UNIVERSITY OF LUSAKA

RESEARCH METHODOLOGIES
Revised 2022
UNDERGRADUATE MODULE

[Type text] Page 1

Contents
COURSE OUTLINE FOR RESEARCH METHODOLOGIES..................................................................................8
INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH....................................................................................................................8
Syllabus................................................................................................................................................8
Disclaimer:............................................................................................................................................10
1.0 INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH METHODOLOGIES...........................................................11
What is Research............................................................................................................................11
What Research is not.....................................................................................................................11
Definitions of Research.....................................................................................................................11
1.1 General Purposes of research.............................................................................................11
1.2 General Features of Research...........................................................................................12
1.3 COMMON CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH.................................................................13
1.4 Classification of research......................................................................................................14
i. Basic or fundamental research..........................................................................................14
ii. Applied research.........................................................................................................................15
a. Action research........................................................................................................................15
b. Evaluation Research..............................................................................................................15
c. SOCIAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT.............................................................................................16
1.5 TOOLS OF RESEARCH.............................................................................................................16
1.6 ETHICAL ISSUES IN RESEARCH...........................................................................................18
1.7 RESEARCH PROCESS..............................................................................................................19
1.7.1 GENERAL RESEARCH CYCLE........................................................................................19
1.8 RESEARCH PROJECT PROPOSAL...........................................................................................................20
ADVANTAGES OF A RESEARCH PROPOSAL (by Students)................................................20
A PROPOSAL FORMAT................................................................................................................20
1.9 RESEARCH TOPIC IDENTITICATION..................................................................................................23
1.9.1 TOPIC SELECTION......................................................................................................................24
STEPS IN TOPIC SELECTION................................................................................................................24
1.9.2 QUALITIES OF AN EFFECTIVE RESEARCH TOPIC..................................................................25

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 1.9.3 CHALLENGES ENCOUNTED IN TOPIC SELECTION......................................................................26
1.9.4 Criteria for selecting a research problem/Research Topic........................................................26
1.9.5 RESEARCH TITLE SELECTION.....................................................................................................28
STEPS IN TITLE SELECTION.................................................................................................................28
1.9.6 QUALITIES OF AN EFFECTIVE TITLE..........................................................................29
1.9.7 CHALLENGES ENCOUNTERED IN TITLE SELECTION....................................................................29
1.9.8 TITLE FORMATS.............................................................................................................................30
1.10 DEVELOPING A STATEMENT OF A PROBLEM.................................................................................30
INFORMATION TO CONSIDER UNDER STATEMENT OF PROBLEM...............................31
1.11. OBJECTIVE FORMULATION...........................................................................................................32
IMPORTANCE OF OBJECTIVE FORMULATION......................................................................33
EXAMPLE OF SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES............................................................................................................34
RESEARCH QUESTIONS..........................................................................................................................34
1.12 RESEARCH HYPOTHESES:...............................................................................................................34
CHARACTERISTICS OF CAUSAL HYPOTHESIS..........................................................................................34
IMPORTANCE OF HYPOTHESES..............................................................................................................34
RESEARCH HYPOTHESES:.......................................................................................................................35
1.13 UNDERSTANDING RESEARCH VARIABLES........................................................................36
TYPES OF VARIABLES.........................................................................................................................36
INDEPENDENT AND DEPENDENT VARIABLES....................................................................36
2.0 Literature Review........................................................................................................................37
2.1 Types of Literature Review:.................................................................................................37
2.2 LAYOUT FORMATS...................................................................................................................38
2.2.1 HINTS TO A SUCCESSFUL REVIEW.............................................................................38
2.3 GUIDELINES FOR WRITING A SOLID REVIEW..................................................................39
E................................................................................................................................................................39
2.4 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK.................................................................................................40
2.4.1 IMPORTANCE OF THEORETICAL FRAMEWORKS.....................................................40
2.4.2 QUALITIES OF AN EFFECTIVE THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK................................40
2.4.3. GUIDELINES TO FORMULATE THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK...............................41
2.4.4 CHALLENGES FACED IN FORMULATING THEORETICAL FRAMEWORKS.........41
2.5 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CONCEPTUAL AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORKS......41

