Sea Turtle Handling

Guidebook for Fishermen

Teaching Book
 United Nations Environment Programme
Mediterranean Action Plan
Regional Activity Centre For Specially Protected Areas

Sea Turtle Handling

Guidebook for Fishermen
Teaching Book

Document prepared by
Guido Gerosa & Monica Aureggi
CHELON – Marine Turtle Conservation and Research Program
 Introduction

Table of Contents

Introduction....................................................................................................................................7
How to use the «Sea Turtle Handling Guidebook for Fishermen»........................................................9
An outline of marine turtle anatomy and physiology .......................................................................10
Body shape, skeleton and internal organs .............................................................................10
Diving physiology................................................................................................................15
Water balance.....................................................................................................................17
Marine turtle life cycle...................................................................................................................18
A few more details...............................................................................................................18
Sexual maturity and longevity........................................................................................................21
Marine turtles and epibionts ..........................................................................................................21
Origins of Mediterranean turtle species..........................................................................................22
Nesting ground distribution within the Mediterranean .....................................................................22

TECHNICAL EDITORS Food habits..................................................................................................................................23

Loggerhead turtle.................................................................................................................23

Illustration: Graziano Ottaviani Green turtle.........................................................................................................................24

Leatherback turtle.................................................................................................................24

Technical contribution: George Balazs Ingestion of plastic and other debris...............................................................................................24

Therese Conant Main threats.................................................................................................................................26

On land..............................................................................................................................26

English version: Monica Aureggi Tourist development .........................................................................................................26

Federico Mazzella Increased human presence...............................................................................................26

Sarah Thomson Artificial lighting..............................................................................................................26

Monica Lesni Beach vehicle driving.......................................................................................................27

Sand mining ...................................................................................................................27

Layout: Guido Gerosa Beach erosion .................................................................................................................27

Garbage on the beach ....................................................................................................27
Recreational beach equipment..........................................................................................27
Predation........................................................................................................................27
Inundation ......................................................................................................................28
At sea.................................................................................................................................28
Incidental catch...............................................................................................................28
Ghost gear .....................................................................................................................28
Turtle exploitation ............................................................................................................28
Boat collision...................................................................................................................28
Pollution and marine debris .............................................................................................28
Underwater explosion......................................................................................................28
Predation........................................................................................................................28
Disease and parasites......................................................................................................29

Sea Turtle Handling Guidebook for Fishermen - Teaching Book 3

 Introduction

Fishing methods............................................................................................................................30 Introduction The Sea Turtle Handling Guidebook for Fishermen
Ghost gear...................................................................................................................................31 and the associated Teaching Book are meant to
provide the tools suggested by turtle experts and
Longline.......................................................................................................................................32 It is now evident that the strategies used in marine
people involved in conservation.
Caught species and size ..................................................................................................32 biology conservation, regarding sea turtles, recogni-
se professional fishermen as the central factor. The The Guidebook in particular is a direct information
The hook ........................................................................................................................32
last update of the Mediterranean Action Plan has device which was produced for use in the field, in
Cutting the line................................................................................................................32 this case the fishing boat, through a detailed eva-
seen all the experts agreeing to include as Priorities:
The importance of the line retrieval by hand......................................................................33 luation whose layout the fishermen greatly appre-
«banning of exploitation and minimization of inci-
Hook removal .................................................................................................................34 dental catch» (UNEP, 1998: Annex III, page 2, point ciated. Through the use of drawings accompanied
Entangled specimen.........................................................................................................35 8). The strategies to achieve this result can be applied by a simple text, some methods of handling sea
a legal level, executive level or that of applied resear- turtles, from the moment they are incidentally
Trawl ...........................................................................................................................................36
ch. Limited areas or fishing periods, implementation caught to the moment they are released back into
Caught species and size ..................................................................................................36 the sea, or their conservation on board until they
of existing laws or common fishing tool modifications
Bringing a turtle on board.............................................................................................................36 are handed to the Authorities, are described.
are only some of the examples recently suggested
Longline..........................................................................................................................36 (Gerosa and Casale, 1999). The sole purpose of the Guidebook is to enable an
Trawl..............................................................................................................................36 Although not explicit, these proposals agree that assessment to be made of the state of health of the
Gillnet ............................................................................................................................37 the role of the fishermen and their activities at sea turtle brought on board. In order to help fishermen
are important to marine turtle conservation. More with difficult cases, some basic tests are provided
Release of the turtle into the sea.....................................................................................................37
clear and detailed are the statements of the to establish whether the animal is healthy, injured,
Cold-stunning...............................................................................................................................37 not active, or dead, thereby increasing the possi-
Mediterranean Action Plan highlighted in the
Gillnet..........................................................................................................................................38 bility of saving the turtle. Each fishing method is
chapter Implementation Measures Which Aim at
Caught species and size ..................................................................................................38 Reducing Mortality at Sea and Eliminating Local treated on a double page (except the longline,
Turtle on the deck..........................................................................................................................38 Consumption and Use, which states: «to carry out where the delicate phase of hook removal has
campaigns among fishermen in order to urge them taken up more space) so that the user has a clea-
Healthy or injured turtles..................................................................................................38
to release marine turtles caught incidentally …» rer idea of what action should be taken, and of the
‘Not active’ turtles ...........................................................................................................38
(UNEP, 1998: Annex III, page 4, point 17) and in suggestions for each method.
Assessment of turtle’s condition......................................................................................................40
that concerning Information, Education and The Guidebook is in the form of a directory with
Dead turtles..................................................................................................................................40 icons instead of letters, which allows the fisherman
Training, which states: «a public-awareness pro-
How to behave with a dead turtle..................................................................................................41 gramme, including special documentary information to find the desired page easily.
From ‘not active’ to injured............................................................................................................41 materials should be developed for fishermen …» The last pages of the Guidebook contain a glossa-
Recovery techniques......................................................................................................................42 (UNEP, 1998: Annex III, page 5, point 22). ry, where some words found in the text are explai-
Resuscitation ...................................................................................................................42
Reflex tests......................................................................................................................43
Literature cited..............................................................................................................................45

4 Sea Turtle Handling Guidebook for Fishermen - Teaching Book Sea Turtle Handling Guidebook for Fishermen - Teaching Book 5
Introduction An outline of marine turtule anatomy and physiology

ned, and space is provided for notes and In order to avoid repetition of subjects that have How to use the «Sea Turtle arrows, you will find out which class (healthy, inju-
addresses. been recently published and revised in other red, not active or dead) the turtle you have caught
Handling Guidebook for
The Guidebook is linked to a Teaching Book (the books, some topics have been concisely described belongs to.
Fishermen»
one that you are reading now), aimed at all those in the Teaching Book. In particular, it is advisable Let’s say that the turtle does not move after being
operators who will be in charge of training fisher- to read this book in conjunction with: lifted. The arrows indicate two cases, which with
Since this is written for those who will have to show
men in aspects concerning marine turtles and in • Definition and Classification of Fishing Gear the icon lead you to the page of Recovery
fishermen how to use the Guidebook, details are
the techniques described in the Guidebook. Categories. Techniques,
given on this page using practical examples to
The Teaching Book is a more comprehensive ver- FAO Fisheries Technical Paper No. 222. Revision allow a good understanding of how to use the
sion of the Guidebook, with additional pages 1. Rome, FAO. 1990. Guidebook.
concerning sea turtle biology and problems of • Manual on marine turtle conservation in the The Sea Turtle Handling Guidebook for Fishermen in order to be able to apply different procedures
turtles. The first pages, in particular, are about the Mediterranean. was conceived as an easy tool to provide simple and find out the class of the turtle.
anatomy and physiology of these reptiles, so that UNEP (MAP) SPA/IUCN/CWS/Fisheries procedural guidelines on how to handle a marine Now, let’s say that the turtle does not respond to
the reader can have a better grasp of the metho- Department, MANRE, Cyprus. 1995. turtle caught in fishing gear. the recovery techniques and you have classified it
dology suggested in the Guidebook. Different
• Manual on marine turtle tagging in the The Guidebook is composed of introduction pages, as not active. Read carefully the recommendation
topics were written up in such a way as to allow
Mediterranean. general pages on marine turtle biology and at the bottom of the
the person in charge of training the fishermen to
RAC/SPA (UNEP-MAP), Tunis, Tunisia. 1996. conservation and an operative section, which
choose lessons according to their teaching needs.
• Interaction of marine turtles with fisheries in the includes double pages for each of the three fishing
The references cited in the text of the Teaching
Mediterranean. methods discussed that interact with sea turtles, the
Book, which are described in detail at the end of pages in order to confirm what you have found
Assessment of Turtle’s Condition pages, and the
the book, allow further reading to expand the sub- RAC/SPA (UNEP-MAP) Tunis, Tunisia. 1999. out.
Recovery Techniques pages. The last few pages
ject treated in the book. Then, go back to your fishing method page, the
are a Glossary, with a space for useful addresses
and notes. trawl icon,

By following the illustrated icons on the adjacent

page you can look at the different pages.
Now that you have seen the pages, let’s get started and read the 'not active turtle' paragraph. Not
by taking a simple example to show you the basics active classes require more attention than other
of using the Guidebook. classes because you are recommended to keep the
The example assumes that you are a fisherman wor- turtle on board for up to 24 hours under observa-
king on a trawler and that you have incidentally tion; this gives the turtle enough time for a likely
caught a marine turtle in your trawl net. revival. After 24 hours, let’s suppose that the turtle
revives: read the 'healthy' or 'injured turtle' para-
Choose the icon
graph of the page and release it, following the ins-
tructions.
As marine turtles are delicate animals and not
which stands for trawl, and go to the specific page. easy to handle, for correct use of the Guidebook it
The first few lines tell you to carefully bring the turt- is better to recommend carefully reading all the
le on board. Then, by reading through the text and pages before taking any action.
illustrations, you will find that you have to turn to The Guidebook also has a glossary at the end,
the Assessment of Turtle’s Condition pages, which which has to be used whenever a term in the text
is indicated by an icon is not clear. The space for useful addresses and
notes is intended for taking notes during the event
and writing contact phone numbers or names of
in order to determine the status of the turtle that is people who can assist the fishermen
on your boat. The guidebook's contents provide an accurate
review of published works and information from mari-
In these pages, following the indicated text and ne turtle experts’ experiences and opinions.

6 Sea Turtle Handling Guidebook for Fishermen - Teaching Book Sea Turtle Handling Guidebook for Fishermen - Teaching Book 7
An outline of marine turtule anatomy and physiology An outline of marine turtule anatomy and physiology

of the internal skeleton or other flat and wide Fig.2 - Marine turtle’s skeleton
An Outline of Marine Turtle
bones (which grow under the skin) and are fused
Anatomy and Physiology
together (Fig. 2 and Fig. 3).
Carapace and plastron are covered with horny
• Body shape, skeleton and internal organs
scutes or, in one species (Dermochelys coriacea),
Viewed externally, a marine turtle has a large
with hard skin. The external layer does not coinci-
trunk with the body enclosed in a strong dorsal
de, in number or in shape, with the bony plates
convex structure. From its forepart, a heavy head
underneath (Fig. 3).
with a non-retractable neck stands out together
The skull (Fig. 4), which has both primitive and
with two forelimbs, whereas in the rearward part,
specialised characteristic features, is compact with
there is the tail with the cloaca and two rear limbs
only one mobile part, the jaw. The latter can be scapula
(Fig. 1). The limbs are pentadactyl (Fig. 2): the
moved thanks to powerful muscles located in the
pectoral ones are developed, elongated, and vertebrae
wide cavities between the upper part of the skull humerus
modified into wing-like, fore flippers whereas the
and the bony chamber of the brain cavity. The
hind flippers have become paddle-like (Fig.1).
mouth does not have teeth, but a horny sharp beak
The shell consists of a convex dorsal part, the cara-
which covers the alveolar surface of the mandibles, radius
pace, and an almost flat ventral part, the plastron
coinciding with the bone layer underneath (Fig. 4).
(Fig. 1). These two parts are joined together by ulna
The internal organs are located inside the shell and
elastic ligaments.
show a characteristic disposition, according to the
The shell, elongated along the antero-posterior
skeleton structure (Fig. 5).
axis and streamlined, consists of either the bones

fontanelle
ribs

coracoide

pubis

tibia
fibula

femur

Fig. 1 - A sea turtule

8 Sea Turtle Handling Guidebook for Fishermen - Teaching Book Sea Turtle Handling Guidebook for Fishermen - Teaching Book 9
An outline of marine turtule anatomy and physiology An outline of marine turtule anatomy and physiology

Fig. 4 - Caretta caretta skull and head

bones horny scutes
nasal
Nuchal plate

Costal plates

Neural plates
supraocular
Suprapygal plate

Pygal plates temporals

Peripheral bones

parietal

Nuchal scute

Neural scutes
frontal
Costal scute

Pygal scute

Marginal scutes frontal

supraoccipital
postorbital
perfrontal
Epiplastron bones parietal squamosal
prefrontals
Entoplastron bone bones horny scutes

Hyoplastron bones

Hypoplastron bones
frontoparietal
Xiphyplastron bones
supraocular
Intergular scute/s

Gular scutes

Humeral scutes

Pectoral scutes
quadrato
abdominal scutes
jugal
Femoral scutes quadratoju-

Anal scutes

Postanal scute/s dentary articular

Inframarginals scutes
supraangular
maxilla angular

Fig. 3 - Horny scutes and bony plates of the postoculars

horny beack
carapace and plastron permaxilla

10 Sea Turtle Handling Guidebook for Fishermen - Teaching Book Sea Turtle Handling Guidebook for Fishermen - Teaching Book 11
An outline of marine turtule anatomy and physiology An outline of marine turtule anatomy and physiology

• Diving Physiology an adult leatherback (Lutcavage et al., 1992) res-

Despite the brevity of their respiratory phases, sea pectively. Despite these dissimilarities, the oxygen
turtles sometimes spend as much as 19 to 26% of stored per kilo is surprisingly similar in the two
their time on the surface engaged in surface bas- species, with a certain difference in distribution.
king, feeding, orientating, and mating. For these In shallow dives, turtles depend upon the lung as a
reasons, they can be considered as diving sea ani- major oxygen store, whereas the more oceanic
mals (Lutcavage and Lutz, 1997). turtle (Dermochelys coriacea), that dives deeply,
In addition to the anatomical changes and the fact relies more upon blood and tissue stores for oxy-
1 that they are air-breathing animals, sea turtles gen (Lutcavage and Lutz, 1997), as they dive to
were forced to develop strategies in order to live in depths which would provoke complete lung collap-
the sea. As far as respiration is concerned, an effi- se (Lutcavage et al., 1990; Butler and Jones,
cient oxygen transport system, the capacity of sto- 1982).
ring oxygen in the blood and tissues and an extra- As far as Mediterranean species are concerned,
2
ordinary tolerance to hypoxia, are important the species which reach the greatest depth is surely
adaptations (Lutcavage and Lutz, 1997). the Dermochelys coriacea, which can dive more
Sea turtles have wedge-shaped lungs which lie than 1000 m. (Eckert et al., 1989), followed by the
under the carapace within the pleura-peritoneal Caretta caretta, which has been recorded at 233
3 cavity and which are firmly attached to the dorsal m. (Sakamoto et al., 1990), and Chelonia mydas
4 4 body wall along the vertebral axis (Fig. 5 ). The at 110 m., even if the latter tends to remain in shal-
lungs are spongy and multicameral. The ribs are low waters (from 20 to 50 m.) (Lutcavage and Lutz,
5 fused to the shell (Fig. 2), and there is no true dia- 1997). These depths should be considered as
phragm separating thoracic and visceral compart- exceptional, because according to other studies
6
7 ments. For these reasons pelvic, gular, and pecto- complete lung collapse is believed to occur in
6 ral muscles are recruited to ventilate the lung; in deep-diving sea turtles at pressures equivalent to
consequence, both inspiration and expiration are depths ranging from 80 to 160 m. (Berkson,
8
active, and the respiratory muscles work, impro- 1967).
9 ving the respiratory pumping capacity beyond that It is also worth mentioning that diving abilities vary
10
of the passive elastic properties of the lung itself considerably with age (or even more with biomass)
11 (Berkson, 1966; Lutcavage and Lutz, 1997). of specimen. In fact, diving depth and breath-hold
12
Furthermore, sea turtles only require a few breaths duration increase with the size of the lung oxygen
lasting less than 2 to 3 seconds to empty and refill store, the maturation of the oxygen transport sys-
13 14 13 their lungs, even after being submerged for long tem, and the structural development of the lung
15 15
periods (Lutcavage et al., 1989). (Lutcavage and Lutz, 1997).
16
Taking into consideration maximum dive time, sea n case of forced diving (even if they are used to
turtles show a wide range, between 2 and 5 hours, continuous diving), turtles seem to respond with
(Byles, 1988) and there does not seem to be a cor- physiological reactions that in many cases can
relation between maximum dive depth and dive threaten the specimen’s survival. How to behave in
duration (Lutcavage and Lutz, 1997), whereas sur- such circumstances is one of the main subjects of
face intervals seem to depend on whether they are the «Sea Turtle Handling Guidebook for
located in shallow coastal areas (short surface Fishermen».
intervals) or in deeper offshore areas (long surfa- It is interesting to point out that during voluntary
ce intervals) (Lutcavage and Lutz, 1997). diving, despite the oxygen store having a steady
Based on oxygen consumption measurements and decline (Lutcavage and Lutz, 1991), concomitant
estimates of total oxygen stores, aerobic limits of increases of carbon dioxide are relatively small,
Fig. 5 - Sea turtul’s internal organs : 1 tongue, 2 trachea, 3 esophagus, 4 heart (auricle), 5 heart (ventricle),
6 liver, 7 stomach, 8 lung, 9 spleen, 10 gall bladder, 11 duodenum, 33 and 70 minutes have been calculated for a 20- suggesting that an efficient ionic exchange system
12 intestines, 13 kidney, 14 urinary bladder, 15 gonad, 16 cloaca. kg. loggerhead (Lutz and Bentley, 1985) and for is operating (Lutcavage and Lutz, 1997) and that

