2.

2 RETAINING WALLS
A retaining wall is defined as a structure whose primary purpose is to provide
lateral support for soil or rock. In some cases, such as basement walls and certain types of bridge
abutments, it may also support vertical loads. The more common
types of retaining walls are shown below;
a) gravity walls
b) cantilevered walls
c) counterfort walls or buttressed
d) Crib walls.
e) semi gravity wall (often steel reinforcement is used)
f) crib wall

2.2.1 Gravity retaining

Gravity retaining walls are routinely built of plain concrete or stone, and the wall depends
primarily on its mass. When constructed of stone, brick, or plain concrete, their Weight provides
overturning and sliding stability.
Granular soils (sands or gravels) are the standard recommendation for backfill material. There
are several reasons for this recommendation:
1. Predictable Behavior. Import granular backfill generally has a more predictable behavior in
terms of earth pressure exerted on the wall. If silts or clays are used as backfill material,
expansive soil-related forces could be generated by these soil types.

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2. Drainage System. To prevent the build-up of hydrostatic water pressure on the retaining wall,
a drainage system is often constructed at the heel of the wall. This system will be more effective
if highly permeable granular soil is used as backfill.
3. Frost Action. In cold climates, the formation of ice lenses in the backfill soil can cause so
much lateral movement that the retaining wall will become unusable. Backfill soil consisting of
granular soil and the installation of a drainage system at the heel of the wall will help to protect
the wall from frost action.
[Link] Retaining Wall Analyses
The Figure below shows various types of retaining walls and the soil pressures acting on the
walls. They are Three types of soil pressures that act on a retaining wall this include;

 Active earth pressure, which is exerted on the back side of the wall,
 Passive earth pressure, which acts on the front of the retaining wall footing,
 Bearing pressure, this acts on the bottom of the retaining wall footing.

These three pressures are individually discussed below.

a) Active Earth Pressure.

In order to calculate the active earth pressure resultant force (PA), in kN per linear meter of wall
or pounds per linear foot of wall, the following equation is used for granular backfill:

………….q1

Where kA = active earth pressure coefficient

γt= total unit weight of the granular backfill
H= height over which the active earth pressure acts
In its simplest form, the active earth pressure coefficient (kA) is equal to:

where Ф= friction angle of the granular backfill. The Equation is known as the active Rankine
state .this Equation is valid only for the simple case of a retaining wall that has a vertical rear
face, no friction between the rear wall face and backfill soil, and the backfill ground surface is
horizontal. For retaining walls that do not meet these requirements, the active earth pressure
coefficient (kA) is often determined using the Coulomb equation. Often the wall friction is
neglected (ẟ= 0), but if it is included in the analysis, typical values are ẟ= 3⁄4Ф

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 Gravity and semi gravity
retaining walls.

for the wall friction between granular soil and wood or concrete walls and ẟ= 20 for the wall
friction between granular soil and steel walls such as sheet-pile walls. Note that in the figure
above when wall friction angle is used in the analysis, the active earth pressure resultant force
(PA) is inclined at an angle equal to . Additional important details concerning the active earth
pressure are as follows:
1. Sufficient Movement. There must be sufficient movement of the retaining wall in order to
develop the active earth pressure of the backfill. For dense granular soil, the amount of wall
translation to reach the active earth pressure state is usually very small (i.e., to reach active state,
wall translation 0.0005 H, where H height of wall).
2. Triangular Distribution. As shown in Figs. 6.34 and 6.35, the active earth pressure is a
triangular distribution and thus the active earth pressure resultant force (PA) is located at a
distance equal to 1⁄3H above the base of the wall.
3. Surcharge Pressure. If there is a uniform surcharge pressure (Q) acting upon the entire
ground surface behind the wall, then there would be an additional horizontal pressure exerted
upon the retaining wall equal to the product of kA times Q. Thus, the resultant force (P2), in kN
per linear m of wall or lb per linear ft of wall, acting on the retaining wall due to the surcharge
(Q) is equal to P 2 QHkA, where Q uniform vertical surcharge acting upon the entire
ground surface behind the retaining wall, kA active earth pressure coefficient (Eq. (6.30) or Fig.
6.35), and H height of the retaining wall. Because this pressure acting upon the retaining wall is
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uniform, the resultant force (P2) is located at midheight of the retaining wall.
4. Active Wedge: The active wedge is defined as that zone of soil involved in the development
of the active earth pressures upon the wall. This active wedge must move laterally in order to
develop the active earth pressures. It is important that building footings or other load-carrying
members are not supported by the active
wedge, or else they will be subjected to lateral movement. The active wedge is inclined at an
angle of 45 /2 from the horizontal.

b) Passive Earth Pressure. As shown in Fig. above, the passive earth pressure is developed
along the front side of the footing. Passive pressure is developed when the wall footing moves
laterally into the soil and a passive wedge is developed.

