cells
●​ Skin secretions (sweat/sebum) make epidermal surface acidic
●​ Mucous membranes: respiratory tract, urinary, digestive, reproductive
●​ Mucus function: traps microorganisms in resp and digest tracts
●​ Nasal hairs, filter and trap microbes in nasal passageways
●​ Cilia, propel debris-laden mucous away from nasal cavity and lower respiratory passages
●​ Gastric juice, contains concentrated hydrochloric acid and protein-digesting enzymes that
destroy pathogens in stomach
●​ Lacrimal secretions (tears/saliva), lubricate and cleanse eyes, contains lysozymes
●​ Urine, normally acidic ph. inhibits bacterial growth
Internal defenses: internal, phagocytes, natural killer cells, inflammation, antimicrobial proteins, fever
●​ Phagocyte- engulf and destroy pathogens that breach surface membrane barriers; macrophages
also contribute to adaptive immune responses
●​ Macrophages(come from monocytes, in the alveoli) and dendritic- fantastic at phagocytosis
active and requires ATP, recognizes its foreign, has lysosomes (packed full of digestive enzymes),
need to have bacteria in vesicle, fuse together to breakdown pathogen, sometimes exocytosis
 occurs, then takes part of the new protein to mark itself like a red flag and display it on the
outside membrane
●​ Natural killer cells- promote apoptosis (cell suicide) by directly attacking viral-infected or
cancerous body cells; recognize general abnormalities rather than specific antigens
●​ Inflammation- signs of inflammation (heat, redness, pain, swelling) inflammation is good
because it helps us deal with what's wrong unless it spreads because it means immune system is
being overwhelmed
●​ Tissue injury: release of inflammatory chemicals, histamine/not protein found in mast cells of
loose areolar tissue, causes smaller arteries to dilate and increases permeability of capillaries,
when arterioles dilate blood flow increases in that area/causes redness/heat, increases
metabolic rate of cells everything happens faster/more effective,
●​ Increased permeability:
1.​ mast cells release histamine-increase permeability of capillaries(simple squamous epithelium)
2.​ make gap larger between cells
3.​ that allows neutrophils/monocytes/white blood cells to leave the blood stream
4.​ MARGINATION: normally lining is smooth, but during tissue damage the capillary wall puts
proteins into the cell membrane which allows the neutrophils proteins to attach to
5.​ Once stopped diapedesis occurs neutrophils flatten and squeeze out of capillaries
6.​ Chemotaxis: neutrophils follow chemical trail, chemicals released from inflammatory site act as
chemotactic agents
7.​ Capillaries can leak plasma which contains clotting factors/protein rich fluid, causes swelling and
pain
8.​ Can form clot through insoluble fibers, so that microbes cannot leave area
9.​ Phagocytes clean up dead tissue cells/debris
●​ Antimicrobial proteins- interferon (fight viral infections), and complement proteins (fight
bacterial infections)
●​ Interferon: viruses want to replicate when inside cells and produce proteins, when the virus
enter cells our cells produce the protein interferon by releasing mrna to create it> then released
by exocytosis, the interferon goes to the surrounding cells and looks for an interferon receptor
protein the end result is interferon stimulates the DNA to produce antiviral proteins, that blocks
virus from reproducing
●​ Complement proteins: end result punch huge hole in bacterial cell wall.
●​ Antigen: large complex molecule found on the outside of cells (bacteria, viruses, etc.) either
marks the cell as belonging to you or something else (foreign) Ex. Given wrong blood in blood
transfusion will identify it as a foreign substance
●​ Immune system can tell you have bacterial infection because it will identity the foreign antigen.
The complement proteins (numbered 1-9) in the plasma (inactive), need antibody to read
antigens
●​ Antibody: Large complex proteins (quaternary), formed from B-cell, weak bonds hold the amino
acid chains together, 2 called heavy chain (big), 2 called light (smaller), with weak bonds holding
them together at the end of the two arms are specific antigen binding sites, with the stem
region. Foreign antigen attaches to the antibody binding site and the complementary protein
 attaches to the stem it now activates the protein which activates all of them up to 9. Classical
pathway means they are all activated after this. When the last ones are activated they form the
*big* MAC (membrane attack complex) in the cell membrane of the bacteria that allows water
to flood and bacterial contents to leave. Lysing the cell, macrophages clean up the cell
●​ Fever: one chemical produced by macrophages in response (endogenous pyrogen) that enters
the hypothalamus of the brain responding by resetting the thermostat of the body by increasing
it- increased metabolic rate of cells to work quicker, organs such as the liver remove iron/zinc
because a lot of microorganisms require iron to complete life cycles
●​ However this can also cause proteins to denature
●​ causes body temperature to rise (37), low grade fevers can increase metabolic rate of cells