12 Sea Turtle Handling Guidebook for Fishermen - Teaching Book Sea Turtle Handling Guidebook for Fishermen - Teaching Book 13
An outline of marine turtule anatomy and physiology An outline of marine turtule anatomy and physiology

such dives are probably fully aerobic, since blood tions, that once the turtle has started breathing, • Water balance secreted by the kidney has a similar concentration
lactate values can be considered low (Lutz et al., many hours are needed to re-establish the normal Marine turtles spend most of their lives in the sea, to the body fluids. However, the urine may become
1989). This fact is quite different in forcibly sub- physiological values (Lutz and Bentley, 1985). an environment which is almost three times as more concentrated than the plasma after prolon-
merged turtles, where oxygen is rapidly consu- Finally, there are some “defence adaptations” concentrated as their body fluids (Table 1. adapted ged dehydration (Prange and Greenwald, 1980)
med, anaerobic glycolysis is activated, and acid- which considerably increase the chance of survival from Lutz, 1997) and therefore, due to osmotic avoiding a considerable water loss. The latter from
base balance is disturbed, sometimes to a lethal of a specimen. A forcibly submerged individual pressure reasons, they must continuously face pro- the passage of faeces is also estimated as very low
extent (Lutcavage and Lutz, 1997). In a 15-minute can deplete oxygen consumption, decreasing the blems of water loss and salt gain. (Lutz, 1997).
dive by a tethered adult green turtle, arterial oxy- heart rate from 20 to 30 beat/minute to less than A different situation occurs concerning the salt
For sea turtles the major potential routes for water
gen saturation declines from 90 to 45% and a ten- 1 beat/minute (Berkson, 1967), or leaving the glands. Those glands, which are modified lachry-
loss are the respiratory tract, the integument, the
fold increase in blood lactate concentration occurs spare oxygen and aerobic substrates for the brain mal glands (Schmidt-Nielsen and F¨nge, 1958),
gut, the kidney and the salt gland.
(Wood et al., 1984). In Caretta caretta blood oxy- and heart, while other tissues become anaerobic are capable of discharging fluid with a concentra-
As far as respiration is concerned, water loss can
gen was depleted to negligible levels in less than (Lutcavage and Lutz, 1997). Loggerhead turtles tion more than six times that of blood and twice
be considered minimal for sea turtles since the
30 minutes and blood lactate doubled between 30 have an extraordinary ability to survive many that of sea water; in practice, a sea turtle that
relative humidity of the sea surface air that they
and 90 minutes of forced diving (Lutz and Bentley, hours of anoxia (Lutz et al., 1980) and their brain ingests 1 litre of sea water would be unburdened
inhale will be about 100% and the expiratory gas
1985). is able to maintain ATP level and ionic homeosta- by the secretion of about 500 ml. of tears, leaving
will have a similar water content (Benley, 1976). It
The increase in blood lactate occurring during pro- sis by reducing its metabolic demand to a level that a net gain of 500 ml. of free water (Lutz, 1997).
is clear that a sea turtle kept in a dry environment
longed forced dives in loggerhead juveniles can be fully met by anaerobic glycolysis Thus, for a turtle able to ingest sea water, the salt
(i.e. on the deck of a boat in the sun) would have
appears to be slightly more severe than that repor- (Lutcavage and Lutz, 1997). gland provides a net gain of good water whereas
a much higher water loss.
ted in adult green turtles (Lutcavage and Lutz, Even if few and contradictory studies exist on the for a turtle not able to ingest water, the discharge
The second route for water loss is the integument,
1997). It has to be added to the above considera- subject, some marine turtles in the Gulf of of salt through the specialised gland would cause
which, being in direct contact with sea water, has
California are apparently able to considerable water loss.
to face the transcutaneous osmotic problem. The
hibernate, and to live from 1 to 3 Marine turtles show a significant robustness with
two types of keratinous proteins of the epidermis
months without eating or breathing regard to changes in internal salt water balance.
(_-keratin covering the neck and legs, _-keratin for
at a water temperature of below 15° Both recent and old observations concerning
the shell scute) and the structure of marine turtle
C (Felger et al., 1976). turtles caught by fishermen have proved that if
skin and shell indicates a high resistance to water
In addition to this, there are some turtles are kept in the shade and occasionally wet-
diffusion (Benley, 1976; Lillywhite and Maderson,
modifications of the pulmonary arte- ted with sea water, they can live on the ship deck
1982). Excessive exposure to sun and air would
ry which are able to reduce decom- for weeks (Caretta caretta (Gerosa, unpubl. data))
also in this case considerably increase water loss.
pression problems (Sapsford, or for months (Chelonia mydas (Carr, 1954)).
In normal circumstances, urine loss through liquids
1978), even if a gas embolus has
been seen in the capillaries of green
Table 1.
turtles that died after a rapid ascent
from pressure chamber dives of over Salt concentration (mm l -1) of sea turtle Plasma and seawater, and the ratios of average plasma
14.5 atm (Berkson, 1967). concentrations to those of seawater
The dive duration of a sea turtle is a
function not only of the total oxygen Na K Ca Mg Br Cl Osmotic References
store, but also of the metabolic rate pressure
during the dive, and the latter is Seawater 470 10 10.2 54 0.8 548 949 Kennish, 1994
dependent on activity, size, body
Plasma
temperature, and hormonal and die-
tary status (Lutcavage and Lutz, Chelonia mydas 158 1.5 370 Holmes and Mc Bean, 1964
1997). Caretta caretta 145 3.8 1.5 2.1 107 321 Lutz and Dunbar-Cooper, 1987
Caretta caretta 140 3.2 1.3 1.2 0.3 110 320 Lutz et al., 1986
Plasma/seawater 3.2 3.5 7.3 32.7 2.7 5.1 2.8
ratios
Fig. 6 - Salt gland secretion of tears
in leatherbak turtle

14 Sea Turtle Handling Guidebook for Fishermen - Teaching Book Sea Turtle Handling Guidebook for Fishermen - Teaching Book 15
Marine turtle life cycle Marine turtle life cycle

SEA TURTLE LIFE CYCLE authors, seasonal juvenile migrations have been
Marine turtle life cycle
Marine turtles spend most of their time in the sea, but they still depend on the land
recorded within the Mediterranean (Camiñas and
for egg laying. Soon after hatching the tiny sea turtles crawl straight down to the
sea. Only a few of them reach the juvenile stage, during which they mainly swim De La Serna, 1995).
Marine turtles spend most of their lives in the water, about near the surface. After 15-50 years they become adult and migrate to the
but their existence starts from the land as hat- beaches where they were born, to breed. The female comes up onto the beach to
Once the juveniles reach adult size (i.e. they are
chlings and later on, as adults, the females return lay about 100 eggs per nest in a chamber, dug in the sand. After an incubation larger than the minimum breeding size), they are
period of 50-70 days, the hatchlings leave the nest at night and enter the sea as
to land to lay their eggs. The life cycle, the sequen- found in the adult foraging habitat, which is an
soon as they can
ce of events from the origin (birth) of an individual area usually separated from the nesting habitat.
to its death, for marine turtles, is set mostly in the Adult-size turtles within foraging habitats include
water and only part takes place on land. sexually immature and mature individuals (Musick
and Limpus, 1997). Although foraging areas
The seven species of marine turtle living in the
occur over a wide range around the world, the pri-
world share a common life cycle with only minor
mary marine turtle foraging areas are located
differences. Hatchlings enter the sea and will only
within the north and the south 20°C isotherm of the
be seen again as juveniles in the open ocean in the
average sea surface temperature and on the rela-
foraging zone. The elapse of time between the hat-
tively shallow continental shelf areas (Musick and
chling stage and the juvenile one (found in the
Limpus, 1997).
open ocean) is unknown, as is the ocean area
where they spend this part of their life. As juveniles In some populations, adult foraging habitats geo-
they will then be found again in a developmental graphically coincide with juvenile developmental
habitat. Moving to the foraging habitat, they will ones. In the Mediterranean, the Gulf of Gabes and
share the same zone with adults. For the repro- the Adriatic Sea appear to be two such cases, as
ductive period, they migrate from the foraging both adults and juveniles have been found there
habitat to the mating area. Females and males (Margaritoulis, 1988; Argano et al., 1992;
encounter each other in the nesting habitat for a Bradai, 1992; Laurent and Leuscure, 1994; Lazar,
while; then the males return to the foraging habitat 1995; Lazar et al., 2000; Vallini et al., in press).
and the females spend the season in the nesting At the beginning of the breeding season, both
habitat. At the end of the reproductive period the female and male adults travel from the foraging
of near shore cues they continue their offshore shown them to be present in the whole of the
females will return to the foraging area. Once the habitats to the breeding habitats (breeding migra-
migration (Lohman and Lohman, 1996). Mediterranean (Margaritoulis et al, in press).The
eggs are laid on the beach, hatchlings emerge tion), which are generally located near the nesting
As soon as they enter the sea they undergo a per- duration of this period varies from species to spe-
after about two months and then crawl into the habitats. Female sea turtles generally do not
iod of hyperactive continuous swimming activity cies and also among populations. Green turtles
sea. reproduce every year whereas males may breed
(frenzy period) which lasts for an average of 24 apparently spend a shorter time in the oceanic
• A FEW MORE DETAILS (Fig.6) every year or every two years (Wibbels et al.,
hours. By the second/third day (postfrenzy per- nursery than loggerheads. The latter stay in the
1990; Limpus, 1993). The mean interval between
After emerging from the nest, sea turtles go into the iod), hatchlings start to swim only during the day; pelagic area to a much larger size than the green
reproductive seasons of the same female varies
sea, beginning a pelagic phase that is believed to variation in frenzy and postfrenzy behaviour may (Musick and Limpus,1997).
among species, the range being from 1 to 9 years
last at least several years. The early pelagic stage, be found from species to species (Wyneken and The end of this part of the life cycle is determined (Miller, 1997; Demetropoulus and
that occurs in most sea turtle species, is the poorest Salmon, 1992). when the juveniles reappear in the juvenile deve- Hadjichristophorou, 1995).
known life-stage and has become known as the lopmental habitat (neritic and demersal). From a
They undertake denatant migration offshore to the Very little is known about courtship behaviour,
“lost year” (Carr, 1982; Bolten and Balazs, 1995). physiological point of view, the shift from the pela-
open ocean (Jones, 1968), often taking refuge in most observations having been made in captivity.
Hatchlings sequentially use three different sets of circular current systems (gyres) that serve as gic to the demersal stage could be explained by Mating often occurs near the nesting beach but it
cues to maintain orientation during their initial moving, where they grow for a period of years to the greater capacity of older specimens to dive could also take place along migratory corridors. It
migration offshore. While on the beach, they find juveniles (Musick and Limpus, 1997). deeper and for longer periods than juveniles (see generally occurs in the month or two preceding the
the ocean by crawling toward the brighter sea- page xx). The leatherbacks represent an excep- egg-laying cycle of the season (Limpus and Miller,
The juvenile nursery habitat (pelagic and oceanic)
ward horizon, orientating away from the elevated tion, because they are pelagic even as adults 1993). Copulation lasts several hours and mating
is often found in the sea in association with weed pairs can be seen on the surface of the sea, and
silhouettes of vegetation and dunes (Witherington (Musick and Limpus,1997). During this phase,
lines or drift lines that exist near the frontal boun- multiple matings of females during a nesting sea-
and Martin, 1996). Upon entering the sea, they juveniles may make seasonal foraging migrations
daries near major currents (Witham, 1991). son have been reported (Hirth, 1997). In the green
initially orientate seawards by swimming into the into temperate latitudes. According to several
Evidence given by frequent capture of juveniles has turtle, the carapace of the older females is often
waves; by setting a magnetic course on the basis

16 Sea Turtle Handling Guidebook for Fishermen - Teaching Book Sea Turtle Handling Guidebook for Fishermen - Teaching Book 17
Marine turtle life cycle Marine turtle life cycle

deeply and permanent scarred in the marginal, eggs per clutch and the number of clutches per Sexual maturity and longevity 1997; Frick et al. 1998; Frick et. al., 2000).
where the claws of the male clasp the female season is also variable depending on the species. The presence of the varieties of species mentioned
(Miller, 1997). An average of 100 eggs per clutch is generally
Due to their complex life cycle, with different life above seems to be related to geographical distri-
At the end of the mating period, males return to the found (Hirth 1980). The nest environment has to be
stages inhabiting dissimilar habitats, data gathe- bution. Some species belonging to the barnacle
adult foraging habitat, whereas females swim bet- compatible with the need for certain conditions
that allow embryo development, such as gas red in the wild is not enough to give an exact esti- class Cirripedia (Chelonibia testudinaria,
ween the breeding and nesting habitats (the inter-
exchange, moisture and temperature (Mortimer, mation of the ages of marine turtles (Bjorndal and Chelonibia caretta, Conchoderma virgatum, Lepas
nesting habitat). The adult female emerges on the
nesting beach to lay several clutches of eggs at 1990). Temperature is certainly one of the main Zug, 1995). An evaluation of the age at which hillii) have been the most commonly found (even in
approximately 2-week intervals, variable depen- elements affecting marine turtles, determining also turtles attain sexual maturity is given by three the Mediterranean). This is probably because they
ding on the species (Miller, 1997). The nesting sites the sex of the hatchlings. Although the incubation are easy to identify and also because of their size
methods: skeletochronology, which is based on the
usually correspond to the region of the turtle's temperature varies among species, cooler tempe- (Gramentz, 1988a; Basso, 1992). On the other
concept that periodic marks or growth checks on
birth; it is still not clear what range of km. defines ratures generally produce males and warmer tem- hand, other species such as the shark sucker fish
peratures produce females. Hatching success is hard parts such as scales or bones give an estima-
it, because it varies from 0 to 290 km. ( Bjorndal belonging to the Class Osteichthyes (Echeneis
typically high (80% or more) unless external fac- tion of age (Zug et al., 1986); mark-recapture
et al., 1983; Limpus et al., 1992). remora), seem to be very rare both in the
tors interfere (Magnuson et al., 1990). data (Bjorndal and Bolten, 1995), and growth sta-
A nesting beach is usually a beach that is acces- Mediterranean and in other seas (Green, 1998;
Hatchlings mostly emerge during the night tistical models (Frazer and Ehrhart, 1985). For
sible from the sea, high enough to prevent inunda- Frazier, 1971; Gerosa and Aureggi, unpubl.
tion of the eggs by tides, with a suitable substratum (Bustard, 1967; Witherington et al., 1990); this loggerheads the mean age of sexual maturity is
event is controlled by a gradient of sand tempera- estimated to be within a range of 25-35 years of data).
for gas exchange in the egg chamber and able to
provide the right level of heat and moisture for the ture on the surface (Gyuris, 1993). Hatchlings in a age in wild stock (Chaloupka and Musik, 1997); Epibionts can be found on all parts of the turtle's
eggs (Mortimer, 1982). The nesting process is very nest are not independent individuals, they meet the for leatherbacks 9 years of age (Zug and Parham, body, even on injuries (Oliverio et al., 1992), but
similar for the different species of marine turtle and challenge of emerging from the nest with group 1996) and for green turtles within a range of many species prefer the carapace (Gramentz,
has been fully described by many authors action. The first young turtle that hatches does not 1988a; Frick, et al., 1998).
40–60 years of age (Bjornadal and Zug, 1995).
(Hendrikson, 1958; Carr and Ogren, 1960; start digging at once, but lies still until some other
nest mates are free from their eggs. Turtles in the Taking into account the above-mentioned evalua- Apart from their negative action on the hydrody-
Miller, 1997).
top layer scratch down the ceiling, those at the bot- tion and considering that a reproductive period namics of the specimen, the fouling of the epibionts
The eggs, white, spherical and with a diameter of
tom trample and compact the sand that filters has been recorded of at least 23 years for the does not cause any particular erosion of the part
4-6 cm. (depending on the species), buried in the
down from above. They help each other by clim- green turtle (Hirth, 1997), it could be estimated on which they are growing even if some species
sand about 50 cm. deep, are naturally incubated
bing up the flask-shaped egg chamber and often that this species could live up to 80 years. For the like the barnacle Stephanolepas muricata seem to
for a period of about 50-70 days, depending on
hatch out in groups (Carr and Hirth, 1961). loggerhead, the lifespan estimation is of more than cause injuries to the animal (Hendrickson, 1958).
the species and on the temperature. The number of
60 years (Dodd, 1988). The worst problems are caused when there is an
Nesting habitat Fig. 7 - Marine turtle life cycle
excessive presence of encrusting species. When
Marine turtles and epibionts the surface covered by epibionts extends to the
«the lost year»
whole body and their weight is 33% of the turtle’s
Internesting habitat weight, they cause motor complications and an
The marine turtle can be considered as a small
increase in mass, which in juveniles can lead to a
moving ecosystem. It is likely, in fact, that many dif-
progressive debilitating illness and in some cases
ferent species of animal and plant are found on the
death (Basso, 1992).
carapace and skin of caught turtles.
Sight and feeding complications can occur when
In addition to the common seaweed (Green, 1998;
the epibionts cover the zones surrounding the
Sentìes et al. 1999), it is possible to find specimens
head, in particular the eyes or inside parts of the
of different classes of animal such as: sponges
Juvenile nursery mouth (Hendrickson, 1958; Basso, 1992). The
(Demospongiae), hydroids and corals (Hydrozoa,
habitat area surrounding the eyes seems to be particular-
Breeding habitat Anthozoa), molluscs (Gastreropoda, Bivalvia),
ly affected by a leech which is common on turtles
segmented worms (Polychaeta), leeches
caught incidentally in the Mediterranean:
(Clitellata), barnacles (Cirripedia), sandhoppers
Ozobranchus branchiatus (Gramentz, 1988a;
and crabs (Malacostraca), moss animals
Basso, 1992).
(Gymnolaemata), sea squirts (Ascidiacea) and fish
Breeding migration Juvenile developmental
(Osteichthyes) (Dodd, 1988; Frazier et al. 1985;
habitat
Frazier et al. 1991; Frazier et al., 1992; Hirth,
Adult foraging habitat

18 Sea Turtle Handling Guidebook for Fishermen - Teaching Book Sea Turtle Handling Guidebook for Fishermen - Teaching Book 19
Origins of Mediterranean turtle species Origins of Mediterranean turtle species

