2-5: Forms of Logical Arguments
Logical Argument: A set of premises and a conclusion.
Writing Verbal Arguments Symbolically
Assign variables to each simple, non-negated statement.
Stack the premises and conclusion vertically, like an elementary-school addition problem. Separate the
premises and the conclusion with a horizontal line.
Use .. to represent “therefore” in your conclusion.
Verbal Argument Define variables Symbolic Argument
R = it’s raining
If it rains, you'll get wet.
C = it’s cold
If it’s cold, you'll shiver.
It’s raining or it’s cold. W = you're wet
Therefore, you’re wet or you're shivering.
S$ = you're shivering
If ! am sick, then | do not go to school
§ = lam sick
that day.
| did not go to school today. G = 1 go to school today
Therefore, | am sick.
All toasters are made of gold. T = an item is a toaster
All items made of gold are time-travel G = an item is made of gold
devices.
Therefore, all toasters are time-travel D = an item is a time-travel
devices. device
Truth vs. Validity of Arguments
Form of Argument
Valid Arguments:
Good Bad
An argument is valid if accepted forms of reasoning are
used.
2 Valid ond | \nvadid
The conclusion necessarily follows from the premises, and
g | Sound | (but sun)
pa \
is true whenever the premises are true
An argument is invalid if unaccepted forms of reasoning
are used. The conclusion does not necessarily follow from
the premises.
o Also called a “fallacy” a Y unsound \nvawid
Sound Arguments:
An argument is sound if all the premises are true.
2] (our valid) Umiourd
An argument is unsound if one or more of the premises
are false.
Famous Forms of Valid Arguments
Law of Detachment / Modus Ponens “Mode That Affirms”
If you accept p-> : as true and Example: If | study, then | get good grades.
you accept Pp as true, then you
I study.
must logically accept Q as true.
Conclusion:
Symbols: Therefive, Le oer
P>%
Pp
Law of the Contrapositive / Modus Tollens “Mode That Denies”
ee eee ee ee ee ee ee
If you accept D me as true and Example: i
7 If | study, then I get good grades.
1
I
you accept nA as true, then you i}
i | did not get a good grade,
!
must logically accept — ) as true. !
1
i Conclusion:
!
Symbols: Therefore, TL did mr sual
I
!
I
i}
i}
1
Law of Syllogism sees es Serie + ey ee Y aS 12 Rm a 1 Po
; If you give a mouse a cookie, he’ll ask for
If you accept p~4 as true and Example: ; .
- some milk.
you accept 4 —>y_as true, then you
: If a mouse asks for some milk, he’ll ask for a
must logically accept pir as true. ' straw. :
' Conclusion:
Symbols: r i
pina a Therefire, © Yor. ive oO MGUSE
a Code, yun nee (| ES
ask at-for
De ee ee ee ee ee i ee i -
Determining Validity
The three forms above are not the only forms of valid logical arguments; there are many, many more! To
determine whether any logical argument is valid, check its truth values using a truth table.
Example: The cake has chocolate frosting or it has vanilla frosting. CV V
The cake does not have vanilla frosting. ~~
Therefore, the case has chocolate frosting.
Argument as a compound conditional: [(premise 1) A (premise 2) A (premise 3) ... ] > conclusion
(tw) a aV Oo
Truth Table:
nJala}alto
milinaml/odaialis
TN
—
The argument is valid if the last column is all ).
Otherwise, the argument is invalid.
Famous Forms of Invalid Arguments Weg
Fallacy of the Converse
[ay
he
po
A
hb_
m1A])m]
a
my
p FL miss the lous, then
my
Lim late for school,
At am lle for Schiod
arherehre, L mised $e bus.
Fallacy of the Inverse
Symbols:
AYA PRN pp
=lal=lahe
P74
+
i
re
Example:
AIF
L miss the buj
Hon Lim Ime for schodl,
AT dik nyt twiss the lous,
O therefore Tan fot ge tor Scheel