Chapter: Life Processes

Introduction:
Although living things look different from each other they have certain things in common
which are as follows: 1. All the living things move, 2. They reproduce, 3. they need
nutrition, 4. they are sensitive, 5. they excrete, 6. they respire, 7. they grow.

What are Life Processes?

1. Different types of functions are carried out in an organism to keep it in a living state.
These functions continue to happen even when the organism is in resting period i.e.
when the organism is asleep or just sitting idle. These processes which are
performed in a living organism to keep it living are called as life processes.
2. The life processes need energy to maintain the health and growth of an organism
and this energy comes from the food we take. Since life on earth depends on carbon-
based molecules, most of these food sources are also carbon- based. So, the
process of obtaining the food necessary to carry out the life processes for
maintaining the health and growth of an organism is called nutrition.
3. The outside sources of energy could be quite varied. so, they need to be broken
down and converted into a uniform source of energy that can be used by living
organisms. This process requires a series of chemical reactions like the oxidation-
reduction reactions which need oxygen. The oxygen used in these chemical
reactions is obtained from outside environment, the process of acquiring oxygen from
outside the body, and to use it in the process of break-down of food sources for
cellular needs, is called as respiration.
4. Multicellular organisms have different organs each having a specialized function to
perform. Therefore the uptake of food and oxygen will also be the function of
specialized tissues. Since the food and oxygen are now taken up at one place in the
body of the organisms there is need of a special transportation system to transport
food and oxygen to all the parts of the body.
5. During the process of energy generation where carbon source and oxygen are
utilized a lot of by- products are generated which are not useful to the body while
some could be harmful to the body. So, these by-products need to be eliminated out
of the body by a process called excretion.

Let us look in detail about various processes essential to maintain life:

Nutrition:
Living organisms require energy for their growth, development and for synthesis of
important substances like proteins. They get energy through food. Food contains all the
essential nutrients required for the growth and development of an organism. The
process of obtaining the food is called as nutrition.

How do living things get their food?

1. Some organism obtain their food from inorganic sources in the form of carbon dioxide
and water, these organisms are called autotrophs. Examples: green plants and
bacteria.
2. Organisms which obtain their food from complex substances are called heterotrophs.
These organisms break the complex substances into simple substances using
biocatalysts called enzymes and obtain their energy.

(Human Digestive System) Video Link

Autotrophic nutrition
It is the mode of nutrition in which the organisms carry out photosynthesis to meet their
energy requirement. Photosynthesis is a process in which the plants convert carbon
dioxide and water into carbohydrates in the presence of sunlight. Carbohydrate that is
produced is converted and stored in the form of starch, which serves as an internal
energy reserve. Water used in the process of photosynthesis is taken up from soil.
Along with water soil also supplies some essential elements like nitrogen, iron,
phosphorus and magnesium. Nitrogen is taken up in the form of inorganic nitrates or
nitrites or as organic compounds which are prepared by bacteria from atmospheric
nitrogen. Nitrogen is essentially used for the synthesis of proteins and other important
compounds.

Heterotrophic nutrition
Each and every organism is adapted to its own environment. Their mode of nutrition
depends on the type and availability of food material and also on how it is obtained by
that organism. Here are a few examples:

1. Some organisms break-down food material outside the body and then absorb it. eg:
Fungi like bread moulds, yeast and mushrooms.
2. Some of the organisms take up the food and then break it down into simpler
substances inside the body. e.g. human beings.
3. Organisms like tapeworm, ticks, lice, leeches, cuscuta obtain their nutrition from
plants and animals but without killing them.

How do organisms obtain their nutrition?

The digestive system varies from organism to organism. In single-celled organisms food
may be taken in by the entire surface. But as the complexity increases the digestive
system also becomes complex. Let us look at few examples of digestion in single celled
organisms:

1. Amoeba has finger like projections on its surface which fuse over the food particles
forming food vacuole. Inside the food vacuole the complex food material is broken
down into simpler substances which then diffuse into cytoplasm. The remaining
undigested material is moved to the surface of the cell and thrown out.
2. In case of paramecium which is also a unicellular organism the cell has a definite
shape and food is taken in at a specific spot. Food is moved to this spot by the
movement of cilia which cover the entire surface

(Human Digestive System) Video Link

Nutrition in human beings:

The alimentary canal is basically a long tube extending from the mouth to the anus. The
tube has different parts. Various regions are specialized to perform different functions.
The process of digestion is accomplished by mechanical and chemical processes.

