Introduction

Anxiety involves a general feeling of apprehension about possible future

danger, and fear is an alarm reaction that occurs. The anxiety response pattern is a
complex blend of unpleasant emotions and cognitions that is both more oriented to the
future and much more diffuse than fear (Barlow, 1988, 2002).For example,an empty
feeling in the pit of stomach, tightness in chest, pounding perspiration, headache etc.
Restlessness and the desire to move around are also common.
Fear also a similar alerting signal but there is some deference between fear & anxiety.
In case Fear, is in response to a threat that is known, external, definite or non-
Conffictual in [Link] as anxiety is in response to a threat that is unknown internal,
vague or conffictual in origin.
It has not only cognitive/subjective components but also physiological and behavioral
components.
All emotions including anxiety exist at 3 levels. In ascending order, there is a
Neuroendocrine level, a Motor- visceral level and finally a level of Conscious
awareness. Generally, the person who is anxious is conscious of only a disagreeable
feeling & usually is not aware of the cause of his anxiety.
Causes of Anxiety:
Different perspectives on how personality develops offer different explanations for these
[Link] are some different factors which are the causes of [Link] are-
● Behavioral factor:
Behaviorists believe that anxious behavioral reactions are learned. They see
phobias,for example, as nothing more than classically conditioned fear responses, as
was the case with “Little Albert” (Rachman, 1990; Watson & Rayner, 1920). Watson and
his colleague Rosalie Rayner took the baby, “Little Albert,” and taught him to fear a
white rat by making a loud, scary noise every time the infant saw the rat until finally just
seeing the rat caused the infant to cry and become fearful (Watson & Rayner, 1920).
Even though “Little Albert” was not afraid of the rat at the start, the experiment worked
very [Link] fact, he later appeared to be afraid of other fuzzy things including a rabbit, a
dog, and a sealskin coat.
● Cognitive factor :
Cognitive psychologists see anxiety disorders as the result of illogical, irrational
thought [Link] is happen through different ways like-
Magnification: One way in which people with anxiety disorders show irrational
thinking (Beck, 1976, 1984) is through magnification,the tendency to interpret
situations as far more dangerous, harmful, or important than they actually are.. In panic
disorder, for example, a person might interpret a racing heartbeat as a sign of a heart
attack instead of just a momentary arousal.
 All-or-nothing thinking:The tendency to believe that one’s performance must be
perfect or the result will be a total failure.
Overgeneralization:Distortion of thinking in which a person draws sweeping
conclusions based on only one incident or event and applies those conclusions to
events that are unrelated to the original; the tendency to interpret a single negative
event as a neverending pattern of defeat and failure.
Minimization:Distortions of thinking in which a person blows a negative event out
oproportion to its importance (magnification) while ignoring relevant positive events
(minimization).
● Biological factors:
Anxiety is due to dysfunction in several neurotransmitter systems
(e.g.,serotonin, GABA) and/or difference in brain activation; panic disorder is also
[Link] evidence exists that biological factors contribute to anxiety
disorders. Several disorders, including generalized anxiety disorder, panic disorders,
phobias, and OCD, tend to run in families, pointing to a genetic basis for these
disorders. Furthermore, genetic factors in PTSD seem to influence both the risk of
developing the disorder and the likelihood individuals may be involved in potentially
dangerous situations (Hyman & Cohen, 2013). Functional neuroimaging studies have
revealed that the amygdala, an area of the limbic system, is more active in phobic
people responding to pictures of spiders than in nonphobic people (LeDoux, 2003;
Rauch et al., 2003) and also more active in individuals with PTSD and social anxiety
disorder, suggesting excessive conditioning and exaggerated responses to stimuli that
would typically elicit minimal fearrelated responses (Hyman & Cohen, 2013).
● Cultural Variations:
Anxiety disorders are found around the world, although the particular form the
disorder takes might be different in various cultures. For example, in some Latin
American cultures, anxiety can take the form of “attack of nerves,” in which the person
may have fits of crying, shout uncontrollably, experience sensations of heat, and
become very aggressive, either verbally or physically. These attacks usually come after
some stressful event such as the death of a loved one (American Psychiatric
Association, 2013).
koro, found primarily in China and a few other South Asian and East Asian
countries, involves a fear that one’s genitals are shrinking (Pfeiffer, 1982), and Taijin
kyofusho (TKS), found primarily in Japan, involves excessive fear and anxiety.