Origins of Mediterranean turtle Nesting ground distribution within Cyprus, Turkey and Libya; other minor nesting Food habits
grounds are found in Egypt, Israel, Italy, Lebanon
species the Mediterranean
and Tunisia (Fig. 8). Based on the recorded annual
The foraging ecology of marine turtles is poorly
numbers and without considering Libya (which
Three of the seven living species of marine turtle Loggerheads and green turtles both regularly nest known. Following the habitat model based on
needs further investigation (Laurent et al., 1999)),
are regularly found in the Mediterranean: the log- in the Mediterranean, whereas there are no ontogenetic stages described in the life cycle (see
the total loggerhead nesting effort in the
gerhead turtle (Caretta caretta, Linnaeus, 1758), records of leatherback turtle nests in the basin. The page 16), sea turtles will come across different
Mediterranean has been estimated in the range of
the green turtle (Chelonia mydas, Linnaeus, 1758) latter has been found swimming mostly in the wes- habitats and therefore different sources of food.
3375 to 7085 nests per season (Margaritoulis et
and even more rarely the leatherback turtle tern Mediterranean (Capocaccia, 1968;
al., in press).
(Dermochelys coriacea, Vandelli, 1761). Delaugerre, 1987) and occasionally found entan- • Loggerhead turtle
The green turtle is believed to be restricted to the
The female loggerhead nesting population of the gled in fishing gear or stranded along the coast
Eastern Mediterranean because of the water tem- The loggerhead is carnivorous and has jaws adap-
Mediterranean originated about 12,000 years (Margaritoulis, 1986; Basso, 1992; Castells and
perature gradient along the coast (Groombridge, ted for the functions of crushing and grinding
ago from the western Atlantic stock, diverging Mayo, 1992; Taskavak and Farkas, 1998;
1990) though a few juveniles have been found in (Pritchard, 1979).
genetically from them (Bowen et al., 1993). Miraglia et al., in press).
the western basin (Rafa and Salinas, 1990; Loggerhead hatchlings have been seen in close
Besides the apparent morphological and biologi- Considering that the Mediterranean is divided into
Laurent 1996; Meschini et al., in press) association with drifting Sargassum (Bolten and
cal differences, sub-structuring of breeding stocks two different basins, the western and eastern,
The green turtles’ main nesting grounds have been Balazs, 1995).
within the Mediterranean has been recently confir- connected by the Channel of Sicily, the nesting
reduced to a few beaches located in the eastern Coelenterate and cephalopod molluscs are espe-
med by genetic studies (Laurent et al., 1998). ground distribution of both species is restricted to
part of the basin along the south east Turkish coasts cially favoured by loggerhead juveniles but their
Investigations of green turtles suggest that a colo- the eastern part.
(Yerli and Cambolat, 1998; Aureggi et al., 2000) diet also includes other molluscs, crustaceans and
nisation event from the Atlantic colonies to the The loggerhead turtle, which is widespread in all
and in Cyprus (Hadjichristophorou and gelatinous makroplankton (Bjorndal, 1997), sho-
Mediterranean took place within the last 10,000 of the Mediterranean, is the most common species.
Demetropoulos, 1998; Godley et al., 1998a) wing they are opportunistic feeders. Juvenile log-
years; this theory is based on the genetic relation- Its main nesting grounds are found in Greece,
(Fig. 9). Although data has only been regularly gerheads stay in the juvenile nursery habitat for a
ship of green turtles observed between Cyprus and
Nests per season collected on green turtle nesting effort in the variable period of 3 to 10 years, or longer, depen-
the Atlantic stock (Bowen et al., 1992; Encalada et
Mediterranean in the last few years, the yearly ding on the individual and ocean basin (Musick
al.,1996). It is most likely that by being mainly
average of nests laid along Mediterranean and Limpus, 1997).
localised in the eastern part of the Mediterranean,
beaches is at least 1000 nests.
these turtles have been isolated for a long time
from the Atlantic population (Demetropoulos and Nests per season
> 1000 500-1000 100-500 < 100
Hadjichristophorou, 1995).

> 500 < 50

Fig. 8 - Caretta caretta nesting Fig. 9 - Chelonia mydas nesting

grounds in the Mediterranean Sea grounds in the Mediterranean Sea

20 Sea Turtle Handling Guidebook for Fishermen - Teaching Book Sea Turtle Handling Guidebook for Fishermen - Teaching Book 21
Food habits Food habits

When in the juvenile developmental habitat, the Dermochelys coriacea

These worryingly high percentages are probably
Mediterranean Sea Turtle Species
loggerhead feeds throughout the water column, due to the turtles’ habit of allowing themselves to
capturing jellyfish and salps on the surface and be passively transported by sea currents for long
middle depths, but apparently concentrating its periods of time, increasing the likelihood of an
foraging efforts on the bottom (Bjorndal, 1997). Caretta caretta encounter with debris which is concentrated in
temporary gear and down welling zones
In the adult foraging habitat, the loggerhead eats
(Magnuson et al., 1990).
a variety of benthic invertebrates, including mol-
Concerning objects ingested by turtles, most com-
luscs, crustaceans and sponges, which it crushes
monly found are plastic bags and sheets (32.1%),
before swallowing (Mortimer, 1995). Dietary ana-
followed by tar balls (20.8%) and plastic particles
lysis of some specimens caught in Tunisia and in (18.9%) (Magnuson et al., 1990). Turtles also ingest
the eastern Adriatic Sea has indicated that logge- a wide variety of synthetic drift items, including bal-
rheads feed on benthic invertebrates, gastropods, loons, styrofoam and polyethylene beads, monofi-
hermit crabs, holothurians, lamellibranches lament fishing line, aluminium foil, tar, glass, rub-
(Laurent and Lescure, 1994) echinoids and crusta- ber, and heat-sealed tabs from beverage cans,
ceans respectively (Lazar et al., in press). although less than what was mentioned above
Green turtle Chelonia mydas (Plotkin and Amos, 1988; Magnuson et al., 1990).
The vegetarian green turtle has finely-serrated jaw Plastic bags and other kinds of white or transpa-
rent debris (e.g. styrofoam, PVC), are mistaken for
surfaces, which in some populations form quite
jellyfish or other kinds of prey (Gramentz, 1988b).
long pseudo-teeth (Pritchard, 1979).
In addition, plastic covered with fish eggs or
Green turtle hatchlings have been seen in close asso- Loggerhead turtle
Caretta caretta
Green turtle
Leatherback turtle encrusting organisms, such as algae and bryo-
ciation with drifting Sargassum (Carr and Meylan, Chelonia mydas
Carapace length: up to
Carapace length: up to
Dermochelys coriacea zoans, may even “smell” or “taste” like authentic
1980). Their diet is similar to that of loggerheads 99 cm
105 cm
Carapace length: up to food items (O’Hara, 1988). It has been suggested,
Weight: up to 105 kg 256 cm
until they become herbivorous at a later stage Weight: up to 180 kg
Weight: up to 916 kg
in fact, that hungry animals are less likely to dis-
(Demetropoulos and Hadjichristophorou, 1995). criminate between natural food and look-alike
When they are in the juvenile developmental habi- debris (Balazs, 1985).
tat, green turtles shift to a herbivorous diet and as zones or water mass boundaries. It feeds throu- being part of a reserve or national park, are cove- Due to the slow gut passage time, which can last
herbivores, occupy a feeding niche unique among red by a lot of debris coming from the sea current up to 6 months (Schulman and Lutz, 1995), inges-
ghout the water column from the surface to great
sea turtles; they feed primarily on sea grasses and (Gerosa et al., 1995; Broderick and Godley, tion of all these kinds of item can: cause intestinal
depths (Eckert et al., 1989). Because the ability to
1996; Clarke et al., 2000). blockage; release toxic chemicals; reduce nutrient
algae, although they also consume animal matter, capture and consume the gelatinous prey species
absorption; cause gas accumulation in the large
particularly jellyfish, salps and sponges (Bjorndal, is not size-dependent, there would seem to be no Some long-term studies show that in some areas
intestine; reduce hunger sensation; inhibit feeding
1997). In the Mediterranean they feed mainly on reason for a diet shift between size classes, as is 80% of the turtles have these items in their stoma-
and mating activity; diminish reproductive perfor-
sea grasses and algae (Demetropoulos and apparently the case in other sea turtle species ch (Stanley et al., 1988) but a more realistic per-
mance, cause suffocation, ulceration, intestinal
Hadjichristophorou, 1995). (Bjorndal, 1997). centage seems to be 50% (Cottingham, 1988;
injury, physical deterioration, malnutrition, and
Plotkin and Amos, 1988; Bjorndal et al. 1994;
starvation (Mrosovsky, 1981; Wehle and
Shaver and Plotkin, 1998).
• Leatherback turtle Coleman, 1983; Wallace, 1985; O’Hara et al.
Ingestion of plastic and other As far as Mediterranean sea turtle species are 1986; Bryant, 1987; Farrell, 1988; Gramentz,
The leatherback has delicate scissor-like jaws debris concerned, the most exposed to this phenomenon 1988b; Welch, 1988; McGavern, 1989;
which would suffer severe damage if subjected to is Chelonia mydas (32%), followed by Caretta Schulman and Lutz, 1995). Some plasticizers can
anything much harder than their usual food of jel- There is ample evidence that sea turtles ingest plas- caretta (26%), and Dermochelys coriacea (24%) concentrate in tissues, and toxic ingredients can
lyfish (Pritchard, 1979). tic and other indigestible materials of human ori- (Balazs, 1985). For all species, except the leather- cause eggshell thinning, tissue damage, and aber-
The leatherback is mostly pelagic, spending most gin. Taking into consideration the plastic packaging back turtle, immature turtles are involved more fre- rant behaviour (Wehle and Coleman, 1983;
of its time in the open sea. The distribution of the only, every year more than 24,000 tons of these quently than adults (Magnuson et al., 1990). O’Hara et al., 1986). Finally, there is strong evi-
foraging leatherback appears to be largely depen- materials are thrown into the sea (Welch, 1988). In addition, hatchlings are particularly attracted to dence that in some turtles, ingestion of synthetic
dent upon the distribution of the jellyfish, salps and floating bits of tar, which, once bitten, can block materials caused their death (Shaver and Plotkin,
As evidence of the critical situation of debris pollu-
other gelatinous organisms upon which it feeds, both the beak and the oesophagus, causing death 1998; Bjorndal et al., 1994).
tion in the Mediterranean, many Mediterranean
and which often accumulate near convergent (Carr, 1987; Lutcavage et al. 1997).
beaches, even if not much frequented by tourists or

22 Sea Turtle Handling Guidebook for Fishermen - Teaching Book Sea Turtle Handling Guidebook for Fishermen - Teaching Book 23
Main threats Main threats

Main threats • Sand mining

Main Threats Sand mining on nesting beaches can have an
As a result of human activities, marine turtle popu- impact by changing the natural aspect of the
lations have declined throughout the world in the beach and decreasing the possibility for a turtle to
past few decades. find a suitable place to lay eggs (Sella, 1982). Due
to sand mining activities, mud areas can be found
In the Mediterranean they are affected by many
in some places, deterring turtle nesting (Yerli and
different threats, which are grouped in this section
Demirayak, 1996).
according to the two environments where they
spend their life: on land and at sea. • Beach erosion

ON LAND Erosion of nesting beaches can result in partial or

total loss of suitable nesting habitats (National
• Tourist development
Maine Fisheries Service and U.S. Fish and Wildlife
The loss of nesting beaches due to the development Service, 1991). Man’s interference with the natural
of tourism is one of the main threats in the process through coastal development can accele-
Mediterranean, where most of the coasts have rate erosion rates.
been developed in the past few decades
• Garbage on the beach
(Margaritoulis et al., in press). Buildings such as
hotels, nightclubs, etc. near nesting beaches have A considerable amount of debris such as plastic
a negative impact due to the consequential use of and glass objects, rubbish from hospitals and tar
light, increase of human presence, vehicles, gar- balls, found on nesting beaches, comes from the
bage, roads, and so on. sea (Gerosa et al., 1996). Layers of debris have
been found in the sand at different depths (Gerosa
• Increased human presence
et al., 1995; Kasparek, 1995; Broderik and
The use of developed nesting beaches by tourists Marine turtles appeared on the Planet 110 million years ago.
But in the last 50 years human disturbances has brought this mari-
Godley, 1996); these can reduce space suitable for
or residents can have a negative impact on mari-
ne reptiles to the brink of extinction. egg-laying on the beach (Gerosa et al., 1996) and
ne turtle nesting, incubation of eggs and hat-
chlings. The most common and serious case is the deter hatchlings from emergence (Yerli and
disturbance of nesting females (Margaritoulis, ting beaches (Witherington, 1986; Gerosa et al., most notable cases reported are when hatchlings Demirayak, 1996). In addition to debris coming
1985; Demetropoulus and Hadjichristophorou, 1995); in fact, a decrease in the number of nests have been run over on roads (Irwin et al., 1998; from the sea, there is also a great amount left on
1995), in fact nocturnal human activities on the was observed in brightly-lit areas compared to Witherington, 1999; Gerosa et al., in press), the beach by tourists frequenting the area (Gerosa
beach can cause females to abort nesting, in par- darker ones (Margaritoulis, 1985). In addition to entrapped in vegetation or debris (Yerly and and Casale, 1994).
ticular during the initial phase (emergence from the
lights emanating from buildings, there are other Demirayak, 1996), and burned to death in the • Recreational beach equipment
sea through to egg-cavity excavation) (Carr and
sources of light that might cause a negative impact flames of an abandoned fire (Mortimer, 1979). Recreational beach equipment such as lounge
Giovannoli, 1957; Carr and Ogren, 1960; Hirth
and Samson, 1987). Turtle-watch ecotourism affecting nesting behaviour, such as light from • Beach vehicle driving chairs, cabanas, umbrellas, canoes, small boats,
groups affect the normal post-oviposition beha- vehicles driven next to or on nesting beaches Driving vehicles on nesting beaches during the etc. can be a physical obstacle which deters nes-
viour: females spend less time covering the eggs (Arianoutson, 1988; Witherington and Martin, night can deter female nesting and disorient hat- ting attempts, interferes with incubation of eggs
and camouflaging the nest site (Johnson et al., 1996), torch lights, campfires, (Margaritoulis, chlings emerging from the nest (Magnuson et al., and hinders hatchlings crawling to the sea
1996). Pedestrian traffic on the beach can result in 1985; Arianoutson, 1988), and camera flashes 1990). Driving directly above incubating eggs can (Magnuson et al., 1990; Arianoutson, 1988;
a lowered hatchling emergence success rate due to (Campbell, 1994). cause sand compaction which might decrease the Witherington, 1999). Documentation on aborted
the compaction of sand above the nests (Mann,
Since visual response to brightness is the principal hatching success rate of the nest (Mann, 1978;). nesting attempts near such obstacles is increasingly
1978). In addition, pedestrian tracks can disorient
component of the sea-finding behaviour of emer- Furthermore, vehicle tracks on the beach can inter- common as more recreational equipment is left in
hatchlings crawling to the sea (Hosier et al., 1981;
ging hatchlings (Witherington, 1995), artificial fere with the ability of hatchlings to reach the sea place all night on nesting beaches (Magnuson et
Witherington, 1999).
lighting can result in fatal disorientation. (Witherington, 1999; Hosier et al., 1981). al., 1990).
• Artificial lighting Additionally, vehicle traffic on nesting beaches
Hatchlings that have their sea-finding instinct dis- • Predation
According to extensive studies, artificial beach- contributes to erosion, in particular during high
rupted by unnatural stimuli often die from exhaus-
front lighting has a negative impact on both fema- tides or on narrow beaches where driving is Marine turtle nests can be attacked by different
tion, dehydration, predation and other causes
le nesting and on hatchlings. concentrated on the high beach and fore dune predators such as red foxes, jackals, dogs, feral
(Witherington and Martin, 1996). Some of the (Magnuson et al., 1990).
Adult green turtles avoid brightly-lit areas on nes-

24 Sea Turtle Handling Guidebook for Fishermen - Teaching Book Sea Turtle Handling Guidebook for Fishermen - Teaching Book 25
Main threats Main threats

hogs, etc. As these animals are able to find eggs the Mediterranean (Sella, 1982; Argano et al., • Predation vets paid more attention to these species. Most
buried in the sand and destroy many of the nests 1990), whereas now it is limited to a few countries Predation of hatchlings and of young turtles is reported diseases of sea turtles have been recor-
laid, (Demetropoulus and Hadjchristophorou, of the Mediterranean (Mayol and Castello Mas, assumed to be significant in the sea whereas pre- ded in captive animals (Kinne, 1985). The only
1989; Brown and Macdonald, 1995; 1983; Grametz, 1989; Laurent, 1990; Laurent et dation of adults is less common. Hatchlings ente- disease studied in detail is the fibropapilloma
Margaritoulis et al.,1996a; Yerli and Demirayak, al., 1996). Sometimes turtles are killed and eaten ring the sea may be preyed upon by a wide varie- which has infected many specimens of different
1996; Broderik and Godley, 1996) they are beco- on board, especially when some of the crew ty of fishes and to a lesser extent by marine birds populations belonging to different species of sea
ming one of the principal threats to the nesting regard the turtle as a delicacy (Panou et al., 1992; (Stancyk, 1982). Tiger sharks appear to be the turtle, with particular concentration among green
area (Aureggi et al., 1999). In addition, once a Gerosa and Casale, 1999). main predator of adults and of juveniles (Stancyk, turtles (Balazs, 1991; Herbst, 1994). In the
nest has been attacked, ghost crabs and birds may • Boat collision 1982). In the Mediterranean, the monk seal was Mediterranean no record of any cases of fibropa-
arrive to eat what is left (Aureggi and Gerosa, also recorded as an adult predator (Margaritoulis pilloma has been recorded. Severe infestation by
Collision with sea-going vessels can injure or kill
unpub. data). et al., 1996b). spirorchids (blood flukes) have been recorded in
turtles. The regions of greatest concern are those
Hatchlings just prior to or during emergence, or the loggerhead (Wolke et al., 1982).
with a high concentration of boat traffic and turtles • Disease and parasites
while crawling to the sea, are often attacked by (Magnuson et al., 1990; Bentivegna and There is little information available to assess the
predators (Broderik and Godley, 1996; Aureggi et Paglialonga, 1998: Margaritoulis et al., in press). effects of disease and/or parasites on the marine
al., 1999). Even adults coming ashore to lay eggs
• Pollution and marine debris turtle population. Only in the last few years have
can be attacked by jackals (Peters et al., 1994;
Ingestion of marine debris can have diverse nega-
Macdonald and Brown, 1992) but only rarely has
tive effects on marine turtles (see page xxx). The Tourist development
an attack by a domestic dog been recorded
effect of pollutants resulting from industrial, agricul- Increased human presence
(Caldwell, 1959).
tural or residential sources is still difficult to evalua- Artificial lighting
• Inundation Beach vehicular driving
te. Since they need to swim near the surface to
Marine turtle nests near the high tide line are at breathe, turtles can come across chemicals which Sand mining
risk from inundation which can affect the hatching provoke skin carcinogenesis (Lutz et al., 1986) and Beach erosion
success rate of the nest. Sea storms can also reach Predation Garbage on the beach
loss of function of the sense organs and of the salt
Inundation Recreational beach equipment
turtle nests, flooding them (Magnuson et al., 1990; gland, causing death (Lutcavage et al., 1995; Beach erosion
van Piggelen and Strijboch, 1993; Gerosa et al., George, 1997). The sea turtle’s method of respira-
1995; Yerli and Demirayak, 1996; ) and altering tion, rapid inspiration of surface layer air before N
their hatching success. diving, would introduce petroleum vapour into the H
AT SEA lungs, thereby reducing the growth of the animal A
• Incidental catch (Lutcavage et al., 1997). Eating contaminated food
T U
or tar balls induces a decrease in the animal’s bree-
The number of turtles incidentally caught in fishing
ding capacity and causes physiological problems U
gear has become one of the main threats in the M A I N T H R E AT S
(Lutcavage et al., 1997). In addition, tar sticks so M
world and in the Mediterranean. A review on the
well onto the turtle’s body that it can induce immo- R
subject is in the book by Gerosa and Casale,
bility of the flippers and therefore prevent swim- A
1999. A
ming (Gramentz, 1986; Basso, 1992). Pesticides, Predation
• Ghost gear
heavy metals and PCBs have been detected in sea Disease
L
Equipment lost from and discarded from commer- turtles and eggs (Storelli et al., 1998a; 1998b; Parasite N
cial fishing gear in the sea can have a negative George, 1997; Godley et al., 1999; Storelli and
impact on marine turtles. Such gear continue to Marcotrigiano, 2000). Recent studies also hypothe-
catch and entangle marine life indiscriminately, sized that pollutants can affect the reproductive suc-
causing injury, strangulation, starvation and drow- cess of turtles (Aguirre et al., 1994). Incidental catch
ning (see page xxx). Ghost gear
• Underwater explosion
• Turtle exploitation Exploitation
The use of underwater explosives can injure or kill
Boat collision
Turtle exploitation has a negative impact on the turtles and may degrade or destroy their habitats Pollution
sea turtle population. It was common in the past in (Margaritoulis, 1985; Arianoutsou, 1988). Marine debris
Fig. 10 - Marine turtle main threats Underwater explosion