1. The buccal cavity performs two major functions, mastication of food and facilitation of
swallowing. The teeth and tongue with the help of saliva masticate and mix up the
food thoroughly.
2. The saliva secreted into the oral cavity contains electrolytes and enzymes like
salivary amylase and lysozyme which help in the breakdown of food. Mucus in the
saliva helps in lubricating and adhering the masticated food particles into a bolus.
3. The bolus is then conveyed into the pharynx and then into oesophagus by
swallowing.
4. The bolus further passes down through the oesophagus by successive waves of
muscular contractions called peristalasis.
5. The gastro-oesophagal sphinchter controls the passage of food into the stomach.
6. The stomach stores the food for 4-5 hours. The food mixes thoroughly with the acidic
gastric juice of the stomach by the churning movements of its muscular wall and is
called the chyme.
7. The proenzyme pepsinogen on exposure to hydrochloric acid gets converted into the
active enzyme pepsin, the proteolytic enzyme of the stomach.
8. Pepsin converts proteins into proteases and peptones. The mucus and bicarbonates
present in the gastric juice play an important role in lubrication and protection of the
mucosal epithelium from excoriation by the highly concentrated HCl.
9. Lipases are the enzymes used for the digestion of lipids and small amounts of this
enzyme are secreted by the gastric glands.
10. Various types of movements are generated by the muscularis layer of small intestine
which helps in thorough mixing of food with various secretions in the intestine thereby
facilitating digestion.
11. The bile, pancreatic juice and the intestinal juice are the secretions released in small
intestine.
12. The pancreatic juice contains inactive enzymes like trypsin, chymotripsinogen,
procarboxypeptidase, amylases, lipases, and nucleases. trypsinogen is activated by
an enzyme called enterokinase, secreted by the intestinal mucosa into active trypsin,
which inturn activates other enzymes in the pancreatic juice.
13. Bile released into the duodenum contains bile salts, cholesterol and phospholipids
which help in emulsification of fats.
14. The enzymes present in the intestinal juices secreted by small intestine convert the
proteins to amino acids, carbohydrates to glucose and fats into fatty acids and
glycerol.
15. The digested food is absorbed by the walls of small intestine, the inner lining of which
has a number of fingers like projection called villi which increase the surface area of
absorption.
16. The villi are richly supplies with blood vessels which take the absorbed food to each
and every cell of the body, where it is utilized for obtaining energy, building up new
tissues and repairing of the old tissues.
17. The unabsorbed food is taken up by large intestine where more villi absorb water
from this material. The rest of the material is removed from the body through anus.
The removal of wate material from anus is regulated by anal spinchter.

(Human Digestive System) Video Link

Respiration:
1. The food material taken in during the process of nutrition is used in cells to provide
energy for various life processes.
2. The glucose that is produced after digestion process is broken down into carbon
dioxide and water. In some organisms this step requires oxygen and in some
organisms oxygen is not required.
3. But the first step i.e. break down of glucose into 3 carbon compound pyruvate is a
common step for all the organisms.
4. In some organisms like yeast pyruvate is converted into ethanol and carbon dioxide
in the absence of oxygen and hence it is called anaerobic respiration.
5. In other organisms like human beings for example, pyruvate is broken down into
three molecules of carbon dioxide and water in the presence of oxygen and hence it
is called aerobic respiration. Aerobic respiration takes place in mitochondria.
6. The energy released during aerobic respiration is a lot higher than the energy
released during anaerobic respiration.
7. In muscle cells where there is lack of oxygen the pyruvate is converted into lactic
acid.
8. The energy released during cellular respiration is used for the production of ATP
molecule which is used to fuel other activities in the cell.
9. ATP is broken down giving rise to a fixed amount of energy which can drive the
endothermic reactions taking place in the cell.
10. Organisms in which aerobic respiration takes place, they need to ensure that there is
sufficient intake of oxygen.
11. Plants exchange their gases with the environment through stomatal openings.
12. Animals have evolved different organs for the uptake of oxygen from the environment
and for getting rid of the carbon dioxide produced.
13. Terrestrial animals can breathe the oxygen in the atmosphere, but animals that live in
water need to use the oxygen dissolved in water.
14. The rate of breathing in aquatic animals is high since the amount of dissolved oxygen
is fairly low compared to the oxygen in the air.
15. Organs used for absorption of air in terrestrial animals vary from organism to
organism.
16. All the organs used for absorption of air have a structure that increases the surface
area which is in contact with the oxygen rich atmosphere.
17. The organs involved in respiration have a very fine and delicate surface for the
exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide.