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 In order to calculate the passive resultant force (Pp), the following equation is used assuming
that there is cohesion less soil in front of the wall footing:

Where
pp= passive resultant force in kN per linear m of wall or lb per linear ft of wall

Kp=passive earth pressure coefficient

γt = total unit weight of the soil located in front of the wall footing
D = depth of the wall footing (vertical distance from the ground surface in front of the retaining
wall to the bottom of the footing)

The passive earth pressure coefficient (kp) is equal to:

where Ф= friction angle of the soil in front of the wall footing. The Equation is known as the
passive Rankine state. In order to develop passive pressure, the wall footing must get more
laterally into the soil. The wall translation to reach the passive state is at least twice that required
to reach the active earth pressure state. Usually it is desirable to limit the amount of wall

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translation by applying a reduction factor to the passive pressure. A commonly used reduction
factor is 2.0. The soil engineer routinely reduces the passive pressure by 1⁄2 (reduction factor
2.0) and then refers to the value as the allowable passive pressure.

c) Footing Bearing Pressure. In order to calculate the footing bearing pressure, the
first step is to sum the vertical loads, such as the wall and footing weights. The
vertical loads can be represented by a single resultant vertical force, per linear m
of wall that is offset by a distance (eccentricity) from the toe of the footing.
Bearing pressure is routinely at the toe of the footing and it should not exceed the
allowable bearing pressure.
Once the active earth pressure resultant force (PA) and the passive resultant force (Pp) have been
calculated, the design analysis is performed as indicated in the figure abov. The retaining wall
analysis includes determining the resultant location of the forces (i.e., calculate d, which should
be within the middle third of the footing), the factor of safety for overturning, and the factor of
safety for sliding. The adhesion (ca) between the bottom of the footing and the underlying soil is
often ignored for the sliding analysis.

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2.2.2 RESTRAINED RETAINING WALLS
As mentioned in the previous article, in order for the active wedge to be developed, there must
be sufficient movement of the retaining wall. There are many cases where movement of the
retaining wall is restricted. Examples include massive bridge abutments, rigid basement walls,
and retaining walls that are anchored in non yielding rock. These cases are often described as
restrained retaining walls.
In order to determine the earth pressure acting on a restrained retaining wall, Eq. (6.29) can be
utilized where the coefficient of earth pressure at rest (k0) is substituted for kA. A common value
of k0 for granular soil that is used for restrained retaining walls is 0.5. Restrained retaining walls
are especially susceptible to higher earth pressures induced by heavy compaction equipment, and
extra care must be taken during the compaction of backfill for restrained retaining walls.

2.2.3 MECHANICALLY STABILIZED EARTH RETAINING WALLS

mechanically stabilized earth retaining walls (also known as MSE retaining
walls) are typically composed of strip- or grid-type (geosynthetic) reinforcement.
Because they are often more economical to construct than conventional concrete
retaining walls, mechanically stabilized earth retaining walls have become very
popular in the past decade. A mechanically stabilized earth retaining wall is composed of three
elements:
(1) Wall facing material,
(2) Soil reinforcement, such as strip- or grid-type reinforcement,
(3) Compacted fill between the soil reinforcement.
The design analysis for a mechanically stabilized earth retaining wall is more
complex than for a cantilevered retaining wall. For a mechanically stabilized earth
retaining wall, both the internal and external stability must be checked.
[Link] External Stability.
The analysis for the external stability is similar to that for a gravity retaining wall. For example,
Figs. 6.36 and 6.37 present the design analysis for external stability for a level backfill condition
and a sloping backfill condition. In both Figs. 6.36 and 6.37, the zone of mechanically stabilized
earth mass is treated in a similar fashion as a massive gravity retaining wall. The following
analyses must be performed:
1. Allowable bearing pressure: the bearing pressure due to the reinforced soil mass must not
exceed the allowable bearing pressure.
2. Factor of safety of sliding: the reinforced soil mass must have an adequate factor of safety for
sliding.
3. Factor of safety of overturning; the reinforced soil mass must have an adequate factor of safety
for overturning about Point O.