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 2.6 Conceptual Framework in Research.................................................................................41
2.6.1 USEFULNESS OF THE CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORKS.............................................42
2.6.2 STRATEGIES TO DESIGN EFFECTIVE CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORKS................42
2.6.3 QUALITIES OF AN EFFECTIVE CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK................................43
2.6.4 STEPS IN PREPARING AND EFFECTIVE CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK...............43
3.0 RESEARCH APPROACHES.....................................................................................................................43
MERITS AND DEMERITS OF Qualitative Research...............................................45
 Quantitative Research is a structured way of collecting and analyzing data
obtained from different sources................................................................................................47
 Structured Interviews........................................................................................................48
 Document Review...............................................................................................................49
4.0 RESEARCH DESIGNS AND RESEARCH METHODS..................................................................................51
Explorative:.......................................................................................................................................51
Descriptive........................................................................................................................................51
Explanation.......................................................................................................................................51
WHAT IS CAUSALITY?.................................................................................................................52
4.1 QUALITATIVE APPROACH RESEARCH DESIGNS.................................................................52
1. CASE STUDY..................................................................................................................................52
2. ETHNOGRAPHY.........................................................................................................................52
3. PHENOMENOLOGICAL STUDY.............................................................................................52
4. GROUNDED THEORY STUDY................................................................................................53
Method of Data Collection........................................................................................................53
5. CONTENT ANALYSIS...............................................................................................................53
Method of Data Collection........................................................................................................53
4.2 QUANTITATIVE APPROACH RESEARCH DESIGNS..............................................................53
A. DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH......................................................................................................53
TYPES OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGNS UNDER DESCRIPTIVE..........................54
1. Correlation Research:........................................................................................................54
2. Developmental Designs:...................................................................................................54
3. Observation Studies...........................................................................................................54
4. Survey Research..................................................................................................................54
B. EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES.............................................................................................................55

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 EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS..............................................................................................................55
1. True Experimental Design................................................................................................55
2. Quasi Experimental Design:............................................................................................56
3. Pre-Experimental Design..................................................................................................56
4.3 Other Forms of Research Designs:........................................................................................56
EVALUATION RESEARCH...................................................................................................................56
PURPOSES OF EVALUATION.....................................................................................................57
TYPES OF EVALUATIONS...........................................................................................................58
FORMATIVE....................................................................................................................................58
KEY ROLES FOR FORMATIVE EVALUATION.............................................................................58
Types of Formative Evaluation...............................................................................................58
UNOBSTRUSIVE RESEARCH.............................................................................................................60
CLASSIFICATION OF DATA IN AN OBSTRUSIVE MEASURE.....................................................61
4.4 PARTICIPATORY RESEARCH APPROACHES...........................................................................................61
WHAT IS PARTICIPATORY RESEARCH.......................................................................................61
Strategies and Tools Used to Define a Research Question................................62
Stage 1: Clarify purpose of the research............................................................................62
Stage 2: Identifying and involving diverse stakeholders in the research...............62
Stage 3: Building Trust..............................................................................................................63
Stage 4: Building Common Understanding........................................................................63
TYPES OF PARTICIPATORY RESEARCH APPROACHES.............................................................63
i. PARTICIPANT OBSERVER (PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION).......................................63
ROLES OF A RESEARCHER IN PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION.................................................65
ii. PARTICIPATORY ACTION RESEARCH (PAR).................................................................66
COMMON FEATURES OF PAR...................................................................................................66
KEY PRINCIPLES IN PAR.............................................................................................................66
COMMON DATA COLLECTION TOOLS IN PAR...................................................................67
iii. PARTICIPATORY RURAL APPRAISAL (PRA)...................................................................68
PRINCIPLES OF PRA....................................................................................................................68
GOOD FEATURES OF PRA.........................................................................................................68
PARTICIPATORY TOOLS.............................................................................................................69
IV. RAPID RURAL APPRAISAL...................................................................................................69