26 Sea Turtle Handling Guidebook for Fishermen - Teaching Book Sea Turtle Handling Guidebook for Fishermen - Teaching Book 27
Fishing methods Fishing methods

Fishing methods MOST COMMON MEDITERRANEAN FISHING GEARS

Ghost gear
WHICH INTERACT WITH SEA TURTLES
In the Mediterranean Sea many different fishing The worldwide estimation of the losses and/or dis-
methods are used. Comparing the updated fishing card of commercial fishing gear or of parts of this
method lists proposed by FAO (Nédelec and gear indicate values between 1,350 and 135,000
Prado, 1990) with the bibliography concerning metric tons of materials left in the oceans of the
marine turtles, it can be concluded that the most world (Merrell, 1980; Welch, 1988). The wide
common fishing methods that interact with these gap (nearly two degrees of magnitude) of this
marine reptiles are placed in three categories: lon- published data underlines the difficulty of this kind
glines, trawls, and gillnets. of survey and the scarcity of data available about
At the moment it is not possible to assess the exact this matter. Also, it is difficult to distinguish whether
number of marine turtles incidentally caught every the death was caused by “ghost gear” or by ope-
year in the Mediterranean, but some extrapolations rative fishing gear.
exclusively concerning the longline show an alar-
ming figure of 35,000 or more loggerhead turtles Even though there are different types of “ghost
caught annually in the western and central gear”, they all continue to catch and entangle
Mediterranean (Panou et al., 1992), of which bet- marine beings indiscriminately (Magnuson et al.,
ween 15,000 and 20,000 specimens, or more, 1990). In addition to this, the plastic debris (ghost
were annually caught solely by Spanish fishing ves- gear included) generally tends to be concentrated
sels off the Balearic islands (Mayol, 1986; Camiñas, along coastlines (O’Hara, 1988) where there is a
1988; Aguilar et al., 1995; Camiñas, 1997). high probability of catching sea turtles.
If estimations concerning other common fishing The worst “ghost gear” seem to be those from gill-
methods (in particular the gillnet, about which there is LONGLINES TRAWLS GILLNETS nets. Remaining in the water for an unlimited time
Longlines consist of a main line, sometimes of conside- Trawls use a net consisting of a cone-shaped body, Gillnets are nets placed vertically so that they fence in or
still no data available) are added to these numbers, it rable length, to which snoods with baited or unbaited closed by a bag and extended at the opening by wings. block off areas of water and catch every marine organism and subject to no control, they continue to be
is evident that the interaction between sea turtles and hooks are fixed at regular intervals. The main line is set The net is trawled by one ship or more, and is an «active» bigger than the mesh which tries to pass through it. attractive to carnivorous marine turtles (such as
fisheries is one of the most urgent problems that must either near the seabed or in mid-water or near the surface. fishing gear in that it catches all the animals in its path, Although they are considered «passive» fishing gear, as Caretta caretta), which find caught fish an easy
be solved to ensure the survival of sea turtles in the The longline bases its capture capability on the likelihood collecting them in the terminal bag. According to type of far as turtles are concerned gillnets could be judged
source of food (Ehrhart et al., 1990; Gerosa and
Mediterranean (Tab. xxxx). A description of the main of a hook meeting a specimen of the target species. trawls are used either on the seabed or in mid-water. «active» because their catch may be attractive to turtles.
Casale, 1999). The monofilament fishing lines
fishing gear and a review of the interaction of mari- (belonging to pelagic longlines) lost by vessels are
ne turtles with fisheries in the Mediterranean is found (about 10% for longlines; low for trawls; more than (time during which fishermen are in contact with
the most common type of debris to entangle turtles
in Gerosa and Casale (1999). 50% for gillnets (Gerosa and Casale, 1999)), the the animals) can be increased.
(O’Hara, 1988). It is common, in fact, to find
Although it is not possible at the moment to prevent probability of marine turtles surviving from the The aim of this manual, in fact, is to provide fisher- entangled sea turtles belonging to different species
with the mortality caused by the fishing gear moment of their capture to that of their release men with simple methodologies in order to reduce (Balazs, 1985) even if the entanglement may result
direct and indirect mortality of sea turtles, in parti- from random encounters with this gear. Less dan-
cular mortality due to incorrect handling of turtles gerous seems to be the entanglement caused by
Table 2. trawls’ “ghost gear”. In fact, this method does not
caught at sea. In this way, fishermen, aware of
Estimation of incidental capture of marine turtles and direct mortality in Mediterranean fisheries (sources: have a mesh size that allows sea turtle entangle-
their primary role, will be able to contribute to
Laurent, 1998; Gerosa and Casale, 1999) ment and it is generally weighted by leads that
marine turtle conservation, thereby reducing the
hold the net at the bottom of the sea. In addition to
Fishing method Country with Annual number Direct mortality (%) rate of indirect mortality. It is hoped that a better this, the high cost of this gear does not encourage
available data of capture knowledge of sea turtles could reduce the the abandoning of it and its loss is generally due
consumption of turtle flesh, the illegal sale of sea to its being broken on natural or artificial obstacles
Longlines Algeria, Greece, Italy, 300 - 35,637 0.4 - 16.7
turtle shells and the unjustified killing of sea turtles, met at the bottom of the sea during fishing.
Malta, Marocco, Spain 24.4 (delayed) which are often causes of death based on scant According to some authors, 68% of all cases of sea
knowledge, prejudice and some old traditions that turtles entangled are due to “ghost gear” catches
Trawls Croatia, Egypt, France,
are still present in some Mediterranean localities (O’Hara and Iudicello, 1987).
Greece, Italy, Spain, low - 4000 0.0 - 10 The consequences caused by this fishing debris are
(Argano et al., 1990; Laurent et al., 1996; Godley
Tunisia, Turkey very serious. In some cases sea turtles are only
et al,. 1998b; Kopsida et al, in press).
injured but in most cases the effect is fatal, causing
Gillnets Croatia, Cyprus, France, strangulation, starvation or drowning (Carr, 1987;
Italy, Turkey low - 625 10.0 - 100 Laist, 1987; McGavern, 1989; Gregg, 1988)

28 Sea Turtle Handling Guidebook for Fishermen - Teaching Book Sea Turtle Handling Guidebook for Fishermen - Teaching Book 29
Longline Longline

LONGLINE
LONGLINES If the turtle is too large to bring on board thermore, these same experiences report that a
• Stop the vessel
Scan the main line as far ahead as possible in order to sight turtles in advance. • If entangled, remove the line to release the turtle
turtle is even able to bear many hooks (Argano et.
• If hooked, and if the hook is visible, al., 1992).
• Caught species and size Immediately upon sighting the turtle: cut the line as close to the eye of the
* reduce both vessel and main line reel speed hook as possible On the other hand, other studies have stated that
Use of longlines is a fishing method which may * steer the vessel towards the turtle • If hooked internally, cut the line 28.9% of turtles with hooks inside die immediately
lead to the incidental capture of different species of * minimise tension on both the main line and the branch line with the turtle as close to the beak as pos-
after being released (Mas and Garsia, 1990;
marine turtle (Gerrior, 1996). The most frequently sible
Once the branch line containing the turtle is in your hands, put the engine in neu- • Check that the turtle has Aguilar et al., 1995).
captured species of Mediterranean marine turtle is tral and pull in the turtle manually until it is brought alongside the vessel. swam safely away before
the Caretta caretta, either because of its food starting up the vessel
Therefore, it is recommended that fishermen conti-
habits (see page xx) or because there are more nue using iron hooks rather than steel ones, as the
If the turtle can be taken on board
specimens in the basin. The common bait, almost action of salty water swallowed dissolves the iron
Use a dip net or hold the turtle by the side of the carapace or by the flippers.
exclusively animal, attracts specimens of Caretta Do not use the line to which the turtle is hooked, any sharp objects or gaffs to take hooks more easily, whereas the steel hooks remain
the animal on board unaffected for a long time.
caretta and then catches them with the hidden big
hooks that areup to 11 cm. long (De Metrio et al., After assessing the turtle’s condition follow the instructions below: As far as the ingested part of the line is concerned,
1983). there are several reported cases of death due to
If the turtle is NOT ACTIVE
As far as turtle size is concerned, this method is Keep the turtle on board and: the action of the line on the gut function (Bjorndal
apparently selective, due to the different size of
• look for a shady and out-of-the-way place et. al., 1994). If the line is cut short, it could increa-
• raise the hindquarters of the turtle about 20 cm off the deck
hooks used. In particular, longlines seem to catch a • keep it damp using a water-soaked towel. Do not place the turtle in a container
se the chance of the turtle’s survival. In fact, there
high proportion of specimens with over 50 cm. holding water are several cases in which turtles have been able
• repeat the techniques every two hours until the turtle responds to at least
Carapace Curve Length (CCL) (Gerosa and to expel the hook and attached line (Mas and
one of them, for up to 24 hours
Casale, 1999). • if the turtle reacts to one of them, it can Garsia, 1990).
If the turtle is DEAD be considered INJURED. Leave it on
• The hooks board for a few hours, then follow the
• The importance of line retrieval by hand
• The best thing to do is to bring the turtle into the harbour, store it in a freezer,

The hook is a simple but efficient tool for catching

and then give it to the competent Authority. Leave any entangled hooks or line suggestions on the next page The use of longlines can still be considered an arti-
in place • if there is no response or if the response is
fish and during the past has undergone very few • If it is not possible to keep the dead turtle on board, return it to the sea, after undetectable, after 24 hours the turtle can
san fishing method. Most of the longline ships are
changes regarding its shape and the materials removing any entangled line and visible hooks be considered DEAD generally small or of medium size and they are
from which it is made. managed at domestic level. New technologies
person who has to handle it) or impossible (see were introduced a few years ago in order to pro-
The size of hooks used by professional fishermen 3 cm branch page xxx) and it is appropriate for all different vide help in this hard, repetitive method. One
ranges from 8 to 11 cm. (De Metrio et al., 1983)
kinds of hook and for any hooked position on the example is the introduction of line reels on board
and they are generally made of iron. Despite the
turtle’s body. which help fishermen in the main line retrieval pro-
high cost, as observed on Japanese longlines ope-
cess. The consequent saving of time and energy
rating in international Mediterranean waters If the turtle is, for example, big and heavy and it
eye has meant the introduction of longer lines with
(Gerosa and Casale, 1999), steel hooks are being cannot be brought on board, the best method is to
more hooks, which increases the productivity of
more frequently used instead of iron hooks. cut the line as close to the animal as possible, lea-
this method.
The number of hooks used by each ship is ning from the boat if necessary. If the turtle can be
brought on board, after having put it on the deck As far as turtles are concerned, the increased speed
variable: from longlines 20 km. long with 800-
and having established that the hook cannot be of retrieval of the lines and the loss of the much
1000 hooks (De Metrio et al., 1983) to ones 60 shank
removed (see page xx), the best method is to cut more sensitive retrieval by hand, have increased
km. long with 2400 hooks (Aguilar et al., 1995).
the line as close to the beak or eye of the hook (if damage to the incidentally-caught turtles.
• Cutting the line
visible) as possible. As it is not possible to modify the turtles’ attempts
One of the most common and easiest methods to get free from the hooks and the consequent
barb Before cutting the line, keep a gentle, consistent
used by a longliner is to cut the line holding the damage, the only way to intervene is to keep
tension of the line in order to avoid over-pulling,
turtle and to immediately release the turtle back fishermen always on the alert once the turtle is
which could cause internal damage to the turtle. In
into the sea. This method, which is suggested in hooked. In fact, once the turtle is seen, the main
this way, the hook will be inside the turtle’s body
this manual, requires further details which can line reel must be stopped, the vessel slowly steered
and the part of the line left will be ingested.
increase the chance of the turtle’s survival. towards the turtle keeping an eye on the branch
According to some reported experiences, iron
The line has to be cut when hook removal is belie- hooks can gradually dissolve in salted water; fur- line at all times, and then retrieval of the turtle on
Fig. 11 - A longline hook
ved to be dangerous (both for the turtle and for the

30 Sea Turtle Handling Guidebook for Fishermen - Teaching Book Sea Turtle Handling Guidebook for Fishermen - Teaching Book 31
Longline Longline

board by hand can begin. It is necessary to high- LONGLINES • If the shank of the hook is partly visible or not visible, cut the line as close to During the removal procedure, sanitary regula-
the eye of the hook as possible. The line must be lightly
light the fact that this latter phase of turtle retrieval If the turtle is HEALTHY or INJURED handled keeping a gentle tension on it. Handle with care tions must be considered as absolutely essential.
is very delicate. Turtles have a strong reaction to because you may get bitten Besides rigorously respecting the smoking prohibi-
artificial light (in case of night fishing) and this tion while handling an animal or being close to it,
• If entangled, remove the line to release
might cause further damage to the animal while it the turtle, using clippers to cut the line the best thing to do is to use a disinfectant or an
is trying to escape. antiseptic solution both for hands and tools. As an
• Hook removal alternative, a thorough cleansing with soap is
essential.
Fishing hooks generally cause damage to the
turtles which cannot be immediately assessed It is important when dealing with fishermen to stress
(Aguilar, 1995). the fact that turtles are animals that bite as their
Return the turtle gently to the sea, head first, vertically, over the stern of the
unique defence in order to avoid bad experiences
If the turtle is hooked externally, on its body or in boat:
• If hooked externally on the with the sharp beak of the turtle. Anyway, the limi-
the mouth, the case can be considered the least
body or the beak, and the • with vessel in neutral gear ted mobility of the neck of the turtle is a safety gua-
harmful to turtles. As a matter of fact, in these whole shank of the hook is • without dropping the turtle on the deck
rantee for those who handle the turtle at an ade-
cases it is possible to remove the hook without cau- visible:
quate distance from the mouth. Last but not least, it
sing serious damage to the turtle.
is always necessary to be careful with the hands
However, it is more common that the hook is com- draw the barb of the hook out and cut it
with a clipper, then remove the rest of the when removing the hook, bearing in mind that the
pletely ingested by the turtle, ending up hooked in hook. Handle with care because you may animal could feel pain during this procedure.
the upper intestinal track, especially in the oeso- get bitten
• Entangled specimen
phagus. In this case, hook removal becomes much
more complex, as is the handling of the hook itself. Even if it can be considered a rare event, the lon-
RECOMMENDATION glines may entangle a turtle.
Hook removal from a turtle (including from the
mouth) has to be considered a delicate procedure • If you have a Log Book remember to record any information about the turtle
Entangled animals have been found in both the
that requires veterinary tools and skills (Walsh, caught mainline and the branches of it (Ogren, 1994;
• Remember to respect the provisions of the law concerning this fishing method Gerrior, 1996; Witzell, 1996). Although an entan-
1999). Anyway, there are cases where it is better
to remove the hook even if work conditions are not gled turtle generally does not show signs of exter-
ideal (such as on board) and the people involved nal serious injuries, the fact that it has been captu-
and that in all other cases the line should be cut as ween the thumb and index finger (or between the
are not specialized, but it is advisable to think red means that it has been unable to dive because
described in the paragraph “cutting the line” (see jaws of the pliers), rotate it towards the fluke of the
carefully before attempting to remove the hook. All it has not breathed. This can weaken and, ultima-
page xx). hook, pushing it outside. As soon as the hook barb
the removal phases have to be carefully carried out tely, kill the turtle. In the worst case, an entangled
The position of the hook is also important. For is out, keep on rotating strongly until the barb of
and the procedure immediately interrupted if diffi- live turtle can be externally or internally hooked
example, if the rotating action required for hook the hook is completely out. Then cut the barb of the
culties crop up. and therefore the first action should be to release
removal may damage any vital organ (eye or hook using pliers. In this way the hook has no more
the turtle from the line. The use of clippers is advi-
The advantage of early hook removal is the pre- nose), it is better not to remove the hook. obstacles and it can be easily removed, rotating in
sed because the line is usually made of strong
vention of further injuries and infection induced by the opposite direction, back to the beginning.
If the turtle is hooked inside the mouth, in order to material.
the presence of the hook inside the body (Balazs find out the hook’s position; stimulation of the turt-
et. al. 1995). le is suggested to let the animal open the fauces
If the turtle is hooked externally (flippers, neck, tail) and reveal the hook. Being careful of the turtle’s
it is suggested that the hook be removed in any reaction, it is possible to induce the animal to open
case, unless it is near vital parts such as eyes, nose its mouth with mechanical stimulus on the cheek
or cloaca. (near the beak) or by carefully tapping the anterior
If only part of the hook is visible from the mouth, it part of the beak with a soft object.
is not always advisable to operate. In fact, not all Being careful not to get bitten by the turtle, hook
partially visible hooks can be considered safely removal can be started by handling the shank of
removable. Apart from all the different eventuali- the hook. If there are more than one pair of pliers
ties, it is worth highlighting that only the hooks with on board, it may possible to retrieve the shank of
the whole shank visible are considered removable the hook with one of them. Firmly holding it bet-