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4. Resultant of vertical forces: the resultant of the vertical forces N must be within the middle 1⁄3
of the base of the reinforced soil mass.
5. Stability of reinforced soil mass: the stability of the entire reinforced soil mass (i.e., shear
failure below the bottom of the wall) would have to be checked.
Note in Figure above that two forces (P1 and P2) are shown acting on the reinforced soil mass.
The first force (P1) is determined from the standard active earth

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pressure resultant equation (i.e., Eq. 6.29). The second force (P2) is due to a uniform surcharge
(Q) applied to the entire ground surface behind the mechanically stabilized earth retaining wall.
If the wall does not have a surcharge, then P2 is equal to zero.
Figure 6.37 presents the active earth pressure force for an inclined slope behind the retaining
wall. Note in Fig. 6.37 that the friction () of the soil along the back side of the reinforced soil
mass has been included in the analysis. The value of kA would be obtained from Coulomb’s
earth pressure equation (Fig. 6.35). As a conservative approach, the friction angle () can be
assumed to be equal to zero and then PH= PA. Note in both Figs. 6.36 and 6.37 that the
minimum width of the reinforced soil mass must be at least 7⁄10 the height of the reinforced soil
mass.
[Link] Internal Stability. To check the stability of the mechanically stabilized zone, a slope
stability analysis can be performed where the soil reinforcement is modeled as horizontal forces
equivalent to its allowable tensile resistance. In addition to calculation of the factor of safety, the
pull-out resistance of the reinforcement along the slip surface should also be checked.
The analysis of mechanically stabilized earth retaining walls is based on active earth pressures. It
is assumed that the wall will move enough to develop the active wedge. As with concrete
retaining walls, it is important that building footings or other load carrying members are not
supported by the mechanically stabilized earth retaining wall and the active wedge, or else they
could be subjected to lateral movement.
2.2.4 SHEET PILE WALLS
Sheet pile retaining walls are widely used for waterfront construction and consist of interlocking
members that are driven into place. Individual sheet piles come in many different sizes and
shapes. Sheet piles have an interlocking joint that enables the individual segments to be
connected together to form a solid wall. Many different types of design methods are used for
sheet pile walls. Figure 6.38 shows the most common type of design method. In Fig. 6.38, the
term H represents the unsupported face of the sheet pile wall. As indicated in Fig. 6.38, this sheet
pile wall is being used as a waterfront retaining structure and the level of water in front of the
wall is at the same elevation as the groundwater table elevation behind the wall. For highly
permeable soil, such as clean sand and gravel, this often occurs because the water can quickly
flow underneath the wall in order to equalize the water levels.
In Fig. 6.38, the term D represents that portion of the sheet pile wall that is anchored in soil. Also
shown in Fig. 6.38 is a force designated as Ap. This represents a restraining force on the sheet
pile wall due to the construction of a tieback, such as by using a rod that has a grouted end or is
attached to an anchor block. Tieback anchors are often used in sheet pile wall construction in
order to reduce the bending

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Moments in the sheet pile. When tieback anchors are used, the sheet pile wall is typically
referred to as an anchored bulkhead, while if no tiebacks are utilized, the wall is called a
cantilevered sheet pile wall.
Sheet pile walls tend to be relatively flexible. Thus, as indicated in Fig. 6.38, the design is based
on active and passive earth pressures. For this analysis, a unit length (1 m or 1 ft) of sheet pile
wall is assumed. The soil behind the wall is assumed to exert an active earth pressure on the
sheet pile wall. At the groundwater table (Point A), the active earth pressure is equal to kAtd1,
where kA active earth pressure coefficient from Eq. (6.30) (the friction between the sheet pile
wall and the soil is usually neglected in the design analysis), t total unit weight of the soil above
the groundwater table, and d1 depth from the ground surface to the groundwater table. At Point
B in Fig. 6.38, the active earth pressure equals kAtd1and kAbd2,