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 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN RRA AND PRA...............................................................................70
5.0 SAMPLING............................................................................................................................................70
PROBABILITY SAMPLING...............................................................................................................71
NON PROBABILITY SAMPLING.....................................................................................................71
JUSTIFICATION FOR SAMPLING.......................................................................................................71
IMPORTANCE/ADVANTAGES OF SAMPLING.............................................................................72
DISADVANTAGES OF SAMPLING.....................................................................................................72
CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD SAMPLE.....................................................................................72
6.0 THE ROLE OF DATA IN RESEARCH........................................................................................................73
DATA VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY..................................................................................................74
Factors which affect internal validity:..................................................................................74
Important factors affecting external validity:...................................................................75
DATA COLLECTION TOOLS...........................................................................................................75
QUESTIONAIRE ADMNISTRATION...............................................................................................75
GUIDELINES FOR A GOOD QUESTIONNAIRE........................................................................76
INTERVIEW.............................................................................................................................................76
FORMS OF AN INTERVIEW........................................................................................................76
GUIDELINES ON MAXIMISING AN INTERVIEW............................................................................78
7.0 STATISTICS...........................................................................................................................................78
IMPORTANCE OF STATISTICS..................................................................................................78
STATISTICAL ANALYSIS..............................................................................................................79
ORGANISING STATISTICAL DATA...........................................................................................79
IMPORTANCE OF SPREADSHEET TO A RESEARCHER..........................................................80
8.0 DATA CODING......................................................................................................................................80
EXAMPLE OF CODE BOOK........................................................................................................81
DATA ANALYSIS...................................................................................................................................81
BENEFITS OF DATA ANALYSIS.....................................................................................................81
SIMILARITIES BETWEEN QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS.....................82
DIFFERENCES................................................................................................................................82
DATA ANALYSIS SOFTWARE PACKAGE-SPSS.............................................................................82
STATISTICAL PACKAGE FOR SOCIAL SCIENCES................................................................82
1.9 ORGANISING A RESEARCH REPORT.....................................................................................................83

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REFERENCES..............................................................................................................................................84

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COURSE OUTLINE FOR RESEARCH METHODOLOGIES

INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH.
Syllabus
1.0 Aim
The course aims at equipping participants with an overview of and practical
experience in methods of research, research analysis and interpretations of
data.
2.0 Objectives
At the end of the course students should be able to:
A) Define research, evaluation and related concepts;
B) Demonstrate skill in formulating a research problem , sub-problems and
hypotheses;
C) Understand the relevance of Literature Review in research work.
D) Understand various sampling techniques and justifications
E) Understand various data collection tools, data analysis and
interpretation
F) Demonstrate basic understanding of the use of SPSS software for data
analysis
G) Write a research proposal and research/evaluation report; and
H) Write bibliography and references using appropriate style.
3.0 Course content
3.1 WHAT IS research
 Meaning of research
 Purpose of research
 Features of research
 Classification of research
 Major components of Research
 Tools of Research
 Ethics in Research
3.2 RESEARH PROCESS
3.2.1
 Identification of a Research problem and possible sources
 Finding a legitimate problem and criteria of selection
 Stating a Research Problem
 Quantitative and Qualitative research process
3.2.2
 Literature review
 Understanding the role and importance of the Review
 Types of Literature review and knowing when to quit

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  Guidelines for writing a solid review
3.2.3
 Formulation of sub-problems
 Characteristics of sub-problems
 Stating and Formulation of Hypotheses
 Types of Hypotheses
 Variables and types
3.2.4
 Research designs and methods
 Major purposes of Research for deciding on research design
 Qualitative and Quantitative approach Characteristics
 Qualitative research Designs
 Quantitative research designs
 Other research designs and approaches: Evaluation, Unobtrusive
research,
 Participatory Research Designs and Approaches

