Introduction to
ICT
th
By Peter Norton 7 Edition
Chapter 4A
Transforming Data Into Information
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How Computers Process Data
● Memory
– Stores open programs and data
– Small chips on the motherboard
– More memory makes a computer faster
– Two types of Memory
● Nonvolatile Memory: ROM
● Volatile Memory: RAM
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How Computers Process Data
● Nonvolatile memory
– Holds data when power is off, (the computer is unplugged).
– Read Only Memory (ROM)
– Holds instructions necessary for computers startup known as BIOS instructions.
– Basic Input Output System (BIOS).
– BIOS instructions contain another set of instructions to ensure that the computer
system is working properly and has all the expected hardware devices attached,
known as POST instructions.
– Power On Self Test (POST)
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How Computers Process Data
● Flash memory
– A special type of nonvolatile memory is the Flash memory.
– Used in portable devices.
– Data is stored using physical switches
– Special form of nonvolatile memory
– Camera cards, USB key chains
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How Computers Process Data
● Volatile memory
– Requires power to hold data
– Random Access Memory (RAM)
– Data in RAM has an address
– RAM Memory is randomly accessible.
– CPU reads data using the address
– CPU can read any address
– RAM consists of chips on a small circuit board:
● SIMM and DIMM chips are found in Desktop computers.
● SIMMs: Single in line memory module
● DIMM: Dual in line Memory Module
● SO DIMM (Small Outline DIMM) are found in Laptop computers 5A-6
Components affecting Speed
There are several factors
that affect Computer’ s
Speed:
1. Registers
2. RAM
3. Cache Memory
4. Internal Clock
5. Bus
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Affecting Processing Speed
● Registers
● Registers are small, high-speed storage locations within a computer's CPU that
temporarily hold data and instructions being processed. They are crucial for the operation
of the CPU.
– The smallest computer memory is the Registers.
– Registers are present inside the CPU.
– The size of the register is also known as Word size.
– Normal CPU’ s consists of 32 bit register size.
– Larger size indicates more powerful computer
– Increase by purchasing new CPU
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Types of Registers
1. Data Registers
Hold data being processed.
Examples:
● Accumulator (AC): Stores intermediate results of
arithmetic and logical operations.
● General- Purpose Registers (GPRs): Used for temporary data
storage during execution
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Types of Registers
2. Address Registers
Store addresses of memory locations.
Examples:
● Index Register: Holds addresses modified during operations.
● Base Register: Contains a base address for calculatin
3. Instruction Register (IR)
Stores the current instruction being executed by the CPU.
Examples:
● Index Register: Holds addresses modified during operations.
● Base Register: Contains a base address for calculating effective addresses.
● g effective addresses.
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Types of Registers
4. Program Counter (PC)
Keeps the address of the next instruction to be executed.
5. Status Register (Flags Register)
Indicates the status of the CPU or the outcome of an operation.
● Examples of Flags:
● Zero Flag: Set if the result of an operation is zero.
● Carry Flag: Indicates a carry out or borrow into the highest bit.
● Overflow Flag: Detects arithmetic overflow.
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Types of Registers
6. Stack Pointer (SP)
Points to the top of the stack in memory, managing function calls and
local variables.
7. Segment Registers
Hold segment addresses in segmented memory architectures.
● Examples:
● Code Segment Register (CS)
● Data Segment Register (DS)
● Stack Segment Register (SS)
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Types of Registers
8. Input/Output Registers
Facilitate communication between the CPU and peripheral devices.
9. Floating Point Registers
Store floating-point numbers for complex mathematical calculations.
10. Control Registers
Store control information, such as modes of operation or interrupt handling.
● Examples:
● Control Register (CR0-CR4 in x86 architecture)
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Affecting Processing Speed
● RAM
– More RAM makes the Computer run fast.
– When RAM memory becomes small for cpu, a space on the hard disk is kept as RAM known
as virtual RAM.
– CPU then swaps data to virtual RAM
● Least recently used data is moved
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Affecting Processing Speed
● The computer’ s internal clock
– There exists an internal Clock in the Computer made up of Quartz crystal. [This clock does
not give us time]
– When electricity is applied to the Quartz crystal, its molecules begun to vibrate millions of
time per second, (this rate never change).
– Every vibration (tick) causes a cycle (machine cycle).
– Speeds measured in Hertz (Hz)
● Modern machines use Giga Hertz (GHz)
– A processor can execute an instruction in a given number of clock cycles.
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Affecting Processing Speed
● Bus
– Electronic pathway between components, like pathway between RAM and CPU.
– There are two types of Buses, Internal or System Bus and External or Expansion Bus.
– Expansion bus connects to peripherals devices like Mouse, keyboard, Printer etc.
– System bus connects CPU and RAM
– There are two types of System Bus: Data Bus and Address Bus
– Bus width is measured in bits
– Speed is tied to the clock
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System Bus
● Data Bus:
– The Data Bus carries Data from RAM to CPU and vice versa.
– The amount of data depends upon the size of Data Bus
– A 16-bit Bus carries 16 Bit of data
– The bigger the data bus, the more amount of data it transfers.
● Address Bus:
– The Address Bus is used to carry only memory address to and from RAM , CPU
Affecting Processing Speed
● Cache memory
– Very fast memory
nd
– 2 most fastest memory of Computer after Registers.
– Located on the CPU or very near to the CPU chip.
– Holds common or recently used data
– Speeds up computer processing
– Most computers have several caches
– L1 holds recently used data
– L2 holds upcoming data
– L3 holds possible upcoming data
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Review Questions
1. Describe how virtual memory works
2. Describe the role of computers internal clock
3. Write types of Cache Memory.
Chapter 4A
End of Chapter