Panic disorder occurs at similar rates in adolescents and adults in the United States
andparts of Europe but is found less often in Asian, African, and Latin American
countries.
Symptoms:
Common anxiety signs and symptoms are feeling nervous, restless or tense,having a
sense of impending danger, panic or doom,having an increased heart rate,breathing
rapidly(hyperventilation), sweating,trembling,feeling weak or tired,trouble concentrating
or thinking about anything other than the present worry,having trouble
sleeping,experiencing gastrointestinal (GI) problems,having difficulty controlling
worry,having the urge to avoid things that trigger anxiety.
Concept of State Anxiety & Trait Anxiety:
Another way of viewing anxiety is from the concept of state and trait anxiety.
● State anxiety:
State anxiety is conceptualized as a transitory emotional state or condition of the human
organism that varies in intensity and fluctuates over time. It is characterized by
subjective, consciously perceived feelings of tension and
apprehension, and activation of the autonomic nervous system.
State anxiety will be low in non‐stressful and non ‐ threatening circumstances in which
an existing danger is not perceived as threatening. It will be high in circumstances that
are perceived by anindividual to be threatening.
There are two types if state anxiety---
•Cognitive state anxiety - the amount of worry.
••Somatic state anxiety -relates to perception of physiological changes that happen in a
particular situation.
● Trait anxiety:
Trait anxiety refers to relatively stable individual differennces in being prone to anxiety,
that is, to differences between people in the tendency to respond to situation perceived
as threatening with elevation in state anxiety intensity.
Researchers are found four specific situation or dimension of trait anxiety life
• Social evaluation threat - This might include criticism or conflict.
•• Physical danger threat - This might include things like illness or car accident.
••• Ambiguous threat - This might involve a more general sensation of doom or
unexplainable worries.
•••• Daily routine or harmful situation threat - this might involve fear around meeting new
people or making mistake in your work.
 Hans Eysenck’s (1975) theory of personality incorporates the description of an
individual with high ‘neuroticism’, a specific dimension of personality, as “....anxious,
worrying individual...his main characteristic is a constant preoccupation with things that
might go wrong, and a strong emotional reaction of anxiety to these thoughts...” which
resembles a person with high trait anxiety.
The second causal model of Eysenck (1967) claimed that neurotic individuals who
are anxious by nature, are characterized by greater activation levels and lower
thresholds within the visceral brain (VB), which is also known as limbic system. This
increment in visceral brain activities are reflected in the increased autonomic arousal of
anxious individuals.
Later J.A. Gray (1981) proposed two new axes of personality by modifying Eysenck’s
axes,which are anxiety and impulsivity. According to his findings, anxious individuals are
highly sensitive to signals of punishment, non‐reward and novelty. The underlying
physiological system of anxiety is Behavioural inhibition system (BIS). In individuals,
who are more anxious in nature, the BIS is more powerful.
The concept of state & trait anxiety may be conceived of as a analogous, in certain
respects, to the concepts of kinetic and potential energy of physics. State anxiety, like
kinetic energy, refers to an empirical process on reaction taking place at a particular
moment in time and at a given level of intensity. Trait anxiety like potential energy,
indicates in the strength of a latent disposition to manifest a certain type of reaction
where potential energy denotes of kinetic energy which may be released if triggered by
an appropriate force trait anxiety implies differences between people in the disposition
to respond to stressful situation with varying amount of state anxiety.
In general, it would be expected that those who are high in trait anxiety will exhibit
state anxiety elevations more frequently than low trait anxiety individuals, because they
tend to react to a wider range of situations as dangerous or threatening. High trait
anxiety persons are also more likely to respond with increased state anxiety intensity in
situations that involve interpersonal relationship which pose some threat to self esteem.
It has been found, for example, that circumstances, in which failure is experience or in
which an individual's personal adequacy is evaluated, are particularly threatening to
persons with high trait anxiety. But whether or not people who differ in trait anxiety will
show corresponding differences in state anxiety depends upon the extent to which a
specific situation is perceived by a particular individuals as dangerous or threatening
and this is greatly influenced by an individual's past experience.