where b = buoyant unit weight of the soil below the groundwater table
and d2 = depth from the groundwater table to the bottom of the sheet pile wall. For a sheet pile
wall having assumed values of H and D (see Fig. 6.38), and using the calculated values of active
earth pressure at Points A and B, the active earth pressure resultant force (PA), in kN per linear m
of wall or lb per linear foot of wall, can be calculated. The soil in front of the wall is assumed to
exert a passive earth pressure on the sheet pile wall. The passive earth pressure at Point C in Fig.
6.38 is equal to kpbD, where the passive earth pressure coefficient (kp) can be calculated from
Eq. (6.32). Similar to the analysis of cantilever retaining walls, if it is desirable to limit the
amount of sheet pile wall translation, then a reduction factor can be applied to the passive
pressure. Once the allowable passive pressure is known at Point C, the passive resultant force
(Pp) can be readily calculated. As an alternative solution for the passive pressure, Eq. (6.31) can
be used to calculate Pp with the buoyant unit weight (b) substituted for the total unit weight (t)
and the depth D as shown in Fig. 6.38.

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Note that a water pressure has not been included in the analysis. This is because the water level
is the same on both sides of the wall and water pressure cancels itself out. However, if the water
level was higher behind than in front of the wall, then water pressure forces would be generated
behind the wall.
The design of sheet pile walls requires the following analyses:

(1) evaluation of the earth pressure resultant forces PA and Pp as previously described,

(2) determination of the required depth D of piling penetration,

(3) calculation of the maximum bending moment (Mmax) which is used to determine the
maximum stress in the sheet pile,

(4) selection of the appropriate piling type, size, and construction details.
A typical design process is to assume a depth D (Fig. 6.38) and then calculate the factor of safety
for toe failure (i.e., toe kick-out) by the summation of moments at the tieback anchor (Point D).
The factor of safety is defined as the moment due to the passive force divided by the moment due
to the active force. Values of acceptable factor of safety for toe failure are 2 to 3. Once the depth
D of the sheet pile wall is known, the anchor pull (Ap) must be calculated. The anchor pull is
determined by the summation of forces in the horizontal direction, or: Ap PA Pp/F, where PA
and Pp are the resultant active and passive forces and F is the factor of safety that was obtained
from the toe failure analysis. Based on the earth pressure diagram (Fig. 6.38) and the calculated
value of Ap, elementary structural mechanics can be used to determine the maximum moment in
the sheet pile wall. The maximum moment divided by the section modulus can then be compared
with the allowable design stresses.
2.2.5 TEMPORARY RETAINING WALLS
Temporary retaining walls are often used during construction, such as for the support of the sides
of an excavation that is made below-grade in order to construct the building foundation. If the
temporary retaining wall has the ability to develop the active wedge, then the basic active earth
pressure principles described in the previous sections can be used for the design of the temporary
retaining walls. Especially in urban areas, movement of the temporary retaining wall may have
to be restricted to prevent damage to adjacent property. If movement of the retaining wall is
restricted, the earth pressures will typically be between the active (kA) and at-rest (k0) values.
For some projects, the temporary retaining wall may be constructed of sheeting (such as sheet
piles) that are supported by horizontal braces, also known as struts. Near or at the top of the
temporary retaining wall, the struts restrict movement of the retaining wall and prevent the
development of the active wedge. Because of this inability of the retaining wall to deform at the
top, earth pressures near the top of the wall are in excess of the active (kA) pressures. At the
bottom of the wall, the soil is usually able to deform into the excavation, which results in a
reduction in earth pressure, and the earth pressures at the bottom of the excavation tend to be
constant or even decrease as shown in Fig. 6.39. The earth pressure distributions shown in Fig.
6.39 were developed from actual measurements of the forces in struts during the construction of

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braced excavations. In Fig. 6.39, case a shows the earth pressure distribution for braced
excavations in sand and cases b and c show the earth pressure distribution for clays. In Fig. 6.39,
the distance H represents the depth of the excavation (i.e., the height of the exposed wall
surface). The earth pressure distribution is applied over the exposed height (H) of the wall
surface with the earth pressures transferred from the wall sheeting to the struts (the struts are
labeled with the forces F1, F2, etc.). Any surcharge pressures, such as surcharge pressures on the
ground surface adjacent the excavation, must be added to the pressure distributions shown in
Fig.6.39. In addition, if the sand deposit has a groundwater table that is above the level of the
bottom of the excavation, then water pressures must be added to the case a pressure distribution
shown in Fig. 6.39. Because the excavations are temporary (i.e., short-term condition), the
undrained shear strength (su c) is used for the analysis of the earth pressure distributions
for clay. The earth pressure distributions for clay (i.e., cases b and c) are not valid
for permanent walls or for walls where the groundwater table is above the bottom
of the excavation.