Respiration in human beings:

1. In human beings, air enters the body through nostrils. The air passing through
nostrils is filtered by fine hairs lining that passage.
2. From nostrils air passes through the throat and then to the lungs. Rings of cartilage
present in the throat ensure that the air passage does not collapse.
3. Inside the lungs the passage divides into smaller tubes which terminate into balloon
like structures called alveoli which serves as a surface for the exchange of gases.
Alveoli contain an extensive network of blood vessels.
4. When we breathe in air we lift our ribs and flatten our diaphragm as a result of which
the chest cavity becomes larger.
5. As the chest cavity enlarges the air is sucked into the lungs and fills the expanded
alveoli.
6. The blood brings carbon dioxide from the rest of the body and releases into the
alveoli and the oxygen in the alveolar air is taken up by blood in the alveolar blood
vessels to be transported to all the cells in the body.
7. During the breathing cycle, the lungs always contain residual volume of air so that
there is sufficient time for oxygen to be absorbed and for the carbon dioxide to be
released.
8. In animals with large size, the diffusion pressure alone cannot deliver oxygen to all
the body parts instead respiratory pigments help in delivering oxygen. In humans the
respiratory pigment haemoglobin has high affinity for oxygen and this pigment is
present in red blood corpuscles.

(Respiratory System) Video Link

Transportation in human beings:

Blood transports food, oxygen and waste materials in our body. Blood consist of a fluid
medium called plasma which transports food, carbon dioxide and nitrogenous wastes in
dissolved form. Oxygen and many other substances like salts are transported by the
blood. We thus need of a pumping organ to push blood around body, a network of tubes
to reach the tissues and a system to ensure that this network can be repaired if
damaged.

Our pump — the heart

1. The heart is a muscular organ which has the size of our closed fist. Since both
oxygen and carbon dioxide have to be transported by blood, our heart has four
chambers which prevents the mixing of oxygen rich blood with the blood containing
carbon dioxide.
2. The carbon dioxide rich blood has to be transported to lungs and the oxygenated
blood from lungs has to be brought back to the heart.
3. The oxygen rich blood is then pumped to the rest of the body.
4. Oxygen rich blood from the lungs comes to the left atrium. The left atrium relaxes
when it is collecting the blood and then contracts while the blood is transferred to left
ventricle as it expands. When the left ventricle contracts the blood is pumped out of
the body.
5. De-oxygenated blood comes from the body to the upper chamber on the right side,
i.e. the right atrium as it expands.
6. As the right atrium contracts, the corresponding lower chamber, the right ventricle
dilates, this transfers blood to right ventricle, which in turn pumps it to lungs for
oxygenation.

Oxygen enters the blood in the lungs:

1. The separation of right and left side of the heart prevents the mixing of oxygenated
blood with the deoxygenated blood. The separation of the heart into four chambers
also allows the efficient supply of oxygen to the body.
2. This kind of a separation of heart is useful in most of the animals and birds which
need high amounts of energy to maintain their body temperatures.
3. Animals like amphibians and reptiles have a three chambered heart where there is a
slight mixing of oxygenated blood with the deoxygenated blood.
4. Fishes on the other hand have a two chambered heart, the blood is pumped to gills
and is oxygenated there and then passes to the rest of the body. Thus, blood goes
only once
5. Through the heart in the fish during one cycle of passage through the body.
6. In case of vertebrates the blood goes twice to the heart during each cycle and this is
called double circulation.

The tubes- blood vessels

1. Arteries and vessels carry blood away from the heart to various organs in the body
and arteries have thick, elastic walls since the blood they collect from the heart is
under high pressure.
2. Veins on the other hand collect the blood from different organs and bring it back to
heart. Veins do not have thick walls because the blood they collect from the organs is
not under pressure.
3. Veins have valves to ensure that the blood flow is only in one direction.
4. The arteries divide into smaller vessels once they reach the organ in order to bring
the blood in contact with all the individual cells.
5. The smallest vessels are called capillaries; their walls are about one cell thick.
Exchange of material between blood and surrounding cells takes place across this
thin wall.
6. Capillaries join to form veins which convey blood from organs to heart.