---------X----------
General problem : On Anxiety
Specific Problem : To Determine The Level Of State And Trait Anxiety Of The Subject
By Administering A Suitable Test(STAI)
Basic Concept : Anxiety means a feeling of painful or apprehensive uneasiness
accompanied by various forms of physiological arousal. The twentieth century has been
called the age of anxiety, concerns about fear and anxiety are as old as humanity itself.
Freud first proposed a critical role for anxiety in personality theory and in the etiology of
psychoneurotic and psychosomatic disorders. Anxiety was the "fundamental
phenomena and the central problem of neurosis" (Freud,1836). For Freud, anxiety was
"something felt"-- a specific unpleasant emotional state of the human organism that
included experimental, physiological, and behavioral components.
Anxiety involves a general feeling of apprehension about possible future danger,
and fear is an alarm reaction that occurs. The anxiety response pattern is a complex
blend of unpleasant emotions and cognitions that is both more oriented to the future and
much more diffuse than fear (Barlow, 1988, 2002).
It has Three components, these are ---
At the cognitive/subjective level, anxiety involves negative mood, worry about
possible future threats or danger, self‐preoccupation, and a sense of being unable to
predict the future threat or to control it if it occurs.
At a physiological level, anxiety often creates a state of tension and chronic over
arousal,which may reflect risk assessment and readiness for dealing with danger should
it occur.
At a behavioral level, anxiety may create a strong tendency to avoid situations
where danger might be encountered,but there is not the immediate behavioral urge to
flee with anxiety as there is with fear (Barlow, 1988, 2002).
Thus, Anxiety is an alerting signal; it warns of impending danger and enables a person
to take measures to deal with a threat. It involves increased somatic and autonomic
activity controlled by the interaction of the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous
systems.
STATE ANXIETY AND TRAIT ANXIETY
In the study of anxiety, there are two complementary concepts:
1. psychophysiological state (state anxiety)
2. personality trait (trait anxiety).
The concept of state and trait anxiety were first introduced by cattell (1966 cattell &
scheier 1961,1963) and have been elaborated by Spielberger (1966,1972,1976,1979).
State anxiety reflects the psychological and physiological transient reactions
directly related to adverse situations in a specific moment.
State anxiety is conceptualized by Spielberger (1970) as a transitory emotional
state or condition of the human organism that varies in intensity and fluctuates over
time. It is characterized by subjective, consciously perceived feelings of tension and
apprehension, and activation of the autonomic nervous system.
State anxiety will be low in non‐stressful and non ‐ threatening circumstances in
which an existing danger is not perceived as threatening. It will be high in circumstances
that are perceived by anindividual to be threatening.
Trait anxiety refers to a trait of personality, describing individual differences related
to a tendency to present state [Link] is relatively stable over time (Vagg, Speilberger
and O’Hearn, 1980) and considered an important characteristic of patients with anxiety
disorders, as they present higher trait anxiety in comparison to healthy individuals
(Kennedy, Schwab, Morris and Beldia, 2001).
Spielberger (1970) refers trait anxiety to relatively stable individual differences in
anxiety proneness.
As a psychological concept, trait anxiety has the characteristics of a class of
constructs that Atkinson(1964) calls 'motives' and which Campbell(1963) refers to as
'acquired behavioural disposition'. Motives are defined by Atkinson as dispositions that
remain latent until the cues of a situation activate them. Acquired behavioural
dispositions, according to Campbell, involve residues of past experience that
predispose an individual both to view the world in a particular way and to manifest
'object-consistent' response tendencies.
It can be assumed logically that persons who possess relatively high level of trait
anxiety are supposed to belong to a higher level of state anxiety. However, there can be
unpredictable factors which may produce lower state anxiety in a person with high trait
anxiety, especially in a classroom situation.
The State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) is a psychological inventory based on a
4-point Likert scale and consists of 40 questions on a self-report basis. The STAI
measures two types of anxiety – state anxiety, or anxiety about an event, and trait
anxiety, or anxiety level as a personal characteristic.
It was developed by psychologists Charles Spielberger, R.L. Gorsuch, and R.E.
Lushene (1970) and adapted in Indian context by Chattopadhyay et al.
It has 20 items of state anxiety and another 20 items for trait anxiety. Some of them
are also reversed item.
The 4-point scale for State anxiety is as follows: 1.) not at all, 2.) somewhat, 3.)
moderately so, 4.) very much so.
The 4-point scale for Trait anxiety is as follows: 1.) almost never, 2.) sometimes, 3.)
often, 4.) almost always.

