Chapter 3

The Research Process

 Research Process
• Research process consists of series of actions or steps necessary
to effectively carry out research and the desired sequencing of
these steps.
• Broadly speaking, a research process is very similar to
undertaking a journey.
• Suppose you want to go out for a drive.
• Before you start, you must decide where you want to go and
then which route to take.
• If you know the route, you do not need to consult a map, but, if
you do not know the route, then you need to use a map.
• Your problem is compounded if there is more than one route.
• You need to decide which one to take.
 Research Process…
• Similarly, for a research journey there are also two important
decisions to make.
– The first is to decide what research questions you want to find
answers to.
– Having decided on your research questions/problems, you need to
decide how to go about finding the answers.
• There are practical steps through which you must pass in your
research journey in order to find the answers to your research
questions.
• At each step in the research process, you are required to choose
from a multiplicity of methods, procedures and models of
research methodology which will help you best achieve your
research objectives.
• This is where your knowledge of research methodology plays a
crucial role.
 Research Process…
• The research process can be broadly divided into three phases:
– Phase A: deciding (what?) – what do you want to research?
– Phase B: planning (how?) – how do you want to do the
research?
– Phase C: conducting (collecting) – gathering the data
required for the research
• Each of these three phases have sub tasks to be performed.
 The Research Process

Phases Phase A Phase B Phase C

Main task Deciding Planning Conducting

What How Collecting

(research question to (the gather evidence to (the required
answer) answer the research information)
questions)