Maintenance by platelets:
Platelets play a major role in blood clot formation. When a person is injured he starts
bleeding and if the bleeding is not controlled it leads to death. So the platelets which
circulate around the body plug these leaks by a clot formation.

Lymph:
1. Some amount of plasma, proteins and blood cells escape through the pores in the
walls of capillaries into the intercellular spaces in the tissue to form tissue fluid called
lymph.
2. Lymph is another type of fluid involved in transportation. Lymph is similar to plasma
but colorless and contains less amount of proteins.
3. Lymph in the intercellular spaces of the tissue drains into lymphatic capillaries which
join to form large lymph vessels that finally open into larger veins.
4. Lymph carries digested and absorbed fat from intestine and drains excess fluid from
extra cellular space back into the blood.

Transportation in plants:
1. Plants make their food through the process of photosynthesis using CO2 and water in
the presence of sunlight. Apart from these sources plants also require some raw
materials for building up their body.
2. Soil is the richest source of these raw materials. The raw materials include nitrogen,
phosphorus and other minerals.
3. Plants absorb these raw materials through roots. Since, root is the part of plant body
which is in contact with the soil.
4. If the distance between soil-containing organs and chlorophyll containing organs is
small the raw materials can easily diffuse through all parts of the plant body. But in
case if the distance is large plants need a special transport system for this purpose.
5. Plant transport system will move energy store from leaves and raw material from
roots.
6. There are two transport systems in plants one is the xylem which conducts water and
minerals from the soil and the other is phloem which transports products of
photosynthesis to other parts of the plant.

Transport of water:
1. In xylem tissues, vessels, tracheids of the roots, stems and leaves are
interconnected to form a continuous system of water conducting channels reaching
all the parts of the plant.
2. Root cells in contact with the soil take up ions from the soil thereby creating a
difference in the concentration of ions between soil and the root. In order to remove
this difference water moves into the root and from the root the water is pushed
upwards.

Transport of food and other substances:

1. The products of photosynthesis formed in the leaves are transported to all the parts
of the plant through a conducting tissue called phloem and this process is called
translocation.
2. Along with the products of photosynthesis phloem also transports amino acids and
other substances.
3. These substances are delivered to storage organs of roots, fruits, seeds and to
growing organs.
4. The translocation process takes place through sieve tubes with the help of adjacent
companion cells both in upward and downward direction.
5. The translocation process in phloem requires energy. Material like sucrose is
transferred into phloem tissue using energy from ATP.
6. This increases the osmotic pressure of the tissue causing water to move into it. This
pressure moves the material in the phloem to tissues which have less pressure. This
allows the phloem to
7. Move material according to the plant’s needs.

Excretion:
The metabolic activities taking place in the body generate metabolic waste that need to
be removed from the body. The biological process involved in the removal of harmful
metabolic wastes is called excretion. The mode of excreting harmful substances varies
among the organisms. Unicellular organisms remove wastes by simple diffusion from
the body surface into the surrounding water. On the other hand multicellular organisms
use specialized organs for the process of excretion.

(Excretory System) Video Link

Excretion in Human Beings:
1. The excretory system of a human being includes a pair of kidneys, ureters, urinary
bladder and urethra.
2. Kidneys are located in the abdomen, on either side of the backbone.
3. Urine produced in the kidneys passes through the ureters into the urinary bladder
where it is stored until it is released through urethra.
4. Urine is produced in the body for the elimination of nitrogenous wastes like urea or
uric acid from the kidneys.
5. A tuft of capillaries called glomerulus present in cup shaped structure called
bowman’s capsule collect the filtered urine.
6. As the urine passes along the tube some substances such as glucose, amino acids,
salts and major amount of water are reabsorbed. The amount of water reabsorbed
depends on the how much amount of excess water is present in the body.
7. Urine forming in each kidney enters a long tube, the ureter which connects kidney
with the urinary bladder.
8. Urine is stored in the urinary bladder until until the pressure of the expanded bladder
leads to the urge to pass it out through the urethra.
9. The bladder is muscular, so it is under nervous control, as a result we can control the
urge to urinate.

Excretion in Plants:
1. Plants use completely different strategies for excretion. Oxygen is a waste product
produced by plants during photosynthesis. They can get rid of water by transpiration.
2. Many plant waste products are stored in cellular vacuoles. Waste products may be
stored in leaves that fall off.
3. Some of the waste products are stored as resins and gums, especially in old xylem.
4. Plants secrete waste products into the soil around them.

(Excretory System) Video Link