Uses of STAI -
The State-Trait Anxiety Inventory measures anxiety by assessing someone’s state
and trait anxiety. The STAI was one of the first tests to examine state and trait anxiety at
the same time. There are two forms of the STAI, one for children, and for adults.
 [Link] scale is useful for many different socio-economic backgrounds and groups
and anyone that has the equivalence of a sixth grade reading level, it therefore can be
utilized for many people.
[Link] use this in diagnosing patients in a clinical setting. It is also used to
diagnose clinical anxiety in surgical and other medical patients as well as in mental
health patients like psychosomatic and psychiatric patients.
[Link] STAI, itself, assesses anxiety but also can be used to make a discrimination
when wondering whether a patient is experiencing anxiety or depression.
[Link] inventory is used in research projects.
[Link] journal articles have used the STAI in conducting research and
comparing different ethnic groups, age groups, etc. regarding anxiety.
Preliminaries :
● Name of the subject :
● Age of the subject :
● Sex of the subject :
● Condition of the subject :
● Educational qualification :
● Date of the test :
● Time of the test :
Material required :
● State‐Trait Anxiety Inventory (Form X‐1 and X‐2)
● Stationaries (pencil, calculator, eraser etc.)
● Manual (for scoring)
● Appropriate Norm
Description of the test : The State‐Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) was devised by
Spielberger Gorsuch and Lushene (1970) to provide a reliable means of
distinguishing between state anxiety and trait anxiety. The STAI consists of separate
self-report scales for measuring state and trait anxiety. Here state anxiety is
conceptualized as a transitory level of anxiety, which is often situationally
determined,and fluctuates with time and circumstances, whereas the trait anxiety is
regarded as a relatively stable individual [Link] State-Anxiety scale (STAI
form X-1) consists of 20 items that assess how a person feel 'right now', at this moment.
The trait anxiety scale (STAI form X-2) consists of 20 items that assess how a person
generally [Link] scale can be used by itself. However, when using both together, it
isrecommended that the state anxiety form be administered first (Spielberger et
al.,1970).
The essential qualities evaluated by STAI are the feeling of apprehension, tension,
nervousness and worry. In addition for assessing how people feel 'right now', the scale
also evaluates how they felt at a particular time in the recent past and how they
anticipate they will feel either in a specific situation that is likely to be encountered in the
future or in a variety of hypothetical situations. Scores on the scale increase in response
to physical danger and psychological stress and decrease as a result of relaxation
training. The scale is used to assess the level of state anxiety induced by stressful
experimental procedure.
The trait anxiety scale has been widely used in assessing clinical anxiety in medical,
surgical, psychosomatic, psychiatric patients. Over the past decade the State- Trait
anxiety scale has become the most widely used Psychometric measures of anxiety with
adaptation in 30 different languages ( Spielberger, 1984).It has been widely used by the
researchers in India ( Chattopadhyay, Biswas, Chattoraj and Basu,1979), (
Chattopadhyay, Mallik, 1982), ( Chattopadhyay, Mallik, 1983), In cross cultural research,
for its better use, it has been translated and adapted in different indian languages e.g. in
Hindi (Spielberger, Sharma and Singh,1970), in Bengali ( Prabal K Chattopadhyay,Nikhil
B Mallik, Spielberger, 1986).The anxiety scores of indian examples were also compered
with normative data for the STAI reported in West (Ghosh and Singhal, 1973;
Spielberger et al,1973; Chattopadhyay et al, 1986).Manual of this test includes gender,
language and culture based norms.
The STAI was designed to be self administering and may be given either individually
or to [Link] there is no time limit,completion of both forms seldom requires 20