32 Sea Turtle Handling Guidebook for Fishermen - Teaching Book Sea Turtle Handling Guidebook for Fishermen - Teaching Book 33
Trawl Trawl

TRAWLS If the turtle is NOT ACTIVE ensure that the fishing gear is not being used.
TRAWL Keep the turtle on board and:
• Once the net is on board, try to spot the turtle in the terminal bag • look for a shady out-of-the-way place Once released, since the turtle swims away in any
• Always put the trawl down on the deck before opening and emptying it • raise the hindquarters of the turtle about 20 cm off the deck direction, following these two simple precautions
• Caught species and size • Separate the turtle from the rest of the catch and by-catch • keep it damp using a water-soaked towel. Do not place the turtle in a contai-
will ensure that the turtle will not get injured by the
ner holding water
The most common type of trawl used in the vessel's propeller or by the fishing gear. It is also
• repeat the techniques every two hours until the turtle responds to at
Mediterranean is the bottom trawl. As this method least one of them, for up to 24 hours recommended that before release, a check is made
fishes exclusively at the bottom of the sea, turtles • if the turtle reacts to one of them, it can be considered INJURED
that there are no fishing vessels working nearby so
Leave it on board for a few hours, before releasing it
are caught (except for the leatherback, which is • if there is no response, or if the response is undetectable after 24 hours the turt- that the animal is not recaptured by other nets.
pelagic) more because of their size rather than le can be considered DEAD
The best way to release the turtle is to gently return
their species.
If the turtle is DEAD the animal with the plastron over the surface of the
The carapace length of the specimen caught with the • The best thing to do is to
sea with the head first (Balazs et al., 1995).
bring the turtle into har-
trawl is typically over 40 cm. approximately (Kontos
bour, store it in a freezer, The best place to return the turtle into the sea
and Webster, 1985; Laurent et al. 1996; Laurent, and then give it to the
would be from the stern, or if possible from the cut-
1996; Margaritoulis et al., in press) and it is pro- competent Authority
• If it is not possible to keep out door, so that the turtle is directed in the oppo-
bable that the low number of small specimens found After assessing the turtle’s condition follow the instructions below: the dead turtle on board, site direction of the vessel's route, thereby avoiding
represents the ones in transit from the pelagic to the return it to the sea
If the turtle is HEALTHY or INJURED a collision with the vessel. The majority of profes-
demersal stage (Gerosa and Casale, 1999).
sional vessels do not have a cut-out door and the
Return the turtle gently to the
deck is generally a few meters from the surface of
sea, head first vertically,
Bringing a turtle on board over the stern of the boat: the sea. In this case the turtle has to be released
RECOMMENDATION with the head vertically facing the sea, avoiding a
• with vessel in neutral gear
• Longline • with the net not trawling • If you have a Log Book remember to record any information about the turtle
strong impact of the plastron with the sea water.
• without dropping the turtle caught. The releasing phase ends with observation of the
A turtle caught by either trawl or gillnet is general-
on the deck • Remember to respect the provisions of the law concerning this fishing method
ly entangled externally, whereas with longline the • Refrain from trawling near turtle nesting beaches during turtle nesting season turtle’s behaviour in the water. It is necessary to be
turtle is generally hooked and may have ingested • Limit trawl shots to less then ninety minutes in areas of high turtle density sure that the turtle has gone safely away before
the hook and part of the mainline. Fishermen are starting the engine.
used to bringing on board the catch, pulling the
• Trawl • Gillnet
branch line by hand, and if the catch is too big Cold-stunning
Turtles are usually brought on board together with The efficiency of gillnet captures is based on the
they may use sharp objects or gaffs. This habit
the net and the crew generally do not realise that capacity to entangle a specimen and on the abili-
should be avoided in all cases. If the turtle is lifted
turtles are present until the net is on the deck. Even ty to hold it until the net is retrieved by fishermen. Cold-stunning is a particular condition of a not
by pulling the branch line to which it is hooked, the
if the fishermen cannot see the turtle until that For these reasons, when a turtle is entangled in the active turtle. It is the commencement of freezing
weight of the animal can cause further damage to
net, it is generally found with skin injuries due to its which affects the extremities, eyes, or neck, which
the internal organs so that its chance of survival moment, it is advisable to follow some precautions.
attempts to break free. Before taking the turtle on may be partially frozen and the limbs may beco-
would sharply decrease. In addition, the use of The most important safety measure is clearly the
board, as is described in the 'Longline' paragraph, me stiff (Sadove et al., 1998). This case is quite
sharp objects or gaffs would cause new injuries, method of emptying the net. On many trawl ships
it is absolutely necessary to set the turtle free from rare in the Mediterranean.
which could kill the turtle. the net is usually opened from a considerable
the net that has entrapped all or part of its body. Cold-stunning occurs when the water temperature
The best way of retrieving a turtle on board would height from the floor of the deck. In this way, the
The use of clippers is recommended in order to is approximately 10° C, while a further decrease
be to use a dip net of adequate size. Remember turtle could be damaged, because it will drop on
facilitate turtle release . in temperature to 5 – 6°C could cause death of the
that it is better to handle the turtle gently while pla- the deck and it may get injured (landing on its animal (George, 1997).
cing it on the floor of the boat and then setting it head in the worst cases). It is therefore advisable to
free from the meshes of the dip net. In cases where Specimens in this particular physiological condi-
open the terminal bag once it is over the deck, so Release of the turtle into the sea
a dip net is not available, it is advisable to take the tion are not easily caught by traditional fishing
as to avoid dropping the turtle. methods because they reach the surface of the sea
turtle by hand. In decreasing order of safety, the
As happens with every kind of net-fishing, in the Release of a turtle, both healthy and injured, has and they float without moving (looking dead).
best place to hold the animal is as follows: by the
trawl, the turtle could be found entangled in the net to be done carefully. Juveniles can reach the cold-stunning stage faster
carapace; by the front flippers (as close to the axil-
and therefore it is advisable to proceed with care Before proceeding with its release it is necessary to than adults (George, 1997).
la as possible) and by the rear limbs (as close to
in order to release the animal back into the sea. put the engine of the vessel into neutral gear and
the carapace as possible).

34 Sea Turtle Handling Guidebook for Fishermen - Teaching Book Sea Turtle Handling Guidebook for Fishermen - Teaching Book 35
Gillnet Gillnet

GILLNETS After assessing the turtle’s condition follow the instructions below: ch the critical maximum (Stabenau et al., 1993).
GILLNET
• Scan the net as far ahead as possible to spot turtles as early as possible If the turtle is HEALTHY or INJURED At the same time, excessive skin transpiration,
• Immediately upon sighting the turtle reduce the speed of the net reel and care- Return the turtle gently to the sea, head which would not be compensated by hydric reco-
• Caught species and their dimensions fully pull in the net first, vertically, over the stern of the boat: very, could dehydrate, the turtle adding further
As far as marine turtles are concerned, this fishing • with vessel in neutral gear physiological stress to the existing problems. The
If the turtle is too large to bring on board
method is selective neither for species nor for size • with the net not in the water use of a dampened towel to cover the body, head
• Stop the vessel • without dropping the turtle included, will reduce the loss of water, creating a
of caught specimens. • Minimise the tension of the net and carefully remove on the deck
dampened micro-habitat.
The gillnet is a fishing net which is placed vertical- the entangled turtle. If necessary use clippers to cut
It is worth reminding the people in charge of kee-
the net
ly so that it fences in or blocks off areas of water If the turtle is NOT ACTIVE ping the turtle under observation to regularly add
and catches every marine organism bigger than • Check that the turtle Keep the turtle on board and:
sea water to the towel until the towel is saturated.
the mesh size which tries to pass through (UNI, has swam away safely • look for a shady and out-of-the-way place The water must be put on the upper part of the
before starting up the • raise the hindquarters of the turtle about 20 cm off the deck
1981). Gillnets could be considered to be passive carapace so that the head and eyes are always
vessel • keep it damp using a water-soaked towel. Do not place the turtle into a contai-
ner holding water damp. In fact, due to their form and to the presen-
fishing gear: turtles are caught by chance, as they • repeat the techniques every two hours until the turtle responds to at ce of the salt gland, the eyes are the part of the
move from place to place. However, according to least one of them for up to 24 hours body most sensitive to dehydration.
• if the turtle reacts to one of them, it can be
fishermen (Panou et al., 1992), turtles actively try considered INJURED. Leave it on board 4. 24 hours on boar d
to feed on fish entangled in the trammel net, dama- for a few hours before releasing it.
As is noted in different parts of the Guidebook, the
• if there is no response, or if the res-
ging even the gear, suggesting that this kind of net If the turtle can be taken on board ponse is ideal time to keep a turtle on board, with its hind-
could constitute active fishing gear because it can undetectable after 24 hours, the turtle quarters lifted higher than the forepart of the body, is
can be considered DEAD
attract turtles, increasing the probability of their recommended by many experts to be up to 24 hours
• Carefully set the turtle free
If the turtle is DEAD (Balazs et al., 1995). If, during these hours, the turtle
being caught (Gerosa and Casale, 1999). from the [Link] necessary use
clippers to cut the net
• The best thing is to bring the turtle into does not respond to at least one of the recovery tech-
If placed near marine turtle nesting sites, it could harbour, store it in a freezer, and then give it to the competent Authority
niques (see page xx), it can be considered dead.
• If it is not possible to keep the dead turtle on board, return it to the sea
even catch hatchlings which have just emerged • Hold the turtle by the side of In order to assess any possible sign of the animal's
the carapace or by the flip- RECOMMENDATION revival, regular checks are essential, during which
(Margaritoulis, 1995; Haddoud and El Gomati,
pers. Do not use any sharp
1997;Baran and Kasparek, 1989; Aureggi and • If you have a Log Book remember to record any information about the turtle
sea water has to be added to the towel and the reco-
objects or gaffs to retrieve it
caught. very techniques applied at least every two hours.
Gerosa, unpub. data). • Remember to respect the provisions of the law concerning this fishing method
• Refrain from fishing near turtle nesting beaches during turtle nesting season
When the turtle cannot be kept on board for up to
24 hours, there is not enough time to judge if the
1. Choose a place The slope depends on the size of the turtle, so that animal is dead or not. In these cases, if it is possible,
Turtle on the deck
The most important phase concerns the choice of the bigger the turtle’s dimensions the higher its posi- bring the turtle to the closest harbour and give it to
the place where the not active turtle will be kept for tion should be. As a general rule: a turtle of mid size the competent Authority, indicating the time that the
• Healthy or injured turtles (50 cm. carapace length) should be put with the turtle has already spent on board. If this is not pos-
such a time (up to 24 hours) as suggested by
Healthy or injured turtles brought on board gene- hindquarters about 30 cm. from the ground. On the sible, apply the recovery techniques for the last time
experts. It would be better to advise fishermen to other hand, a sharply sloping position could prevent and then release the turtle into the sea.
rally start crawling on the deck as soon as they are decide in advance so that all the crew will agree the turtle from correct breathing, which is not ideal From 'not active' to injured
free to do so. It is advisable both for the safety of and will be aware of the place chosen on board. for a turtle that is attempting to revive.
the animal and the fishermen to always keep the As a consequence of the assistance given to the
The selected place has to be out of the area gene- Embolia seems generally not to be a problem for turtle, it might show slow activity (movement of the
turtle under control. Once the procedures sugges- marine turtles thanks to their particular physiologi-
rally used during fishing. It must be shaded and it pectoral and pelvic muscles, a slight moderate
ted in this guidebook are completed, it is essential must give a solid support to the turtle, so that the cal adaptations (see page xx). The methodology head lift, hyperventilation, significant increase in
to release the animal into the sea as soon as pos- described earlier is a further guarantee for the turt- heart rate, movement of the flippers) (Balazs,
animal will not fall down due to the rolling and the
sible. le to release possible air bubbles present in the 1986; Stabenau et al., 1993) or it might react to
pitching of the boat. hindquarters of the turtle, thus saving the brain at least one of the recovery techniques (see page
• 'Not active' turtles from possible damage. xx), showing the first signs of revival.
The state of 'not active' turtle clearly shows that the 2. Sloping position 3. The importance of shade If the animal does not move from its position or
health condition of the animal is critical. These spe- As mentioned before, it is essential to keep the turt- does not show discomfort, it is best to leave the
One of the most common injuries that occur to
cimens must be carefully handled in order not to le in a shaded place. turtle until it is able to move its flippers and chan-
caught turtles is the ingestion of sea water into the
cause further damage to them. However, this ope- The direct irradiation of the sun would increase the ge its position. Although an animal that revives
lungs which may lead the animal to start drow- after this treatment can be considered injured, its
ration is not dangerous for the fishermen. ning. In order to allow the sea water to drain out body temperature of the animal, causing further
damage. The ideal temperature to help the turtle release into the sea is advisable only after a few
Once it is assessed that the turtle is in the not acti- of the lungs, it is necessary to put the animal with hours have elapsed in order to give the turtle the
revive should be between 25°C and 30°C.
ve condition, further procedures have to be follo- its hindquarters lifted higher than the forepart of its opportunity to recover and to recuperate its phy-
Temperatures below 25°C notably increase recove-
wed in order to allow to the animal to revive. body. ry time and temperatures above 30° C may approa- siological functions for its life in the sea.

36 Sea Turtle Handling Guidebook for Fishermen - Teaching Book Sea Turtle Handling Guidebook for Fishermen - Teaching Book 37
Assessment of turtle’s condition Assessment of turtle’s condition

ASSESSMENT OF TURTLE’S Assessment of Turtle’s Condition When the turtle is lifted, it moves as if swimming
dentally caught (fishermen could become exaspe-
and it holds its limbs and head above the plane rated if they thought that they might have to keep
CONDITION of the ventral surface of the body .... HEALTHY
* In order to assess the turtle’s condi- the turtle on board without a temporal limitation)
tion it is possible to use some tech-
and considering the likelihood of incorrectly asses-
The methodology that has to be carefully followed niques which allow the caught ani-
mal to be classified as: sing the turtle’s condition after observing it for up
to operate on a marine turtle depends on the heal-
healthy, injured, not active, dead
The turtle reacts, to 24 hours, it is reasonable to assume that this
th conditions of the animal. Applying simple tech-
even with a slight temporal limitation is the best methodology to
niques, this Guidebook aims to provide fishermen response, to at
apply.
with skills that allow them to decide if the animal is least one of the
healthy, injured, not active or dead. recovery tech- • How to behave with a dead turtle
niques: INJURED
The latter category is herein described in a sepa- The amount of information that can be collected
rate paragraph, whereas all the others are inclu- from a dead turtle is so great that it is worth per-
ded in this section. suading fishermen to bring the specimen to the
When the turtle is nearest harbour and give it to the competent
Once the turtle is on board and it is on the deck lifted, it does not An absent or Authorities instead of returning it to the sea.
with its plastron on the floor, it is necessary to start move and its limbs
undetectable res-
observing its behaviour. and head are held The best way to transport a dead turtle is in a cool
ponse to all the
below the plane, of
recovery tech-
The first clues that allow evaluation of the turtle’s the ventral surface box hold (even better is to freeze it) so that decom-
niques: NOT
condition concern its capacity of making crawling of the body
ACTIVE position will not start. Therefore, it is advisable to
movements and strong head lifting when breathing treat the turtle like the rest of the catch.
but it is not uncommon to find an animal that lies HEALTHY INJURED NOT ACTIVE In order not to lose any data, the specimen should
without moving or breathing for some minutes; the- * The turtle lifts its head strongly * The head and limbs are mostly held below the plane of the ventral surface of * Recovery techniques do not produce any
when breathing. the body. The movements are very erratic or spasmodic and non-directional, response.
be kept entire and any kind of fishing gear atta-
refore, it is necessary to follow the instructions * When a flipper is pulled there is a appearing uncontrolled. * When a flipper is pulled or pressure is ched to it should not be removed (in particular
below, in order to assess its condition. strong withdrawal reaction. * The recovery techniques produce only a weak localised flinch response. applied on the neck, there is no withdrawal hooks and associated line). Once in the harbour (or
* When placed on solid ground such * When a flipper is pulled or pressure is applied on the neck, there is only a weak reaction.
Firstly it is necessary to determine whether it is pos- as a floor the turtle attempts to make or absent withdrawal reaction. * No attempt is made by the turtle to move before, if the vessel has a phone, radio or CB on
sible to lift the animal. If so, assuming a crouched crawling movements. on solid ground such as a floor. board) the local Authority should be informed.
position behind the animal, hold both sides of the ATTENTION: if you find a turtle with flesh that has begun to rot and that stinks, it means that it is surely DEAD
If it is not possible to bring the dead turtle back to
carapace in the central part (firmly with your
recovery techniques (see page 40). or not, it is necessary to find the animal inactive the harbour, the animal should be returned to the
hands), then lift the animal horizontally to about
with stiff muscles (rigor mortis) and/or with flesh sea after having removed any fishing gear (such as
30 cm. from the floor. Approaching and lifting the DEAD TURTLES
that has begun to rot. Other clues such as evidence hook, monofilament, line etc.) entangled in its body
animal from behind avoids your getting bitten by
of the beginning of decomposition (in particular (Balazs et al, 1995). If the turtle is internally hooked
the turtle. While lifting the animal, remember to One of the main known causes of many deaths of
around the head and/or flippers) together with a and the hook is not visible, the line must be cut as
keep your back straight and to lift the weight of the sea turtles concerns the inability to distinguish bet-
bad smell, sloughing of scutes (in particular over close as possible to the beak so that the line is no
animal whilst bending your legs. If the turtle is lif- ween a turtle that apparently does not react
the head and/or on the carapace), could also help. longer visible. These final pieces of advice would
ted to more than about 30 cm., its safety could be (comatose turtle, see page xxx) and a turtle that is
The other case in which the turtle can be conside- avoid the entanglement of other marine beings
at risk because if the animal were dropped on the actually dead.
floor it could get injured. red dead concerns the absence of reactions to at attracted by the “ghost gear” (see page xxx).
Returning a comatose turtle into the sea, as fisher-
When a healthy turtle is lifted, it reacts with strong least one of the recovery techniques (see page 40)
men in many cases do, means causing its death
swimming movements. The flippers' movements after regular and careful application of them for 24
(Demetropoulos and Hadjichristophorou, 1995).
could hit your hand, but they are usually not strong consecutive hours (Balazs et al., 1995).
In order to prevent this important “involuntary”
enough to cause injury or pain. On the other According to recent studies a temporal limit to the
cause of death, which can be easily avoided,
hand, a turtle not in good condition (injured or not possibility of the turtle recovering should not be
active), does not move when lifted, and its limbs many aspects must be considered.
given and the hypothesis that a turtle be assessed
and head are mostly held below the plane of the Recalling what has already been described in this as dead because it does not react to at least one of
ventral surface of the body (plastron). Once this manual, we prefer to follow an outline that consi- the recovery techniques should be rejected
test is concluded, place the turtle carefully on the ders both the safety of the turtles and the needs of (Conant, T. in litt., May 31, 2000).
ground. fishermen working on board.
For practical reasons, in order to encourage a per-
In order to distinguish the injured condition from In order to define a priori whether a turtle is dead son to handle a marine turtle that they have inci-
the not active one, it is necessary to apply the