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2.3 CHAPTER FOUR: FOUNDATIONS

2.3.0 INTRODUCTION
Till now we discussed the different structural elements eg. beams, slabs, staircases and columns,
which are placed above the ground level and are known as superstructure. The superstructure is
placed on the top of the foundation structure, designated as substructure as they are placed below
the ground level.

The function of any foundation is to safely sustain and transmit to the ground on which it rests
the combined dead, imposed and wind loads in such a manner as not to cause any settlement or
other movement which would impair the stability or cause damage to any part of the building.

However, it is worth mentioning that the design of foundation structures is somewhat different
from the design of other elements of superstructure due to the reasons given below. Therefore,
foundation structures need special attention of the designers.

Subsoil beneath foundation is compressed and reacts by exerting an upward pressure to resist
foundation loading. If foundation load exceeds maximum passive pressure of ground (i.e.

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bearing capacity) a downward movement of the foundation could occur. Remedy is to increase
plan size of foundation to reduce the load per unit area or alternatively reduce the loadings being
carried by the foundations.
2.3.1 CRACKING IN WALLS
Cracks are caused by applied forces which exceed those that the building can withstand. Most
cracking is superficial, occurring as materials dry out and subsequently shrink to reveal minor
surface fractures of < 2 mm. These insignificant cracks can be made good with proprietary
fillers. Severe cracking in walls may result from foundation failure, due to inadequate design or
physical damage. Further problems could include:
 Structural instability
 Air infiltration
 Sound insulation reduction
 Rain penetration
 Heat loss
 Visual depreciation
A survey should be undertaken to determine:
 The cause of cracking,
 The effect on a building's performance (structural and environmental).
 The nature of movement † completed, ongoing or intermittent (seasonal). Observations
over a period of several months, preferably over a full year, will determine whether the
cracking is new or established and whether it is progressing.

[Link] Basic Sizing; the size of a foundation basically depends on two factors †
1. Load being transmitted, max 70 kN/m (dwellings up to 3 storeys).
2. Bearing capacity of subsoil under proposed foundation.
Bearing capacities for different types of subsoils may be obtained from tables such as those in
Structural design of low rise buildings. Also, directly from soil investigation results.

2.3.2 FOUNDATION MATERIALS

One of the functions of a foundation can be seen to be the ability to spread its load evenly over
the ground on which it rests. It must of course be constructed of a durable material of adequate
strength. Experience has shown that the most suitable material is concrete. Concrete is a mixture
of cement + aggregates + water in controlled proportions. Another commonly used material is
stone.

2.3.3 CONSTRUCTION PROCEDURE

This can be considered as a series of steps or stages used in the construction of a foundation ;
1. Assessment of site conditions in the context of the site and soil investigation report.
2. Calculation of anticipated structural loading(s).
3. Choosing the foundation type taking into consideration †

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a. Soil conditions;
b. Type of structure;
c. Structural loading(s);
d. Economic factors;
e. Time factors relative to the proposed contract period;
f. Construction problems.
4. Sizing the chosen foundation in the context of loading(s), ground bearing capacity and any
likely future movements of the building or structure

2.3.4 TYPES FOUNDATION

Apart from simple domestic foundations most foundation types are constructed in reinforced
concrete and may be considered as being shallow or deep.
Most shallow types of foundation are constructed within 2.0m of the ground level but in some
circumstances it may be necessary to take the whole or part of the foundations down to a depth
of 2.0m to 5.0m as in the case of a deep basement where the structural elements of the basement
are to carry the superstructure loads. Generally foundations which need to be taken below 5.0m
deep are cheaper when designed and constructed as piled foundations and such foundations are
classified as deep foundations.

Foundations are usually classified by their type such as strips, pads, rafts and piles. It is also
possible to combine foundation types such as strip foundations connected by beams to and
working in conjunction with pad foundations

[Link] Strip Foundations

These are suitable for most subsoils and light structural loadings such as those encountered in
low to medium rise domestic dwellings where mass concrete can be used. Reinforced concrete is
usually required for all other situations.

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[Link] Pad Foundations

Suitable for most subsoils except loose sands, loose gravels and filled areas. Pad foundations are
usually constructed of reinforced concrete and where possible are square in plan.

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[Link] Raft Foundations

These are used to spread the load of the superstructure over a large base to reduce the load per
unit area being imposed on the ground and this is particularly useful where low bearing capacity
soils are encountered and where individual column loads are heavy.