minutes.
Scoring : Each STAI item is given a weighted score of [Link] 4-point scale for State
anxiety is as follows: 1.) not at all, 2.) somewhat, 3.) moderately so, 4.) very much so
and the 4-point scale for Trait anxiety is as follows: 1.) almost never, 2.) sometimes, 3.)
often, 4.) almost always.
A ratings of 4 indicating the presence of a high level of anxiety & 1 indicating little
anxiety or absence of anxiety, for 10 state anxiety items and 13 trait anxiety items, these
are direct items, e.g. I feel nervous, I am tense.
Few items have reversed scoring. In these items, a score of 4 indicate the absence
of anxiety & 1 would indicate high anxiety, for 10 state anxiety items and 7 trait anxiety
items these are called reversed item, e.g. I feel clam, I feel relaxed.
The reversed items in form X-1 are 1,2,5,8,10,11,15,16,19,20 and in form X-2 are
21,26,27,30,33,36,39.
To obtain the scores for the state anxiety and trait anxiety, the weighted score for
20items are simply added. The minimum score possible in this test is 20 and the
maximum score that can be earned is 80.
Standard method of administration : Rapport should be established with the subject,
while in the clinical settings, patients or clients will be informed that his honest
responses will enable the therapist or councillors to be more helpful and effective.
The testee will be assured that his responses will be kept confidential as subjects
generally respond more objectively and accurately if they are informed that their
responses will be kept confidential.
 While administering the STAI to the groups, it is usually helpful to have examines read
the directions silently while examiner reads them [Link] subject will first be given to
state anxiety scale and be asked to read the instructions carefully. If he raises any
question specifically, it will be answered in a non- committal manner by responses like "
Just answer the way you feel right now, that is, at this moment."
The subject will be further instructed not to avoid any item and it will be emphasized
that he has to answer the way he feels right now. When the subject will complete
answering the question of State Anxiety scale, he will be given Trait Anxiety scale.
Again the subject will be asked to read the instructions carefully. If he raises any specific
questions, it will be answered in a non- committal manner by responses like " Just
answer the way you generally feel". Subjects will be further instructs not to omit any
questions and answer the way he or she generally feels.
If the test is used for any specific situation or time intervalinterval, subject will be given
the same instructions as in case of State Anxiety Scale but will be asked to answer on
the basis of how they felt in that situation or at that time interval.( But this should be a
recently experienced situation or time interval).
At the end of the testing, responses will be scored according to the scoring standard,
being aware of scoring of reversed item. Data will be properly interpreted following the
guidelines mentioned in the test manual.
Procedure : The subject was brought into the laboratory and rapport was established
with his. Then he was given the State Anxiety test ( form X-1). The instructions were
made clear and he was told to answer the statements on the basis of how he feels at
the present [Link] was also told that his honest answers would be helpful and his
responses will be kept [Link] was told not to spend too much time one single
statement and also not to omit any statement. Time taken by the subject to complete the
test was noted down. When the subject finished answering form X-1, after sometime, he
was given the Trait Anxiety test (form X-2). The instructions were made clear and he
was asked to honestly answer the statement on the basis of how he feels in general. He
was told not to spend too much time on a single statement and that all of them had to
be answered. Time taken by the subject to complete the test was [Link] calculation
will be done and interpretation drawn.
Norms :
STATE ANXIETY :