38 Sea Turtle Handling Guidebook for Fishermen - Teaching Book Sea Turtle Handling Guidebook for Fishermen - Teaching Book 39
Recovery techniques ecovery techniques

Recovery Techniques • Reflex tests

RECOVERY TECHNIQUES EYE REFLEX

In the case of a turtle that is not active, its condition

RESUSCITATION
• Resuscitation has to be assessed in order to determine whether it
is dead or still alive. In order to assess its condition
Turtles caught by any kind of fishing gear may be
it is possible to apply some reflex tests on board,
brought up in a comatose condition. If they are put
even without having scientific knowledge or speci-
back into the sea in this state, they are unlikely to
fic tools.
survive (Demetropoulos and Hadjichristophorou,
1995). The depression phenomenon, depending on the
gravity, is graded from a light depression of the
Several techniques have been described for the When you lightly touch the eye or the upper eye-
lid with your finger, the animal exhibits a flinch sensory neuron to a deep coma.
resuscitation of comatose sea turtles, but a stan- response closing its eyes
dard methodology approved by all experts has not
Holding the turtle by the side of the carapace, lift Light states of depression are called “obtundation
one side about 10 cm then lift the other side and
yet been found. Most of the recovery techniques of the sensory neuron” and are characterised by
rock it gently from left to right and right to left CLOACAL REFLEX
require further analysis and are too complicated to loss of liveliness and mitigation of all the body and
be applied in the cases described in this manual sensory neuron symptoms and thus of the respon-
(Shoop, 1982; Stabenau et al., 1993). se to the usual stimulus. The animal often lies in a
decubitus, apathetic and indifferent state.
The first advised technique, the sloping position
(see page xxx), has been recommended and only Even more serious is sopor, where the animal is
a few modifications have been made during the completely indifferent to what is happening
past few years (Balazs, 1986; Balazs et al., 1995; around it and looks as though it was sleeping.
Demetropoulus and Hadjichristophorou, 1995). Stimulus, such as energetic action (i.e. hitting the
RECOMMENDATION WHEN USING TECHNIQUES animal’s shoulders with the hand), bathing the eyes
On the other hand, the second advised technique,
When you pinch the cloaca, the ani- and nose with cold water, electric stimulus, etc.
besides being recent, has the advantage of easy * While applying the techniques, observe the turtle closely and carefully and mal contracts the cloaca and/or give a light, imprecise and short response demons-
application and does not require any tools. It handle it firmly and gently without injuring or damaging it. moves the tail sideways
* Techniques can be used quickly but only twice in succession. In case of uncertainty trating that the animal is still alive.
consists of rocking the turtle gently from left to right of response, a second attempt can be made ten minutes after the first one.
and from right to left by holding the outer edge of
the carapace and lifting up one side about 10 cm., The supine position, for example, should be abso-
then alternating to the other side (Conant,T. in litt., lutely avoided because since the lungs are located receptor
May 31, 2000). Unlike the previous technique, dorsally, under the carapace, the heavy food-
which were almost all empirical, this method has laden digestive tract and other organs pushing
been chosen considering the physiological aspects down on the lungs could prevent lung ventilation
and they were compared with other alternative (Balazs, 1986). afferent way
procedures (Stabenau and Vietti, 1999) The practice of stepping on the plastron to revive
By using empirical observations, it is also possible the turtle (Hopkins and Richardson, 1984; spinal cord
to determine whether the turtle is reviving. In some Oravetz, 1999) may actually do more harm then
experiences with comatose turtles, immediate post- good. Plastral pumping may cause the airway to
revival characteristics include (in chronological block, thus prohibiting air from entering the lungs.
order): movement of the pectoral and pelvic Pumping the plastron while a turtle is on its back
muscles, moderate head lifting, hyperventilation (6 also causes the viscera to compress the lungs, the-
to 10 breaths per minute), significant increases in reby hindering lung ventilation (Conant,T. in litt.,
heart rate and in the end, movement of the flippers May 31, 2000).
efferent way
(Balazs, 1986; Stabenau et al., 1993). Sea turtles being resuscitated must be kept in the
In order to give a better view of the recovery tech- shade and kept damp or moist (see page xxx) but
niques mentioned in the bibliography, a description under no circumstances should they be placed into
of some procedures which are well known and which a container holding water (Conant,T. in litt., May
should no longer be applied is herein illustrated. 31, 2000).
Fig. 12 - Reflex arch

40 Sea Turtle Handling Guidebook for Fishermen - Teaching Book Sea Turtle Handling Guidebook for Fishermen - Teaching Book 41
Assessment of turtle’s condition Literature cited

The most serious state of depression, the coma, is The diagnostic value of the reflex allows the obser- LITERATURE CITED
characterised by a deep somnolence and drowsy ver to evaluate the state of the nervous system and
state with loss of any capacity to react. In this state understand if the animal is actually not active or Aguilar, R. 1995. A survey of interactions between marine mammals and fisheries in the south western waters of the ECC. Univ. de Barcelona. Report
for the Commission of the European Communities.
the animal retains only the essential vegetative not alive.
Aguilar, R., Mas, J. and Pastor, X. 1995. Impact of Spanish swordfish longline fisheries on the loggerhead sea turtle Caretta caretta population in
functions (respiration and cardiocirculatory activi- Reflexes such as touching a limb (which produces the western Mediterranean. Richardson, J.L. and Richardson, T.H. (Compilers). Proceedings of the 12th Annual Workshop on Sea Turtle Biology and
ty). Marine turtles, having a particular physiology withdrawal), cutaneous and mucous, are general- Conservation. NOAA Technical Memorandum NMFS-SEFSC-361:1-6.
Aguirre, A.A., Balazs, G.H., Zimmerman, B. and Galey, F.D. 1994. Organic contaminants and trace metals in the tissues of green turtles (Chelonia
suitable for the sea environment, are able to slow ly weakened and are absent in the coma state. mydas) afflicted with fibropapillomas in the Hawaiian Islands. Marine Pollution Bulletin 28(2):109-114.
down their vegetative functions (Felger et al., Argano, R., Cocco, M., Gerosa, G. & Jacomini, C. 1990. Relazione attività 1988/89. Progetto tartarughe marine. WWF – Italia. Roma, Italy.
The last reflexes to disappear are the cloacal and
1976), making these imperceptible on a brief Argano, R., Basso, R., Cocco, M. and Gerosa, G. 1992. New data on loggerhead (Caretta caretta) movements within Mediterranean. Boll. Mus. Ist.
the eye reflexes (named in the Guidebook) and the Biol. Univ. Genova 56-57:137-163.
observation of the turtle.
pupil reflex (not treated in the Guidebook). Arianoutsou, M. 1988. Assessing the impacts of human activities on nesting of loggerhead sea-turtles (Caretta caretta L.) on Zakynthos island, wes-
Therefore, in this case, it is necessary to conduct tern Greece. Env. Cons. 15(4):327-334.
1) Cloacal reflex: consists of contraction of the Aureggi, M., Gerosa, G. and Yerli, S.V. 1999. Observations on Predation of Marine Turtle Nests at Akyatan, Turkey, Eastern Mediterranean.
further observations, provoking reactions to other
anus's external sphincter due to mechanical stimu- Chelonian Conservation and Biology 3(3):487-489.
stimuli, which reflexes allow the observer to Aureggi, M. Gerosa, G., Yerli, S.V. 2000 – Five years of research at Akyatan Beach (Turkey): one of the main nesting sites for green turtle, Chelonia
lation of the perianal region; when the reflex is
understand if the animal is actually not active or mydas, in the Mediterranean. Biogeographia 22(2):555-560.
absent the cloaca is sucking and the turtle is incon- Balazs, G.H. 1985. Impact of ocean debris on marine turtles: entanglement and ingestion. Shomura, R.S. and Yoshida, H.O. (Eds.). Proceedings of
not alive.
tinent. The cloacal reflex protects the turtle from the Workshop on the Fate and Impact of Marine Debris, 26-29 Nov. 1984, Honolulu, Hawaii:387-429.
The reflex can be defined in general as passive involuntary defecation. Balazs, G.H. 1986. Resuscitation of a comatose green turtle. Herpetological Review 17(4):79-81.
Balazs, G.H. 1991. Current status of fibropapillomas in Hawaiian green turtles, Chelonia mydas. In: Balazs, G.H. and Pooley, S.G. (Eds.). Research
motor, vassel or secretory reaction, caused in res-
2) Eye reflex: consists of closure of the eyelid due Plan for Marine Turtle Fibropapilloma. NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWFSC-156:47-57.
ponse to a stimulus which acts on a sensitive appa- Balazs, G.H., Pooley, S.G. and Murakawa, S.K.K. 1995. Guidelines for handling marine turtles hooked or entangled in the Hawaii longline fishe-
to mechanical stimulation of the cornea or of the
ratus and is transmitted through an elementarily ry. Results of an expert workshop held in Honolulu, Hawaii, March 15-17, 1995. NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWFSC-222.
area surrounding the eye. This reflex can be consi- Baran, I. and Kasparek, M. 1989. Marine Turtles Turkey: Status survey 1988 and recommendations for conservation and management. WWF,
defined nervous circuit (reflex arc Fig. 12).
dered a defence and it is used by the animal to Heidelberg, Germany, 123 pp.
For example, if we consider a reflex arc that does protect the eye surface, which could be damaged Basso, R. 1992. Osservazioni e ricerche sulle tartarughe marine presenti nei mari italiani. Edizioni del Grifo, Lecce.
Bentivegna, F. and Paglialonga, A. 1998. Status of the sea turtles in the Gulf of Naples and preliminary study of migration. Epperly, S.P. and J. Braun
not involve the brain, but involves the spinal cord by contact with any foreign body. (Compilers). Proc. of the 17th Annual Sea Turtle Symposium. U.S. Dep. Commer. NOAA Tech. Memo. NMFS-SEFSC-415:141-144.
exclusively, we have to consider that the stimulus, Bentley, P.J. 1976. Osmoregulation. In: Gans, C. and Dawson, W.R. (Eds.). Biology of the Reptilia, Vol. 5, Academic Press, New York:365-412.
3) Even if it is not treated in the Guidebook, it is
from wherever it originates (tactile receptor present Berkson, H. 1966. Physiological adjustments to prolonged diving in the Pacific green turtle (Chelonia mydas agassizii). Comp. Biochem. Physiol.
worth citing the pupil reflex, which consists of 18(1):101-119.
in: skin, anus mucous, bones, eye) goes through contraction of the iris constrictor muscle with Berkson, H. 1967. Physiolocical adjustments to deep diving in the Pacific green turtle (Chelonia mydas agassizii). Comp. Biochem. Physiol.
the spinal cord depending only on the nervous cell 21(3):507-524.
consequent restriction due to a sudden, intense
that has recorded the stimulus (afferent way) and it Bjorndal, K.A., Meylan, A.B. and Turner, B.J. 1983. Sea turtles nesting at Melbourne Beach, Florida, I. Size, growth and reproductive biology. Biol.
light being shone on the eye. If there is no suitable Conserv. 26:65-77.
is unconsciously transmitted to the cell that trans-
light source (i.e. a small torch) the pupil reflex Bjorndal, K.A., Bolten, A.B. and Lagueux, C.J. 1994. Ingestion of Marine Debris by Juvenile Sea Turtles in Coastal Florida Habitats. Marine Pollution
forms the stimulus into a motor impulse which is Bulletin, Vol.28(3):154-158.
could be observed in the passive closing and ope-
then transmitted (efferent way) to the organ that Bjorndal, K.A. and Zug, G.R. 1995. Growth and Age of Sea Turtles. In: Bjorndal, K.A. (Ed.). Biology and Conservation of Sea Turtles, revised edi-
ning of one or both eyes. tion. Smithsonian Inst. Press, Washington, D.C. and London:599-600
reacts (muscles, blood-vessels, glands).
Bjorndal, K.A. and Bolten, A.B., 1995. Comparison of length-frequency analyses for estimation of growth parameters for a population of green
turtles. Herpetologica 51:160-167.
Bjorndal, K.A. 1997. Foraging Ecology and Nutrition of Sea Turtles. In: Lutz, J.A. and Musick, J.A., (Eds.). The biology of sea turtles. CRC Press,
Boca Raton, Florida, USA: 199-231.
Bolten, A.B. and Balazs, G.H. 1995. Biology of the Early Pelagic Stage - The "Lost Year". In: Bjorndal, K.A. (Ed.). Biology and Conservation of Sea
Turtles, revised edition. Smithsonian Inst. Press, Washington, D.C. and London:579-581
Bowen, B.W., Meylan, A.B., Ross, J.P., Limpus, C.J., Balazs, G.H. and Avise, J.C. 1992. Global population structure and natural history of the green
turtle (Chelonia mydas) in terms of matriarchal phylogeny. Evolution 46(4):865-881.
Bowen, B.W., Avise, J.C., Richardson, J.I., Meylan, A.B., Margaritoulis, D. and Hopkins-Murphy, S. 1993. Population structure of the loggerhead
turtle Caretta caretta in the Northwest Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean Sea. Conservation Biology 37(4):834-844.
Bradai, M.N. 1992. Les captures accidentelles de Caretta caretta au chalut benthique dans le Golfe de Gabès. Rapp. Comm. int. Mer Médit. 33:285.
Broderick, A.C. and Godley, B.J. 1996. Population and nesting ecology of the Green Turtle, Chelonia mydas, and the Loggerhead Turtle, Caretta
caretta, in northern Cyprus. Zoology in the Middle East 13:27-46.
Brown, L. & Macdonald, D. 1995. Predation on green turtle (Chelonia mydas) nests by wild canids at Akyatan beach, Turkey. Biol. Conserv.
71(1):55-60.
Bryant, T.L. 1987. Stop plastic pollution. Delaware Sea Grant Reporter 6(3):6.
Bustard, H.R. 1967. Mechanism of nocturnal emergence from the nest in green turtle hatchlings. Nature 214:317.
Butler, P.J. and Jones, D.R. 1982. The comparative physiology of diving in vertebrates. In: Advances in Comparative Physiology and Biochemistry,
Vol. 8, Academic Press, New York.
Byles, R.A. 1988. Behavior and Ecology of Sea Turtles from Chesapeake Bay, Virginia. Ph.D. dissertation, College of William and Mary,
Williamsburg, VA.

42 Sea Turtle Handling Guidebook for Fishermen - Teaching Book Sea Turtle Handling Guidebook for Fishermen - Teaching Book 43
Literature cited Literature cited