Operational steps 1 2 5
3 4 6 7
• The following order concerning various steps
of the research process:
– i. formulating the research problem (discussed in chapter2)
– ii. extensive literature survey (discussed in chapter2)
– iii. developing the hypothesis
– iv. preparing the research design
– v. determining sample design
– vi. collecting the data
– vii. execution of the project
– viii. analysis of data
– ix. hypothesis testing
– x. generalizations and interpretation
– xi. preparation of the report
 Research Process…
iii. Development of working hypotheses
• After extensive literature survey, a researcher should state the
working hypothesis or hypotheses.
• Working hypothesis is tentative assumption made in order to
draw out and test its logical or empirical consequences.
• Hypothesis should be very specific and limited to the piece of
research in hand because it has to be tested.
• The role of the hypothesis is to guide the researcher by
delimiting the area of research and to keep the researcher on the
right track.
• It sharpens researcher’s thinking and focuses attention on the
more important facets of the problem.
• It also indicates the type of data required and the type of
methods of data analysis to be used.
 Research Process…
• How does one go about developing working hypotheses?
• The answer is by using the following approach:
– a. Discussions with colleagues and experts about the problem, its
origin and the objectives in seeking a solution
– b. Examination of data and records, if available, concerning the
problem for possible trends, peculiarities and other clues
– c. Review of similar studies in the area or the studies on similar
problems
– d. Exploratory personal investigation which involves original field
interviews on a limited scale with interested parties and individuals
with a view to secure greater insight into the practical aspects of
the problem.
• Thus, working hypotheses arise as a result of a-priori thinking
about the subject, examination of the available data and material
including related studies and the counsel of experts and
interested parties.
 Research Process…
• Working hypotheses should be stated in precise and clearly
defined terms.
• In some researches, a working hypotheses is not necessary.
– specially in the case of exploratory or formulative researches
which do not aim at testing the hypothesis.
• But as a general rule, specification of working hypotheses is
another basic step of the research process in most research
problems.
• Example of hypothesis:
– Carrots watered with liquid Vitamin B grow faster than
carrots watered with liquid Vitamin E.
 Research Process…
iv. Preparing the research design
• A research design is the road map that you decide to follow
during your research journey to find answers to your research
questions
– as validly, objectively, accurately and economically as possible.
• It is a plan that details what and how different methods and
procedures to be applied during the research process.
• A research design is a plan, structure and strategy of
investigation so conceived as to obtain answers to research
questions or problems.
• The plan is the complete scheme or program of the research.
• It includes an outline of what the investigator will do from
writing the hypotheses and their operational implications to the
final analysis of data.
 Research Process…
• It is a plan through which you specify your decisions regarding
– what study design you propose to use
– how you will collect information from your respondents
– how you will select your respondents
– how the collected information is to be analyzed and
– how you will communicate your findings
• In addition, you detail your rationale and justification for each
decision that shapes the ‘how’ of the research journey.
• In presenting your rationale and justification, you need to
support them critically from the literature reviewed.
• You also need to assure that the path you have proposed will
yield valid and reliable results.
• The preparation of research design facilitates research to be as
efficient as possible yielding maximal information.
• The function of research design is to provide for the collection
of relevant evidence with minimal expenditure of effort, time
and money.
• But how all these can be achieved depends mainly on the
research purpose.
• The preparation of the research design involves usually the
consideration of the following:
– i. the means of obtaining the information
– ii. the availability and skills of the researcher and his staff (if any)
– iii. explanation of the way in which selected means of obtaining
information will be organized and the reason for selection
– iv. the time available for research, and
– v. the cost factor relating to research, i.e., the finance available for
the purpose.
• There are several research designs, such as, experimental and
non-experimental hypothesis testing.
 Research Process…
vi. Collecting the data
• In dealing with any real-life problem, it is often found that data
at hand are inadequate.
• It becomes necessary to collect data that are appropriate.
• There are several ways of collecting the appropriate data which
differ considerably in context of
– money costs,
– time and
– other resources at the disposal of the researcher.
• Primary data can be collected either through
– experiment or survey
• If the researcher conducts an experiment, he observes some
quantitative measurements with the help of which he/she
examines the truth contained in his hypothesis.
• In the case of a survey, data can be collected by any one or more
of the following ways:
– i. By observation
– ii. Through personal interview
– iii. Through telephone interviews
– iv. By mailing of questionnaires
– v. Through schedules
• The researcher should select one of these methods of collecting
the data taking into consideration
– the nature of investigation
– objective and scope of the inquiry
– financial resources
– available time and
– the desired degree of accuracy
• Though he/she should pay attention to all these factors but much
depends upon the ability and experience of the researcher.
 Research Process…
vii. Execution of the project
• Execution of the project is a very important step.
• If the execution of the project proceeds on correct lines, the data to be
collected would be adequate and dependable.
• The researcher should see that the project is executed in a systematic
manner and in time.
• If the survey is to be conducted by means of structured questionnaires,
data can be readily machine-processed.
• In such a situation, questions as well as the possible answers may be
coded.
• If the data are to be collected through interviewers, arrangements
should be made for proper selection and training of the interviewers.
• The training may be given with the help of instruction manuals which
explain clearly the job of the interviewers at each step.
• Occasional field checks should be made to ensure that the interviewers
are doing their assigned job sincerely and efficiently.
 Research Process…
• Carefully watch out for unanticipated factors in order to keep