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[Link] Simple Raft Foundations

These can be used for lightly loaded buildings on poor soils or where the top 450 to 600 mm of
soil is overlaying poor quality substrata.

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[Link] Cantilever Foundations

These can be used where it is necessary to avoid imposing any pressure on an adjacent
foundation or underground service.

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[Link] Stepped Foundations

These are usually considered in the context of strip foundations and are used mainly on sloping
sites to reduce the amount of excavation and materials required to produce an adequate
foundation.

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[Link] Concrete Foundations

Concrete is a material which is strong in compression but weak in tension. If its tensile strength
is exceeded cracks will occur resulting in a weak and unsuitable foundation. One method of
providing tensile resistance is to include in the concrete foundation bars of steel as a form of
reinforcement to resist all the tensile forces induced into the foundation. Steel is a material which
is readily available and has high tensile strength.

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[Link] Bed
A concrete slab resting on and supported by the subsoil, usually forming the ground floor
surface. Beds (sometimes called oversite concrete) are usually cast on a layer of hardcore which
is used to make up the reduced level excavation and thus raise the level of the concrete bed to a
position above ground level.

[Link] Piled Foundations

These can be defined as a series of columns constructed or inserted into the ground to transmit
the load(s) of a structure to a lower level of subsoil. Piled foundations can be used when suitable
foundation conditions are not present at or near ground level making the use of deep traditional
foundations uneconomic. The lack of suitable foundation conditions may be caused by:-
1. Natural low bearing capacity of subsoil.
2. High water table † giving rise to high permanent dewatering costs.

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3. Presence of layers of highly compressible subsoils such as peat and recently placed filling
materials which have not sufficiently consolidated.
4. Subsoils which may be subject to moisture movement or plastic failure.

[Link].1 Classification of Piles; piles may be classified by their basic design function or by their
method of construction:-

A) Replacement Piles
These are often called bored piles since the removal of the spoil to form the hole for the pile is
always carried out by a boring technique. They are used primarily in cohesive subsoils for the
formation of friction piles and when forming pile foundations close to existing buildings where
the allowable amount of noise and/or vibration is limited.

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1) Percussion Bored Piles

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B) Displacement Piles

These are often called driven piles since the are usually driven into the ground displacing the
earth around the pile shaft. These piles can be either preformed or partially preformed if they are
not cast in-situ and are available in a wide variety of types and materials. The pile or forming
tube is driven into the required position to a predetermined depth or to the required `set' which is
a measure of the subsoils resistance to the penetration of the pile and hence its bearing capacity
by noting the amount of penetration obtained by a fixed number of hammer blows.

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C) Timber Piles

These are usually square sawn and can be used for small contracts on sites with shallow alluvial
deposits overlying a suitable bearing strata (e.g. river banks and estuaries.) Timber piles are
percussion driven.

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D) Preformed Concrete Piles

Variety of types available which are generally used on medium to large contracts of not less than
one hundred piles where soft soil deposits overlie a firmer strata. These piles are percussion
driven using a drop or single acting hammer.

Preformed Concrete Piles †

jointing with a peripheral steel splicing collar as shown on the preceding page is adequate for
most concentrically or directly loaded situations. Where very long piles are to be used and/or

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high stresses due to compression, tension and bending from the superstructure or the ground
conditions are anticipated, the 4 or 8 lock pile joint [AARSLEFF PILING] may be considered.

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E) Driven In-situ Piles

Used on medium to large contracts as an alternative to preformed piles particularly where final
length of pile is a variable to be determined on site.

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F) Short Bored Piles
These are a form of foundation which are suitable for domestic loadings and clay subsoils where
ground movements can occur below the 1.000 depth associated with traditional strip and trench
fill foundations. They can be used where trees are planted close to a new building since the trees
may eventually cause damaging ground movements due to extracting water from the subsoil and
root growth. Conversely where trees have been removed this may lead to ground swelling.
Typical Details ~

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[Link].2 Pile Caps
Piles can be used singly to support the load but often it is more economical to use piles in groups
or clusters linked together with a reinforced concrete cap. The pile caps can also be linked
together with reinforced concrete ground beams. The usual minimum spacing for piles is:-
1. Friction Piles † 1100 or not less than 3 pile diameter, whichever is the greater.
2. Bearing Piles † 750 mm or not less than 2 pile diameter, whichever is the greater.

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