Caine E.A. and Baruch B.W. 1986. Carapace epibionts of nesting loggerhead sea turtles: Atlantic coast of USA. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 95:15-26. Gerosa, G., Yerli, S.V., Mazzella, F. and Lapis, S. 1996. Report on a sea turtle nesting beach study (Akyatan, Turkey), 1996. CHELON Marine Turtle
Caldwell, D.K. 1959. The loggerhead turtles of Cape Romain, South Carolina. Bull. Fla St. Mus. Biol. Sci. 4:319-348. Conservation and Research Program, Tethys Research Institute, Viale Val Padana, 134/B, 00141 Rome, Italy. 7 pp.
Camiñas, J.A. 1988. Incidental captures of Caretta caretta (L.) with surface long-lines in the Western Mediterranean. Rapp. Comm. int. Mer Médit. Gerosa, G. and Casale, P. 1999. Interaction of marine turtles with fisheries in the Mediterranean. RAC/SPA (UNEP-MAP), Tunis, Tunisia. 59pp.
31(2):285. Gerosa, G., Aureggi, M., Montinaro, G. Mangialardi, S. and Cotroneo, V. (in press). The impact of artificial lighting on loggerhead (Caretta caret-
Camiñas, J.A. and De La Serna, J.M. 1995. The Loggerhead distribution in the Western Mediterranean Sea as deduced from captures by the Spanish ta) hatchlings . Proceedings of the First Italian Meeting on Sea Turtle Biology and Conservation, Policoro (MT), Italy, 19-20 October 2000. CHELON,
Long Line Fishery. Scientia Herpetologica:316-323. Viale Val Padana, 134/B, 00141 Roma, Italy.
Camiñas, J.A. 1997. Captura accidental de la tortuga boba (Caretta caretta) en el Mediterraneo con palangre de superficie. Colleccion de Gerrior, P. 1996. Incidental take of sea turtles in Northeast U.S. waters. In: Williams, P., Anninos, P.J., Plotkin, P.T., Salvini, K.L. (Eds.). Pelagic lon-
Documentos Cientificos. ICCAT. Vol. XLVI (4):446-455. gline fishery-sea turtle interactions: Proc. US Dept. of Commerce, NOAA Tech. Memo. NMFS-OPR-7:14-31.
Campbell, C.L. 1994. Effects of flash photography on nesting behaviour of green turtles (Chelonia mydas) at Tortuguero, Costa Rica. Master of Godley, B.J., Thomson, D.R. and Broderik, A C. 1998a. Glasgow University turtle conservation expedition to northern Cyprus 1998. Expedition
Science Thesis. Department of Wildlife , Ecology and Conservation, University of Florida at Gainesville. 75pp. report. Marine Turtle Research Group, University of Wales, Swansea, U.K.
Capocaccia, L. 1968. La Dermochelys coriacea (L.) nel Mediterraneo (REPTILIA, TESTUDINATA). Atti Accad. Ligure Sc. Lett. 24:318-327. Godley, B.J., Furness, R.W. and Solomon, S.E. 1998b. Patterns of mortality in marine turtles in the Eastern Mediterranean. Byles, R. and Y.
Carr, A. 1954. The passing of the fleet. A.I.B.S. Bull. 4(5):17-19. Fernandez. (Compilers). Proceedings of the 16th Annual Symposium on Sea Turtle Biology and Conservation NOAA Technical Memorandum NMFS-
Carr, A. & Giovannoli, L. 1957. The ecology and migrations of sea turtles. 2. Results of field work in Costa Rica, 1955. American Museum Novitates SEFSC-412:59-62.
1835:1-32. Godley, B.J., Thompson, D.R. & Furness, R.W. 1999. Do Heavy Metal Concentrations Pose a Threat to Marine Turtles from the Mediterranean Sea?
Carr, A. and Ogren, L. 1960. The ecology and migrations of sea turtles. 4. The green turtle in Caribbean Sea. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. 121:1-48. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 38(6):497-502.
Carr, A. and Hirth, H. 1961. Social facilitation in green turtle siblings. Anim. Behav. 9(1-2):69-70. Gramentz, D. 1986. Cases of contamination of sea turtle with hydrocarbons. U.N. Rocc Info N. 17. Regional Oil Comating Centre, Monoel Island
Carr, A. and Meylan, A.B. 1980. Evidence of passive migration of green turtle hatchlings in sargassum. Copeia 1980(2):366-368. Malta:1-3
Carr, A. 1982. Notes on the behavioral ecology of sea turtles. In: Bjorndal, K.A. (Ed.). Biology and conservation of sea turtles. Smithsonian Inst. Gramentz, D. 1988b. Involvement of loggerhead turtle with the plastic, metal, and hydrocarbon pollution in the central Mediterranean. Marine
Press, Washington, D.C.:19-26. Pollution Bulletin 19(1):11-13.
Carr, A. 1987. Impact of Nondegradable Marine Debris on the Ecology and Survival Outlook of Sea Turtles. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 18(6B):352-356. Gramentz, D. 1988a. Prevalent epibiont sites on Caretta caretta in the Mediterranean Sea. Naturalista Sicil., S. IV, XII(1-2):33-46.
Castells, A. and Mayo, M. 1992. Relacion de citas de tortugas marinas. España y Portugal. Centro de Estudios de Mamiferos Marinos. Madrid, Gramentz, D. 1989. Marine turtles in the central Mediterranean Sea. Centro 1(4):41-56.
España. Green, D. 1998. Epizoites of Galapagos Green Turtles. Byles, R. and Y. Fernandez. (Compilers). Proceedings of the 16th Annual Symposium on Sea
Chaloupka, M.Y. and Musick, J.A. 1997. Age, Growth, and Population Dynamics In: Lutz, J.A. and Musick, J.A., (Eds.). The biology of sea turtles. Turtle Biology and Conservation NOAA Technical Memorandum NMFS-SEFSC-412:63.
CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida, USA:233-277. Gregg, S.S. 1988. Of soup and survival. Sea Front. 34:297-302.
Clarke, M., Campbell, A.C., Hameid, W.S. and Ghoneim, S. 2000. Preliminary report on the status of marine turtles nesting populations on the Groombridge, B. 1990. Marine turtles in the Mediterranean: Distribution, population status, conservation. Report to the Council of Europe,
Mediterranean coast of Egypt. Biological Conservation 94:363-371. Environment Conservation and Management Division, Nature and Environment Series No. 48. 98 pp.
Cottingham, D. 1988. Persistent marine debris: Challenge and response. The federal perspective. Alaska Sea Grant College program. 41 pp. Gyuris, E. 1993. Factors that control the emergence of green turtle hatchlings from the nest. Wild. Res. 20:345.
De Metrio, G., Petrosino, G., Matarrese, A., Tursi, A. and Montanaro, C. 1983. Importance of the fishery activities with drift lines on the popula- Haddoud, D.A. and El Gomati, H. (in press). The coast survey of marine turtle activity along the coast of Libya. Phase 2: between Sirte and Misratah.
tions of Caretta caretta (L.) and Dermochelys coriacea (L.) (Reptilia, Testudines), in the Gulf of Taranto. Oebalia IX(n.s.):43-53. Deuxièmes Journées Maghrébines des Science de la Mer. INSTM.
Delaugerre, M. 1987. Statut des tortues marines de la Corse (et de la Mediterranee). Vie Milieu 37(3/4):243-264. Hadjichristophorou and Demetropoulos, A. 1998. CYPRUS. Progress in the implementation of the Action Plan on Marine Turtles. In: UNEP, 1998.
Demetropoulos, A. and Hadjichristophorou, M. 1989. Sea turtle conservation in Cyprus. Marine Turtle Newsletter 44:4-6. Meeting of expert on the implementation of the Action Plan for the conservation of Mediterranean marine turtles adopted within MAP.
Demetropoulos, A. and Hadjichristophorou, M. 1995. Manual on Marine Turtle Conservation in the Mediterranean. UNEP(OCA)/MED WG. 145/4. UNEP(SPA/RAC), Tunis, 1998. Annex IV:18-21.
UNEP(MAP)SPA/IUCN/CWS/Fisheries Department, MANRE (Cyprus):88 pp. Hendrickson, J.R. 1958. The green sea turtle, Chelonia mydas (Linn.) in Malaya and Sarawak. Proc. Zool. Soc. London 130:455-535.
Dodd, C.K. Jr. 1988. Synopsis of the biological data on the loggerhead sea turtle Caretta caretta (Linnaeus 1758). U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv., Biol. Rep. Herbst, L.H. 1994. Fibropapillomatosis of marine turtles. Annual Review of Fish Diseases 4:389-425.
88(14). 110 pp. Hirth, H.F. 1980. Some aspects of the nesting behaviour and reproductive biology of sea turtles. American Zoologist 20(3):507-523.
Eckert, S.A., Eckert, K.L., Ponganis, P. and Kooyman, G.L. 1989. Diving and foraging behaviour of leatherback sea turtles (Dermochelys coriacea). Hirth, H.F. and Samson, D.A. 1987. Nesting behavior of green turtles, Chelonia mydas, at Tortuguero, Costa Rica. Caribbean J. Sci. 23(3-4):374-
Can. J. Zool. 67:2834-2840. 379.
Encalada, S.E., Lahanas, P.N., Bjorndal, K.A., Bolten, A.B., Miyamoto, M.M. and Bowen, B.W. 1996. Phylogeography and population structure of Hirth, H.F. 1997. Synopsis of the biological data on the green turtle Chelonia mydas (Linnaeus 1758). Fish and Wildlife Service, U.S. Department
the Atlantic and Mediterranean green turtle (Chelonia mydas): a mitochondrial DNA control region sequence assessment. Molecular Ecology 5:473-483. of the Interior Washington, D.C. 20240, Biol. Rep. 97(1). 120 pp.
Ehrhart, L.M., Raymond, P., Guseman, J.L. and Owen, R. 1990. A documented case of green turtles killed in an abandoned gill net: the need for Holmes, W.N. and McBean, R.L. 1964. Some aspects of electrolyte excretion in the green turtle, Chelonia mydas. J. Exp. Biol. 41:81-90.
better regulation of Florida’s gill net fisheries. Richardson, T.H., Richardson, J.I. and Donnelly, M. (Compilers). Proceedings of thr 10th Annual Hopkins, S.R. and Richardson, J.J. 1984. Recovery plan for marine turtles. U.S. Gov. Print. Off., 355 p.
Workshop on Sea Turtle Biology and Conservation. NOAA Technical Memorandum NMFS-SEFC-278:55-58. Hosier, P.E., Koclar, M. and Thayer, V. 1981. Off-road vehicle and pedestrian track effects on the sea-approach of hatchling loggerhead turtle.
Farrell, J.G. 1988. Plastic pollution in the marine environment: Boater can help control a growing problem. Deleware Sea Grant MAS Note. June:1. Environ. Conserv. 8:158-161.
Felger, R.S., Cliffton, K. and Regal, P.J. 1976. Winter dormancy in sea turtles: independent discovery and exploitation in the Gulf of California by Irwin, M.S., Godley, B.J. and Broderick, A.C. 1998. The effect of anthropogenic lighting on marine turtles in Northern Cyprus. Byles, R. and Y.
two local cultures. Science 191:283-284. Fernandez. (Compilers). Proceedings of the 16th Annual Symposium on Sea Turtle Biology and Conservation NOAA Technical Memorandum NMFS-
Frazer, N.B. and Ehrhart, L.M. 1985. Preliminary growth models for green, Chelonia mydas, and loggerhead, Caretta caretta, turtles in the wild. SEFSC-412:71-74.
Copeia 1985:73-79. Johnson, S.A., Bjorndal, K.A. and Bolten, A.B. 1996. Effects of organized turtle watches on loggerhead (Caretta caretta) nesting behaviour and hat-
Frazier, J. 1971. Observation on sea turtles at Aldabra Atoll. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. Lond. B. 260:373-410. chling production in Florida. Conservation Biol. 10(2):570-577.
Frazier, J., Margaritoulis, D., Muldoon, K., Potter, C.W., Rosewater, J., Ruckdeschel, C. and Salas, S. 1985. Epizoan communities on marine turtles. Jones, F.R. 1968. Fish migration. Edward Arnold, London.
I. Bivalve and gastropod molluscs. P.S.Z.N.I. Marine Ecology 6(2):127-140. Kasparek, M. 1995. The nesting of marine turtles on the coast of Syria. Zoology in the Middle East 11:51-62.
Frazier, J., Goodbody, I. and Ruckdeschel, C.A. 1991. Epizoan communities on marine turtles: II. Tunicates. Bull. Mar. Sci. 48(3):763-765. Kennish, M.J. 1994. Practical Handbook of Marine Science, 2nd ed.. CRC Marine Science Series, CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida, USA.
Frazier, J.G., Winston, J.E. and Ruckdeschel, C.A. 1992. Epizoan communities on marine turtles. III. Bryozoa. Bull. Mar. Sci. 51(1):1-8. Kinne, O. 1985. Introduction to Volume IV, Part II: Reptilia, Aves, Mammalia. In: Kinne, O. (Ed.). Diseases of Marine Animals, [Link], Part 2.
Frick, M.G., Williams, K.L. and Robinson, M. 1998. Epibionts Associated with Nesting Loggerhead Sea Turtles (Caretta caretta) in Georgia, USA. Hamburg, Federal Republic of Germany:542-552.
Herpetological Review 29(4):211-214. Kontos, A.R. and Webster, J. 1985. Georgia shrimp fishermen conduct sea turtle research. Marine Turtle Newsletter 34:1-2.
Frick, M.G, Williams, K.L., Veljacic, D., Pierrard, L. Jackson, J.A. and Knight, S. 2000. Marine Turtle Newsletter 88:3-5. Kopsida, H., Margaritoulis, D. and Dimopoulus. D. (in press). What marine turtle stranding can tell us. Proceedings of the 20th International Sea
George, R.H. 1997. Health Problems and Diseases of Sea Turtles. In: Lutz, J.A. and Musick, J.A., (Eds.). The biology of sea turtles. CRC Press, Boca Turtle Symposium. U.S. Dep. Commer. NOAA Technical Memorandum NMFS-SEFSC, Miami, Florida, USA.
Raton, Florida, USA:363-387. Laist, D.W. 1987. Overview of the biological effects of lost and discarded plastic debris in the marine environment. [Link]. 18:319-326.
Gerosa, G. and Casale, P. 1994. Relazione tecnica relativa al “Campo di sorveglianza e studio delle tartarughe marine” svoltosi a Lampedusa (AG) Laurent, L. 1990. Les tortues marines en Algérie et au Maroc (Méditerranée). Bull. Soc. Herp. Fr. 55:1-23.
dal 22 giugno al 11 settembre 1993. Dip. B.A.U. Università di Roma “La Sapienza”, CHELON, WWF-Italia, Viale Val Padana, 134/B, 00141 Laurent, L. and Lescure, J. 1994. L'hivernage des tortues caouannes Caretta caretta (L.) dans le sud Tunisien. Rev. Ecol. (Terre Vie) 49:63-86.
Roma, Italy. Laurent, L. 1996. Synthèse historique de la présence de tortues marines sur les cotes de France (cotes méditerranéennes). Ministre de l'Environnement,
Gerosa, G., Casale, P. and Yerli, S.V. 1995. Report on a sea turtle nesting beach study (Akyatan, Turkey), 1994. Proceedings of the International Dir. de la Nat. et des Pays., Sous-dir. de la chasse, de la faune et de la flore sauvages. Contrat No.95/20. 29 pp.
Congress of Chelonian Conservation (SOPTOM Ed.). 6-10 July 1995. Gonfaron, France:173-180. Laurent, L., Abd El-Mawla, E.M., Bradai, M.N., Demirayak, F. and Oruç, A. 1996. Reducing sea turtle mortality induced by Mediterranean fishe-
Gerosa, G. 1996. Manual on marine turtle tagging in the Mediterranean. RAC/SPA (UNEP-MAP), Tunis, Tunisia. 48pp. ries: trawling activity in Egypt, Tunisia and Turkey. Report for the WWF International Mediterranean Programme. WWF Project 9E0103. 32 pp.

44 Sea Turtle Handling Guidebook for Fishermen - Teaching Book Sea Turtle Handling Guidebook for Fishermen - Teaching Book 45
Literature cited Literature cited