the survey as much realistic as possible.
• This means that steps should be taken to ensure that the survey
is under statistical control so that the collected information is in
accordance with the pre-defined standard of accuracy.
• If some of the respondents do not cooperate, some suitable
methods should be designed to tackle this problem.
• One method of dealing with the non-response problem is to
make a list of the non-respondents and take a small sub-sample
of them, and then with the help of experts vigorous efforts can
be made for securing response.
viii. Analysis of data
• After data is collected, the next step is analyzing the data.
• The analysis of data requires a number of closely related
operations such as
– establishment of categories
– the application of these categories to raw data through coding
– tabulation
– and then drawing statistical inferences.
• The unwieldy data should necessarily be condensed into a few
manageable groups and tables for further analysis.
• Thus, researcher should classify the raw data into some
purposeful and usable categories.
• Coding operation is usually done at this stage through which the
categories of data are transformed into symbols that may be
tabulated and counted.
 Research Process…
• Editing is the procedure that improves the quality of the data for
coding.
• With coding, the stage is ready for tabulation.
• Tabulation is a part of the technical procedure wherein the
classified data are put in the form of tables.
• The electronic/mechanical devices can be made use of at this
juncture.
• A great deal of data, specially in large inquiries, is tabulated by
computers.
• Computers not only save time but also make it possible to study
large number of variables affecting a problem simultaneously.
• Analysis work after tabulation is generally based on the
computation of various percentages, coefficients, etc., by
applying various well-defined statistical formulas.
• In the process of analysis, relationships or differences supporting or
conflicting with the hypothesis should be subjected to tests of
significance to determine with what validity data can be said to
indicate any conclusion.
• For instance, if two samples of weekly wages, each sample taken
from factories in different parts a city, giving two different mean
values, then our problem may be whether the two mean values are
significantly different or the difference is just a matter of chance.
• Through the use of statistical tests, we can establish whether such a
difference is a real one or is the result of random fluctuations.
– If the difference is real, the inference will be that the two samples come
from different universes and
– if the difference is due to chance, the conclusion would be that the two
samples belong to the same universe.
• Similarly, the technique of analysis of variance can help us in
analyzing whether three or more varieties of seeds grown on certain
fields yield significantly different results or not.
• In brief, the researcher can analyze the collected data with the help
of various statistical measures.
ix. Hypothesis-testing
• After analyzing the data, the researcher is in a position to test
the hypotheses formulated earlier.
– Do the facts support the hypotheses or contradict it?
• This is the usual question which should be answered while
testing hypotheses.
• Various tests have been developed by statisticians for this
purpose:
– Chi square test
– t-test
– F-test, etc.
• The hypotheses may be tested through the use of one or more of
such tests, depending on the nature and object of the inquiry.
• Hypothesis-testing will result in either accepting the hypothesis
or in rejecting it.
• If the research has no hypotheses, generalizations established on
the basis of data may be stated as hypotheses to be tested by
subsequent researches in times to come.
 Research Process…
x. Generalizations and interpretation
• If a hypothesis is tested and upheld several times, it may be
possible for the researcher to arrive at generalization, i.e., to
build a theory.
• In fact, the real value of research lies in its ability to arrive at
certain generalizations.
• If the researcher had no hypothesis to start with, the researcher
might seek to explain his findings on the basis of some theory.
• It is known as interpretation.
• The process of interpretation may quite often trigger off new
questions which in turn may lead to further researches.
 Research Process…
xi. Preparation of the report or the thesis
• Finally, the researcher has to prepare the report of what has been
done.
• Writing of report must be done with great care keeping in view
the following:
– Report should be written in a concise and objective style in simple
language avoiding vague expressions such as ‘it seems,’ ‘there
may be’, and the like.
– Charts and illustrations in the main report should be used only if
they present the information more clearly and forcibly.
– Calculated ‘confidence limits’ must be mentioned and the various
constraints experienced in conducting the research operations may
as well be stated.
 The Research Report
• Bringing a research effort to its rightful conclusion involves
writing a report that is faithful to the data and the meanings
found in those data.
• The research report is a document that sets forth clearly and
precisely what the researcher has done to address the research
problem or question.
• The purpose of research is not well served unless the findings
are made known to others.
• Research results must invariably enter the general store of
knowledge.
• Any research report should achieve six main objectives.
– 1. Give readers a clear understanding of the research problem or
question and why it merited an in-depth investigation.
– 2. Describe exactly what methods were used in an effort to address
the research problem or question.
– 3. Present the collected data with enough precision and
thoroughness that they can substantiate the interpretations and
conclusions that will follow.
– 4. Interpret the data for readers and demonstrate either how the
data resolve the research problem or why they don’t completely
resolve the problem.
– 5. Alert readers to possible weaknesses of the study—for instance,
what its design flaws may have been and what assumptions and
biases might have affected results and interpretations.
– 6. Conclude by summarizing the findings and connecting them to
contexts beyond the study itself.
• A comprehensive layout of the research report should comprise:
– A. Front matter
– B. The main text
– C. End matter
• Each of these parts comprise the following:
– i. Front Matter (Preliminary pages)
Title Page
Abstract
Acknowledgments
Table of Contents
List of Tables
List of Figures
– ii. Body of the Report
Chapter 1. Introduction
Chapter 2. Review of The Literature
Chapter 3. Methodology
Chapter 4. Results
Chapter 5. Discussion
Chapter 6. Conclusion and Recommendation
– iii. End Matter
References
Appendix
 The Research Report…
i. Front Matter
• The preliminary pages include all the introductory material that