Adaptive defence system: (has memory, must quicker after getting infection)
Humoral immunity B cells:
●​ responsible for antibodies, has a BCRP (b-cell, receptor protein), as soon as a foreign antigen
attaches it becomes an activated B cell and they divide into many cells, the clone cells then
divide into a plasma cell full of rough ER (protein makers), that make antibodies, can also
produce memory b cells that stays in the lymph node waiting to be infected with an identical
infection. The second response produces more plasma cells and antibodies which is much faster.
●​ Active (MEMORY): naturally acquired (infection contact with pathogen), artificially acquired
(vaccines; dead or attenuated pathogens) want to form antibodies
●​ Passive (NO MEMORY): naturally (mother to fetus through placenta or to infant in milk- 6
months) artificially acquired injection of exogenous antibodies such as rabies in Canada (gamma
globulin)
●​ Antibodies- neutralization has exotoxins (antibody attach to the virus), agglutination (clumped
the cells with antibodies together) both of these enhance phagocytosis
●​ Precipitation, antibodies stick to the chemicals released by viruses or bacteria take it out of the
solution, still uses macrophages from phagocytosis
Cell mediated Immunity T cells:
●​ Different types of T cells, helper, cytotoxic, regulatory/suppressor
●​ Regulatory: supress an immune response
●​ Cytotoxic and Helper: if presented with a foreign antigen would not be able to identify the
foreign bacteria/virus they need an antigen presenting cell such as a macrophage or dendritic
cell- go through phagocytosis-leave marker
●​ Has to attach onto self antigen called MHC proteins ( everyone has different ones aside from
identical twins ) different types, MHC1, MHC 2
●​ MHC1 : every cell with a nucleus, so erythrocytes don’t have it
●​ Display bits of virus or proteins made by cancerous cells, called endogenous
●​ Foreign antigens on MHC 1 are endogenous
●​ Foreign antigens on MHC 2 are exogenous, display bits of bacteria/virus/fungus
●​ MHC2: only found on specialized cells, dendritic, macrophages, b cells
●​ CD protein differentiates cytotoxic t cells and helper t cells
Cytotoxic T-Cells
 ●​ CD8, and t cell receptor, kill cells that is not an APC
●​ When it first attaches it starts to divide and from clones, and also forms memory cells
●​ Start releasing chemicals, first one is perforin (make whole in the membrane of the cell its
attacking) and then it starts to release granzymes (digestive enzymes) start to enter through the
whole made by perforin this causes apoptosis which destroys the target cells, we also need
helper 2 cells during this process because they release IL-2 that stimulates the rapid increase of t
and b cell production

Helper T-Cells
●​ CD4 captured foreign invader kill any cell that displays it
●​ Helper t cells bumps into the MHC 2 protein on dendritic cell and attaches its CD4 protein and
T-cell receptor to the antigen-MHC complex
●​ This activates the clone formation (multiplication through division) of helper t cell, this also
forms a memory CD4 T cell that will go into the lymph nodes
●​ The clone cells produce chemicals cytokines, small proteins, IL 4 goes to b cells to activate them
●​ HIV destroys all helper t cells, making the immune system useless
●​ Find handout and find other chemicals produced by helper t cells and what they do
●​ Interleukin-2 stimulates t and b cell proliferation, or rapid increase
●​ Interleukin-4 promotes b cell activation
●​ Interleukin-5 attracts and activates eosinophils, and causes plasma cells to produce antibodies
●​ Interleukin-10 inhibits macrophages and dendritic cells, turns down cellular and immune
response
●​ Go over chart on differences, and immune system key concepts

Blood Types
●​ Explain abo blood groups, rh blood groups and erythroblastosis fetalis
●​ Depending on blood type you have an antigen marking it, ex. A blood type has a antigen
●​ At 6 months old you produce antibodies against other blood types ex. If you're blood type a you
produce antibodies against b, o will produce antibodies against type a and b
●​ If you're Rh positive you have the Rh, if you're Rh negative you produce antibodies against
positive
●​ This is important during childbirth

Endocrine System- producing some form of hormone

Why? Homeostasis, specific jobs and feedback loops, can also promote/growth/development, regulate
reproduction, regulation, energy balance, cellular metabolism, control body defences
Control things in ECF, water electrolytes, calcium

What are the characteristics of endocrine glands?

●​ Ductless glands, release into bloodstream (ECF/ICF), pituitary gland, thyroid gland, pancreas,
gonads, adrenal gland, parathyroid gland
Describe how hormone are chemically classified: amino acid based (water soluble), and steroid (lipid
soluble)
●​ Most amino acid based hormones are small proteins
●​ Most of the hormones in the body are amino acids, its more rare to have a steroid hormone
●​ Hormones are looking for a receptor when travelling in the blood streams, like proteins
●​ Receptors will be different for amino acids and steroids
●​ Amino acid chemical structure:
●​ Steroids chemical structure: 4-interlocking carbon rings, slightly soluble

The cyclic AMP signalling mechanism: amino acid

●​ The hormone travelling in the blood finds the correct receptor protein, that communicates with
the G protein has GDP attached to it (inactive, no hormone) the hormone activates the G protein
and picks up GTP (similar to atp) that energizes it and you change the shape of the G protein it
then attaches to the enzyme (adenylate cyclase) takes ATP from inside the cell and converts it
into cAMP (cyclic amp) that activates protein kinase that triggers the response from the
hormone
●​ Fast because everything is waiting to be activated

Glucagon:
●​ Same as amino acid above only different is the protein kinase activates glycogen phosphorylase
to break down glucagon into glucose

Aldosterone: come from adrenal glands above kidney in the cortex of it part of nephron
●​ Aldosterone takes sodium ions from the urine and move them into your blood

Intracellular receptors and direct gene activation: steroids, t3, t4

●​ Steroids attach to specific proteins such as albumin
●​ Steroid hormone enters through the cell membrane by diffusion since its lipid soluble it then
finds an intracellular receptor the receptor protein that travels into the nucleus the
receptor-hormone complex binds a specific DNA region, this initiates transcription of the gene to
mRNA, the mRNA then directs protein synthesis in the ribosomes
●​ Makes 3 different proteins, channel protein, sodium-potassium pump, enzyme that makes atp
●​ Slower because it makes new proteins, t3, and t3 are also done this way
●​ T3/t4 not water soluble work like steroid
●​ Epinephrin/norepinephrine water soluble work like enzyme