Category Male Female

Mean 42.39 43.55

S.D. 7.53 8.76

Alpha 0.79 0.70

TRAIT ANXIETY :

Category Male Female

Mean 43.12 44.63

S.D. 7.37 8.39

Alpha 0.77 0.72

Instructions :
For State anxiety test : " A number of statements which people have used to
describe themselves are given below. Read each statement and then blacken the
appropriate circle to the right of the statement to indicate how you feel right now, that is,
at this moment. There is no right or wrong answers. Do not spend too much time on one
statement but give the answer which seems to describe your present feelings best."
For Trait anxiety test : "A number of statements which people have used to describe
themselves are given below. Read each statement and then blacken the appropriate
circle to the right of the statement to indicate how you generally [Link] is no right or
wrong answers. Do not spend too much time on one statement but give the answer
which seems to describe how you generally feel."
Data :
STAI Form X-1 (State anxiety) :
2+2+2+2+4+4+1+4+1+3+1+1+1+1+3+2+2+1+3+3= 43
Range=Mean ± S.D.
Upper limit of the range= Mean + S.D. = 42.39+7.53 = 49.92
Lower limit of the range= Mean + S.D. = 42.39-7.53 = 34.86
● Range = 34.86 to 49.92
Calculation of Raw score (Z),
Z = (X-M)/S.D
= (43-42.39) /7.53
= 0.08 Sigma

STAI Form X-2 (Trait anxiety) :

2+1+3+2+1+2+1+1+1+2+2+1+1+2+2+2+3+2+1+3= 35
Range= Mean ± S.D.
Upper limit of the range= Mean + S.D = 43.12+7.37 = 50.49
Lower limit of the range= Mean + S.D = 43.12-7.37 = 35.75
● Range= 35.75 to 50.49
Calculation of Raw score (Z),
 Z = (X-M)/S.D
= (35-43.12) /7.37
= -1. 10 Sigma

[For both the forms the mean and S.D are obtained from the male column specified in
norms for STAI. ]

Aspects Raw Score Range Z Score

STATE ANXIETY 43 34.86 to 49.92 0.08 sigma

TRAIT ANXIETY 35 35.75 to 50.49 -1.10 sigma

NPC :
For State anxiety,

For Trait anxiety,

Interpretation : Use of range,Z score and putting the position of the participant
graphically in NPC. Stating the characteristics of the range of the scores to which the
participant belongs and its implications.
In the form X-1 of the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) that measures the state
anxiety of the subject, a score of 43 has been obtained by the testee. The average
score on form X-1 ranges from 34.86 to 49.92. Thus the subject has a score that falls
with in the range. Z score of the state anxiety is 0.08 sigma. After putting the data
graphically in NPC, we can say that 53.19% of individuals falls below my testee's score
in terms of state anxiety.
In the form X-2 of the STAI that measures the trait anxiety the testee obtained a score
of [Link] average score on form X-2 ranges from 35.75 to 50.49. Thus the testee's
score falls just below the range. Z score of trait anxiety is -1.10 [Link] after putting
the data graphically in NPC, we can say that only 13.57% of individual falls below my
testee's score in terms of trait anxiety.
State anxiety is defined as a transitory emotional state or condition of human
organism that is characterized by subjective consciously perceived feelings of tension
and apprehension and heightened automatic nervous system activity. It may vary in
intensity and fluctuate over the time. An average score in this domain indicates that the
subject is moderately anxious or apprehensive in a condition or situation which in
general may call for such feelings or he is little or moderately anxious in that particular
situation or condition.
Trait anxiety, on the other hand refers to relatively stable individual differences in
being prone to anxiety, that is, to differences between people in the tendency to respond
to situations perceived as threatening with elevations in state anxiety intensity. An below
average score in this domain indicates that the subject is not anxious in general and do
not responsive to interpersonal situation posing some threat to their self-esteem such as
performance evaluation or the experiences of failure.
From the above data, we can say that, at cognitive level, he may not worry about
future and don't tense more easily in any situations and he has patience.
Physiologically, he may experience less autonomic arousal and get also his lesser
sensitivity to non-rewarding or punishing stimuli.
Behaviourally, the subject may keep clam and make his decision quite easily to
encounter danger.
However, the score of his state anxiety is relatively high than the score for his trait
anxiety. So, we said that the testee is moderately or a little bit anxious about his
performance level in the situation when he solving the inventory because he may not be
familiar to the test environment or he was moving from some different situation. But he
is not anxious sometime about his performance in daily life and do any activity easily
and relaxly.
Conclusion : It may be concluded that on administration of State-Trait Anxiety
Inventory, the state anxiety was found out to be in the average level and trait anxiety
was found out to be in the below average level.