precedes the discussion of the research problem and study.
• The title page usually comes first; this includes the author and,
typically, a university affiliation and date.
• The next are an abstract, possibly a dedication page (optional),
acknowledgments, a table of contents, lists of any tables and
figures, and, if desired, a preface.
• The abstract provides a summary of the entire research effort in
few paragraphs.
• For a journal article, the length of the abstract is usually 100 to
250 words, depending on the journal.
• For a dissertation, the abstract should be 350 words or less.
 The Research Report…
• The abstract should include sufficient information about the
– research problem,
– methodology,
– results, and
– interpretations
• This gives potential readers an idea as to whether the study has
addressed a topic of concern to them and thus merits their
further attention.
• The abstract you write is likely to be included in one or more
online databases (e.g., ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global)
available at many research libraries around the world.
• Thus, it is critical that you take seriously the task of writing the
abstract and describe your project as clearly, precisely, and
succinctly as possible.
 The Research Report…
• A brief acknowledgment section graciously recognizes the
assistance of those people through whose kindness the research
effort has been possible.
• These individuals may include those
– who introduced you to data sources that helped you in your project
– those who guided your study and gave counsel or support
• perhaps an academic dissertation committee, peers who have
helped you with data collection or analysis, a meticulous
proofreader, and key family members.
• The acknowledgments page is the proper place for the
expression of such indebtedness.
ii. Body of Report
A. Introduction
• The introduction tells the reader
– what the topic of the paper is in general terms,
– why the topic is important, and
– what to expect in the paper.
• Introductions should funnel from general ideas to the specific
topic of the paper.
B. Review of Literature
• The literature review tells the reader what other researchers have
discovered about the research topic or tells the reader about
other research that is relevant to the topic.
• A literature review should shape the way readers think about a
topic
– it educates readers about what the community of scholars says
about a topic and its surrounding issues.
• It states facts and ideas about the research problem and supports
those facts and ideas with credit from where they came from.
 The Research Report…
• Literature reviews have citations running throughout.
• These are part of a systematic way to document where facts and
ideas came from, allowing the reader to look up anything that is
questionable.
• Each citation directs the reader to the references where complete
details on sources can be found.
C. Methods
A methods section must contain:
I. Descriptions of data
• Think in terms of: “Who, What, When, Where, Why and How?”
• Target population
• The ways data were collected (sampling, delivery methods)
• Response rates
• Limitations of data (who is omitted, biases)
• Any analyses necessary to bolster claims the data are appropriate
• Sample sizes through various decisions
II. Descriptions of variables
• Statement of dependent and independent variables
• Names for the variables
• Word for word description of the questions
• The ways variables are coded
III. Manipulations of the variables or data
IV. Reflection on adequacy and strength of sample and variables
for generalizing to the target population
V. The techniques that will be used to test your hypotheses
D. Results
• A results section is where you report the main findings of the
data collection and the analysis you conducted.
• It is common to use illustrations, tables and graphics.
• Raw data or details about the method of statistical analysis used
should be included in the appendix.
• The results section summarizes and presents the findings of the
study to put them in context with your research questions.
• The study data should be presented in a logical sequence
objectively without bias or interpretation.
• Findings may be reported in written text, tables, graphs, and
other illustrations.
• The results section chronicles the findings of the statistical
analyses and assesses whether your hypotheses were correct.
• Evaluations of the hypotheses.
• Were the research hypotheses supported? Statements about new
discoveries or surprises encountered in the analyses.
E. Discussion
• This section assesses how your research findings relate to what
the community of scholars knew already.
• You should summarize the most salient points of your research
to tell the reader what you found out about your topic.
• Discuss the general significance of your topic and findings.
• It might include: whether any initial hypothesis was supported
– whether or not the findings met the aims of the study
– a comparison of your findings with other researches
– limitations, flaws or problems in study design or methods
– You should discuss the shortcomings of your study and what
implications these have for your findings.
• You should discuss the shortcomings of your study and what
implications these have for your findings.
 The Research Report…
• How does a results section differ from a discussion section?
• The results section of a research paper tells the reader what you
found, while the discussion section tells the reader what your
findings mean.
• The results section should present the facts in an academic and
unbiased manner, avoiding any attempt at interpreting the data.
• Think of the results section as setting the stage for the
discussion section by making all the necessary information
known to the reader.
 The Research Report…
F. Conclusion and Recommendation
• Here, summarize the conclusions and what they mean i.e.,
answer the question, “so what?”.
• What changes and further work do you recommend?
• Discuss things future researchers should investigate about your
topic.
 The Research Report…
iii. End Matter
• A reference list at the end of your report allows readers to locate
and use the sources you have cited.
• Hence, it is important that reference information be both
complete and accurate.
• Following the reference list, you can include any appendices
– that might help readers to more completely understand your
research study but aren’t essential to readers’ general
comprehension of your study.
• A rule of thumb is that material appearing in an appendix
enables readers to go further in understanding the method and/or
results if so desired.
 The Research Report…
• For instance, an appendix might include
– informed consent letters
– questionnaires and other assessment instruments
– response sheets
– field notes
– preliminary and final coding categories
– statistical computations
– extensive data tables
• Appendices should be enlisted in respect of all technical data
such as questionnaires, sample information, mathematical
derivations and the like ones.