Laurent, L. 1998. Review and analysis of the available knowledge of marine turtle nesting and population dynamics in the Mediterranean. UNEP Mayol, J. 1986. Incidencia de la pesca accidental sobre las tortugas marinas en el Mediterraneo espanol. [Link]. SECONA.
(OCA) MED WG.145/Inf. 3. SPA/RAC Tunis, Tunisia. McGavern, L. 1989. Plastics: Sealing the fate of marine life. MIT Sea Grant College Program for Coastweeks: 1.
Laurent, L., Casale, P., Bradai, M.N., Godley, B.J., Gerosa, G., Broberick, A.C., Schroth, W., Schierwater, B., Levy, A.M., Freggi, D., ABD El-Mawla, Merrel, T.R. 1980. Accumulation of plastic litter on beaches of Amchitka Island, Alaska. Mar. Environ. Res. 3:171-184.
E.M., Hadoud, D.A., Gomati, H.E., Domingo, M., Hadjichristophorou, M., Kornaraky, L., Demirayak, F. and Gautier, CH. 1998. Molecular resolu- Meschini, P., Mancusi, C., Gili, C. and Doria, G. (in press). Findings of Chelonia mydas in the Ligurian and North Tyrrhenian Sea. Proceedings of
tion of marine turtle stock composition in fishery by catch: a case study in the Mediterranean. Molecular Ecology 7: 1529-1542. the First Italian Meeting on Sea Turtle Biology and Conservation Policoro (MT) 19-20 October 2000. CHELON, Viale Val Padana, 134/B, 00141
Laurent, L., Bradai, M.N., Hadoud, D.H., El Gomati, H.E. and Hamza, A.A. 1999. Marine turtle nesting activity assessment on Libyan coasts. Phase Roma, Italy.
3: survey of the coasts between the Tunisian border and Misratah. RAC/SPA, Tunis, Tunisia. 47pp. Miller, J.D. 1997. Reproduction in Sea Turtles. In: Lutz, J.A. and Musick, J.A., (Eds.). The biology of sea turtles. CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida, USA: 52-71.
Lazar, B. 1995. Analysis of incidental catch of Marine Turtles (Reptilia, Cheloniidae) in the eastern part of the Adriatic Sea: Existence of overwinte- Miraglia, F., Gerosa, G., Funes, L., Varasano, V. and Mangialardi, S. (in press). Finding, endoscopic examination and release into the sea of a lea-
ring areas? Proc. of abst., Symposium in honour of Zdravko Lorkovic, Zagreb, November 6 – 8, 1995 (ed: Ljubesic, N.): 97. therback turtle (Dermochelys coriacea, Vandelli, 1761) incidentally caught near the Ionic coast of Basilicata (Italy). Proceedings of the First Italian
Lazar, B., Margaritoulis, D. and Tvrkovic, N. 2000. Migration of the loggerhead sea turtle (Caretta caretta) into the Adriatic Sea. Abreu-Grobois, Meeting on Sea Turtle Biology and Conservation, Policoro (MT), Italy, 19-20 October 2000. CHELON, Viale Val Padana, 134/B, 00141 Roma, Italy.
F.A., Briseño-Dueñas, R., Marquez, R. and Sarti, L. (Compilers). Proceedings of the 18th International Sea Turtle Symposium. U.S. Dep. Commer. Mortimer, J.A. 1979. Ascension Island: British jeopardize 45 years of conservation. Marine Turtle Newsletter 10:7-8.
NOAA Tech. Memo. NMFS-SEFSC-436:101-102. Mortimer, J.A. 1982. Factors influencing beach selection by nesting sea turtles. In: Bjorndal, K.A. (Ed.). Biology and conservation of sea turtles.
Lazar, B., Zavodnik, D., Garbac, I. and Tvrkovic, N. (in press). Diet composition of the loggerhead sea turtle Caretta caretta in the northern Adriatic Smithsonian Inst. Press, Washington, D.C.:45-51.
Sea: a preliminary study. Proceedings of the 20th International Sea Turtle Symposium. U.S. Dep. Commer. NOAA Technical Memorandum NMFS- Mortimer, J.A. 1990. The influence of beach sand characteristics on the nesting behaviour and clutch survival of green turtles, Chelonia mydas.
SEFSC, Miami, Florida, USA. Copeia 1990(3):802-817.
Lillywhite, H.B. and Maderson, P.F.A. 1982. Skin structure and permeability. In: Gans, C. and Pough, F.H. (Eds.). Biology of the Reptilia, Vol.12. Mortimer, J.A. 1995. Feeding Ecology of Sea Turtles. In: Bjorndal, K.A. (Ed.). Biology and Conservation of Sea Turtles, revised edition. Smithsonian
Physiology. Academic Press, New York: 397-442. Inst. Press, Washington, D.C. and London:103-109
Limpus, C.J., Miller, J.D., Parmenter, C.J., Reimer, D., Mc Lachlan, N. and Webb, R. 1992. Migration of green Chelonia mydas and loggerhead Mrosovsky, N. 1981. Plastic jellyfish. Marine Turtle Newsletter 17:5-7.
Caretta caretta turtles to and from eastern Australian rookeries. Aust. Wildl. Res. 19(4):489-506. Musick, J.A. and Limpus, C.J. 1997. Habitat utilization and migration in juvenile sea turtles. In: Lutz, J.A. and Musick, J.A., (Eds.). The biology of
Limpus, C.J. 1993. The Green Turtle, Chelonia mydas, in Queensland: Breeding Males in the Southern Great Barrier Reef. Wildl. Res., 20:513-23. sea turtles. CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida, USA: 137-163.
Limpus, C.J. and Miller, J.D. 1993. Family Cheloniidae. In: Glasby, C.J., Ross, G.J.B., and Beesley, P.L. (Eds.). Fauna of Australia, Vol. 2A. Amphibia National Marine Fisheries Service and U.S. Fish And Wildlife Service. 1991. Recovery Plan for U.S. Population of Loggerhead Turtle. National
and Reptilia. Australian Government Publishing Service, Camberra, Australia, 113 pp. Marine Fisheries Service, Washington, D.C.:64 pp.
Lohmann, K.J. and Lohmann, C.M.F. 1996. Orientation and open-sea navigation in sea turtles. J. Exp. Biol. 199: 73-81. Nédélec, C. and Prado, J. 1990. Definition and classification of fishing gear categories. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper No. 222. Revision 1. Rome,
Lutcavage, M.E., Lutz, P.L. and Baier, H. 1989. Respiratory mechanics in the loggerhead sea turtle, Caretta caretta. Respir. Physiol., 76:13. FAO:92 pp.
Lutcavage, M.E., Bushnell, P.G and Jones, D.R. 1990. Oxygen transport in the leatherback sea turtle Dermochelys coriacea. Physiol. Zool. 63:1012. Ogren, L.H. 1994. Sea turtle interactions with the longline fishery in the Gulf of Mexico. In: Balazs, [Link] Pooley, S.G. (Eds.). Research Plan to
Lutcavage, M.E. and Lutz, P.L. 1991. Voluntary diving metabolism and ventilation in the loggerhead sea turtle. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 147: 287. assess marine turtle hooking mortality: results of an experts workshop held in Honolulu. NOAA-NMFS-SFSC, Administrative Report H-93-18:42-47.
Lutcavage, M.E., Bushnell, P.G. and Jones, D.R. 1992. Oxygen stores and aerobic metabolism in the leatherback sea turtle. Can. J. Zool. 70(2):348-351. O'Hara, K., Atkin, N. and Iudicello, S., 1986. Marine Wildlife Entanglement in North America. Prepared by Center for Environmental Education.
Lutcavage, M.E., Lutz, P.L., Bossart, G. and Hudson, D. 1995. Physiologic and clinicopatholocic effects of crude oil on loggerhead sea turtle. Arch. 219pp.
Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 28:417. O'Hara, K.J. and Iudicello, S. 1987. Plastics in the Ocean: More than a Litter Problem. Central for Environmental Education. 128pp.
Lutcavage, M.E. and Lutz, P.L. 1997. Diving Physiology. In: Lutz, J.A. and Musick, J.A., (Eds.). The biology of sea turtles. CRC Press, Boca Raton, O'Hara, K.J. 1988. Plastic debris and its effects on marine wildlife. In:Conservation Challenges:394-434.
Florida, USA: 277-296. Oliverio, M., Gerosa, G. and Cocco, M. 1992. First record of Pinctada radiata (Bivalvia, Pteriidae) epibiont on the loggerhead sea turtle Caretta
Lutcavage, M.E., Plotkin, P., Witherington, B. and Lutz, P.L. 1997. Human Impacts on sea Turtle Survival. In: Lutz, J.A. and Musick, J.A., (Eds.). The caretta (Chelonia, Cheloniidae). Boll. Malacol. 28:149-152.
biology of sea turtles. CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida, USA:387-411. Oravez, C.A. 1999. Reducing Incidental Catch in Fisheries. In: Eckert, K. L., Bjorndal, K.A., Abreu-Grobois, A. and Donnelly, M. (Eds.). Research
Lutz, P.L, LaManna J.C., Adams, M.R. and Rosenthal, M. 1980. Cerebral resistance to anoxia in the marine turtles. Respir. Physiol. 41: 241. and Management Techniques for the Conservation of Sea Turtles. IUCN/SSC Marine Turtle Specialist Group Publication No. 4:189-193.
Lutz, P.L. and Bentley, T.B. 1985. Respiratory physiology of diving in the sea turtle. Copeia 1985: 671. Panou, A., Antypas, G., Giannopoulos, Y., Moschonas, S., Mourelatos, D., Mourelatos, G., Mourelatos, C., Toumazatos, P., Tselentis, L., Voutsinas,
Lutz, P.L., Lutcavage, M. and Hudson, D. 1986. Physiological effects of oil on sea turtles. In Study on the Effects of Oil on Marine Turtles. Mineral N. and Voutsinas, V. 1992. Incidental catches of loggerhead turtles, Caretta caretta, in swordfish long lines in the Ionian Sea, Greece. Testudo 3:1-6.
Management Service Contract No.14-12-0001-30063:91-127. Peters, A., Verhoeven, K.J.F., van Piggelen, D.C.G. and Strijbosch, H. 1994. Caretta caretta (Loggerhead Sea Turtle) Predation. Herpetological
Lutz, P.L. and Dunbar-Cooper, A. 1987. Variations in the blood chemistry of the loggerhead sea turtle, Caretta caretta. Fish. Bull. 85(1):37-44. Review 25(3):120.
Lutz, P.L., Bergey, A. and Bergey, M. 1989. Effects of temperature on gas exchange and acid-base balance in the sea turtle Caretta caretta at rest Plotkin, P. and Amos, A.F. 1988. Entanglement in and ingestion of marine debris by sea turtles stranded along the south Texas coast. Schroeder, B.A.
and during routine activity. J. Exp. Biol. 144:155-169. (Compiler). Proceedings of the 8th Annual Workshop on Sea Turtle Conservation and Bilogy. NOAA Technical Memorandum NMFS-SEFC-214:79-82.
Lutz, P.L. 1997. Salt, Water, and pH Balance in Sea Turtles. In: Lutz, J.A. and Musick, J.A., (Eds.). The biology of sea turtles. CRC Press, Boca Raton, Prange, H.D. and Greenwald, L. 1980. Effects of dehydration on the urine concentration and salt gland secretion of the green sea turtle. Comp.
Florida, USA:343-363. Biochem. Physiol. 66A:133-136.
Macdonald, D.W. & Brown, L. 1992. Control of Turtle Nest Predation, Turkey, 1992. Wildlife Conservation Research Unit, Dept. of Zoology, Pritchard, P.C.H. 1979. Encyclopedia of Turtles. T.F.H. Publication, Inc. Ltd., Neptune, N.J. USA.
University of Oxford, 60 pp. Rafa, J.A. and Salinas, J. 1990. Sur la presence de la tortue verte, Chelonia mydas (L., 1758) en Mediterranee occidentale. Rapp. Comm. int. Mer
Magnuson, J.J., Bjorndal, K.A., Dupaul, W.D., Graham, G.L., Owens, D.W., Peterson, C.H., Pritchard, P.C.H., Richardson, J.I. and Al. 1990. Decline Médit. 32(1):241.
of the sea turtles: causes and prevention. National Research Council. National Academy Press, Washington, [Link] 0-309-0427-X, 259pp. Sadove, S.S., Pisciotta, R. and Digiovanni, R. 1998. Assessment and Initial Treatment of Cold-Stunned Sea Turtles. Chelonian Conservation and
Mann, T.M. 1978. Impact of developed coastline on nesting and hatchling sea turtles in southeastern Florida. Proc. Fl. Int. Conf. S. Turt., 24-25 July Biology 3(1):84-87.
1976. In: Fl. Mar. Res. Publ. (Ed.: G.E. Henderson):53-55. Sakamoto, W., Uchida, I., Naito, Y., Kureha, K., Tijimura, M. and Sato, K. 1990. Deep diving behavior of the loggerhead turtle near the frontal
Margaritoulis, D. 1985. Preliminary observations on the breeding behaviour and ecology of Caretta caretta in Zakynthos, Greece. Biologia Gallo- zone. Bull. Japan. Soc. Sci. Fish. 56(9):1435-1443.
Hellenica 10:323-332. Sapsford, C.W. 1978. Anatomical evidence for intracardiac blood shunting in marine turtles. Zool. Afr. 13: 57.
Margaritoulis, D. 1986. Captures and stranding of the leatherback sea turtle, Dermochelys coriacea, in Greece (1982-1984). J. Herp. 20(3):471-474. Schmidt-Nielsen, K. and F¬nge, R. 1958. Salt glands in marine reptiles. Nature 183: 783-785.
Margaritoulis, D. 1988. Post-nesting movements of loggerhead sea turtles tagged in Greece. Rapp. Comm. int. Mer Médit. 31(2):284. Schulman, A.A. and Lutz, P. 1995. The effect of plastic ingestion on lipid metabolism in the green sea turtle (Chelonia mydas). Richardson, J.L. and
Margaritoulis, D., Hiras, G., Pappa, C. and Voutsinas, S. 1996a. Protecting loggerhead nests from foxes at the Bay of Kiparissia, Western Greece. Richardson, T.H. (Compilers). Proceedings of the 12th Annual Workshop on Sea Turtle Biology and Conservation. NOAA Technical Memorandum
Keinath, J.A., Barnard, D.E., Musick, J.A. and Bell, B.A. (Compilers). Proceedings of the 15th Annual Workshop on Sea Turtle Biology. and NMFS-SEFSC-361:122-124.
Conservation. NOAA Technical Memorandum NMFS-SEFSC-387:188-192. Sella, I. 1982. Sea turtles in the eastern Mediterranean and northern Red Sea. In: Bjorndal, K.A. (Ed.). Biology and conservation of sea turtles.
Margaritoulis, D., Karavellas, D. & Irvine, C. 1996b. Predation of adult loggerheads by Mediterranean monk seals. Keinath, J.A., Barnard, D.E., Smithsonian Inst. Press, Washington, D.C.:417-423.
Musick, J.A. and Bell, B.A. (Compilers). Proceedings of the 15th Annual Workshop on Sea Turtle Biology and Conservation. NOAA Technical Sentìes G., A., Espinoza-Avalos, J. and Zurita, J.C. 1999. Epizoic algae of nesting sea turtles Caretta caretta (L.) and Chelonia mydas (L.) from the
Memorandum NMFS-SEFSC-387:193-196. Mexican Caribbean. Bulletin of Marine Science 64(1):185-188.
Margaritoulis, D., Argano, R., Baran, I., Bentivegna, F., Bradai, M.N., Caminas, J.A., Casale, P., De Metrio, G., Demetropoulos, A., Gerosa, G., Shaver, D.J. and Plotkin, P.T. 1998. Marine debris ingestion by sea turtles in South Texas: pre- and post-MARPOL ANNEX V. Byles, R. and Y.
Godley, B.J., Haddoud, D.A., Houghton, J., Laurent and L., Lazar, B. (in press). Loggerhead Turtles in the Mediterranean: Present Knowledge and Fernandez. (Compilers). Proceedings of the 16th Annual Symposium on Sea Turtle Biology and Conservation NOAA Technical Memorandum NMFS-
Conservation Perspectives. In: Smithsonian Institution Press. SEFSC-412:124.
Mas, J. and Garcia, P. 1990. Tortues marines dans la zone levantine de la peninsule iberique. Rapp. Comm. int. Mer Medit. 32(1):240. Shoop, C.R. 1982. Resuscitation of a leatherback turtle. Marine Turtle Newsletter 21:5.
Mayol, J. and Castello Mas, M. 1983. Contribuion al conocimiento de la Tortuga Boba en las Baleares. ICONA, Palma de Mallorca, Spain. Stabenau, E.K., Moon, P.F. and Heming, T.A. 1993. Resuscitation of sea turtles. Marine Turtle Newsletter 62:3-5.

46 Sea Turtle Handling Guidebook for Fishermen - Teaching Book Sea Turtle Handling Guidebook for Fishermen - Teaching Book 47
Literature cited

Stabenau, E.K. and Vietti, K.R. 1999. Physiological Effects of Short-Term Submergence of Loggerhead Sea Turtles, Caretta caretta, in TED-equipped
Commercial fishing Nets. Final report to National Marine Fisheries Service, Pascagoula Laboratory. 17pp.
Stancyk, S.E. 1982. Non-human predators of sea turtles and their control. In: Bjorndal, K.A. (Ed.). Biology and conservation of sea turtles.
Smithsonian Inst. Press, Washington, D.C.:139-152.
Stanley, K.M., Stabenau, E.K. and Landry, A.M. 1988. Debris ingestion by sea turtles along the Texas coast. . Schroeder, B.A. (Compiler).
Proceedings of the 8th Annual Workshop on Sea Turtle Conservation and Biology. NOAA Technical Memorandum NMFS-SEFC-214:119-122.
Storelli, M.M., Ceci, E. and Marcotrigiano, G.O. 1998a. Comparison of Total Mercury, Methylmercury, and Selenium in Muscle Tissues and in the
Liver of Stenella coeruleoalba (Meyen) and Caretta caretta (Linnaeus). Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol., 61:541-547.
Storelli, M.M., Ceci, E. and Marcotrigiano, G.O. 1998b. Distribution of Heavy Metal Residues in Some Tissues of Caretta caretta (Linnaeus) Specimen
Beached Along the Adriatic Sea (Italy). Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol., 60:546-552.
Storelli, M.M. and Marcotrigiano, G.O. 2000. Chlorobiphenyls, HCB, and Organochlorine Pesticides in Some Tissues of Caretta caretta (Linnaeus)
Specimens Beached Along the Adriatic Sea, Italy. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol., 64:481-488.
Taskavak, E. and Farkas, B. 1998. On the occurrence of the Leatherback Turtle, Dermochelys coriacea, in Turkey (Testudines: Dermochelyidae).
Zoology in the Middle East, 16:71-75.
UNEP, 1998. Meeting of experts on the implementation of the Action Plan for the conservation of Mediterranean marine turtles adopted within MAP.
UNEP(OCA)/MED WG. 145/4. UNEP(SPA/RAC), Tunis, 1998:70pp.
UNI, 1981. Attrezzi per la pesca in mare. Termini e definizioni. Norma UNI 8286.
Vallini, C., Gerosa, G., Ungaro, G., Gavanelli, G. and Fano E.A. (in press). Preliminary results on incidentally caught Caretta caretta with midwa-
ter trawl in the North Western Adriatic Sea (Lidi di Comacchio, FE, Italy). Proceedings of the First Italian Meeting on Sea Turtle Biology and
Conservation, Policoro (MT), Italy, 19-20 October 2000. CHELON, [Link] Val Padana, 134/B, 00141 Roma, Italy.
van Piggelen, D.C.G. and Strijbosch, H. 1993. The nesting of sea turtles, (Caretta caretta and Chelonia mydas) in the Goksu Delta, Turkey, June-
August 1991). Doga - Tr. J. of Zoology, 17:137-149.
Wallace, N. 1985. Debris entanglement in the marine environment: A review. In: Proc. of the Ninth Ann. Work. on Sea Turtle Cons. and Bio., S.A.
Eckert, [Link] and Richardson T.H., eds. NOAA-TM-NMFS-SEFC-232.
Walsh, M. 1999. Rehabilitation of Sea Turtles. In: Eckert, K. L., Bjorndal, K.A., Abreu-Grobois, A. and Donnelly, M. (Eds.). Research and
Management Techniques for the Conservation of Sea Turtles. IUCN/SSC Marine Turtle Specialist Group Publication No. 4:202-207.
Wehle, D.H.S. and Coleman, F.C. 1983. Plastic at sea. Nat. Hist. 92:20-26.
Welch, L. 1988. Marine Log. Florida Sea Grant College Program. October:3.
Wibbels, T., Owens, D.W., Limpus, C.J., Reed, P.C. and Amoss, M.S. Jr. 1990 Seasonal Changes in Serum Gonadal Steroids Associated with
Migration, Mating, and Nesting in the Loggerhead Sea Turtle (Caretta caretta). General and Comparative Endocrinology 79:154-164.
Witham, R. 1991. On the ecology of young sea turtles. Flo. Scientist 54(3/4):179-190.
Witherington, B.E. 1986. Human and Natural Causes of Marine Turtle Clutch and Hatchling Mortality and Their Relationship to Hatchling Production
on an Important Florida Nesting Beach. MS Thesis. Univ. of Central Florida, Orlando, Florida.141pp.
Witherington, B.E., Bjorndal, K.A. and McCabe, C.M. 1990. Temporal pattern of nocturnal emergence of loggerhead turtle hatchlings from natural
nests. Copeia 1990 (4):1165-1168.
Witherington, B.E. 1995. Hatchling Orientation. In: Bjorndal, K.A. (Ed.). Biology and Conservation of Sea Turtles, revised edition. Smithsonian Inst.
Press, Washington, D.C. and London:577-578
Witherington, B.E. and Martin, R.E. 1996. Understanding, assessing, and resolving light-pollution problems on sea turtle nesting beaches. FMRI Tech.
Rep. TR-2. Florida Marine Research Institute, St. Petersburg, Florida. 73 pp.
Witherington, B.E. 1999. Reducing Threats to Nesting Habitats. In: Eckert, K. L., Bjorndal, K.A., Abreu-Grobois, A. and Donnelly, M. (Eds.). Research
and Management Techniques for the Conservation of Sea Turtles. IUCN/SSC Marine Turtle Specialist Group Publication No. 4:179-183.
Witzell, W.N. 1996. The incidental capture of sea turtles by the US pelagic longline fleet in the western Atlantic Ocean. In: Williams, P., Anninos,
P.J., Plotkin, P.T. and Salvini, K.L (Eds). Pelagic longline fishery-sea turtle interactions: Proc., Silver Spring, Maryland. US [Link] Commerce, NOAA
Tech. Memo. NMFS-OPR-7.32-38.
Wolke, R.E., Brooks, D.R. and George, A. 1982. Spirorchidiasis in loggerhead sea turtles (Caretta caretta): Pathology. J. Wildl. Dis. 18:175-186.
Wood, S.J., Gatz, R.N. and Glass, M.L.1984. Oxygen transport in the green sea turtle. J. Comp. Physiol. 154: 275.
Wyneken, J. and Salmon, M. 1992. Frenzy and postfrenzy swimming activity in loggerhead, green and leatherback hatchling sea turtles. Copeia
1992(2):478-484.
Yerli, S.V. and Demirayak, F. 1996. Marine Turtles in Turkey: A Survey on Nesting Site Status. DHKD, CMS Rep. No:96/4, Istanbul, 133pp.
Yerli, S.V and Canbolat, A.F. 1998. Do_u Akdeniz Bölgesi'ndeki Deniz Kaplumba_alannın Korunmasına Yönelik Yönetim Planı Ilkeleri. Çevre
Bakanlı_ı Ç.K.G.M. Ankara, 88 pp.
Zug, G.R., Wynn, A.H. and Ruckdeschel, C. 1986. Age Determination of Loggerhead Sea Turtles, Caretta caretta, by Incremental Growth Marks in
the Skeleton. Smithsonian Contributions to Zoology N. 427. 34 pp.
Zug, G.R. and Parham, J.F. 1996. Age and growth in leatherback turtles, Dermochelys coriacea (Testudines: Dermochelyidae): a skeletochronologi-
cal analysis. Chelonian Conservation and Biology 2(2):244-249.

48 Sea Turtle Handling Guidebook for Fishermen - Teaching Book

 Sea Turtle Handling
Guidebook for Fishermen
Teaching Book