3.2.5

 Sampling and sampling techniques

 Data collection techniques
 Questionnaire and guidelines for Designing
 Interviews and guidelines
 Hints for a successful interview

3.2.6

 Data analysis and interpretation

 Processing data
 Uses of statistics/analysis
 Similarities and differences between quantitative and
qualitative
 Designing a Code book
 Uses of SPSS( Statistical package for Social Sciences)
 Qualitative and Quantitative data analysis
 Interpretation of results
3.2.6
 Writing and disseminating research findings
 Research proposal format
 Research report format

Prescribed Books

Ary, D. and associates (1990). Introduction to Research in Education.

Forth worth, Texas: Holt, Rinehart and Winston

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Bog Dan,R.C. and Bikelen, S.K. (1992). Qualitative research for Education.
An introduction to theory and methods. Allyn and bacon.

Borg, W.R. and Gall, M.D. (1983). Educational Research. New York:
Long man.

Recommended books

Allyn and Garrison, D.R.(1994). Research Perspectives in adult education ,

Melbourne, Florida: Kreiger publishing company.

Earl,B.M. and Payze,V.B.P 2001. The practice of Social Research. Oxford University
Press. Cape [Link]

Glesne, C. and Pestikin, A. (1992).Becoming qualitative researchers. An introduction

. White Plains

Lawrence,W. Neuman. (2006) Social Research Methods: Qualitative and

Quantitative Approaches).Pearson Education Inc. USA.

Merriam, S.B. and Simpson, E.L. (1995). A guide to research for Education and
trainers of Adults. Melbourne, Florida: Krieger publishing company

Paul,D.L. and Jeanne,E.O.(2001) Practical Research. Planning and Design.

Courier/Kendllville, [Link] Jersey Columbus, Ohio-USA.

Donald, K.K. and Delno,L.A. ( 2006) Proposal and Thesis Writing-An Introduction.
Paulines Publications Africa, Nairobi, Kenya.

[Link]

[Link]

Disclaimer:
Information and notes in this module is collected from various sources and the most
common being literature by Paul,[Link] and Jeanne ,E. Ormrod. 2001.( Practical
Research: Planning and Design) ,[Link] Thomas. 1995( Sociology: The study of
Human relationships), Lawrence Neuman 2006 ( Social Research Methods:
Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches),Earl Babbie Mouton. 2001. (The practice
of Social Research) and various internet articles etc. For details refer to the
reference section of the module.

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1.0 INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH METHODOLOGIES

What is Research
The word research is used in everyday speech to give various meanings which
sometimes can be confusing to students and requires one to unlearn some of such
false concepts. Research is endless quest for knowledge or unending search for
truth. It brings to light new knowledge or corrects previous errors and
misconceptions and in an orderly manner to the existing body of knowledge. The
knowledge obtained by research is scientific and objective and is a matter of
rational understanding, common verification and experience

What Research is not

@It is not an information discovery exercise

@ It is not a mere transportation of facts from one source to another

@ It is not a mere rummaging for information@ it is not a mere information

gathering about a particular subject matter

Definitions of Research
Research is such a vast and multi-dimensional concept that no single definition can
comprehensively project its meaning completely.

 It is the process of arriving at dependable solutions to problems through the

planned and systematic collection, analysis and interpretation of data.

 The best research is that which is reliable, verifiable and exhaustive so that it
provides information in which we have confidence.

 Research is a systematic process of collection, analyzing and interpretation of

data in order to increase our understanding of the area of interest.

 Research can also be seen as an honest, exhaustive, intelligent search for

facts and their meanings or implications with reference to a given problem.

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1.1 General Purposes of research
 Research adds to existing knowledge
 It addresses gaps in knowledge
 It expands knowledge
 It adds voices of individuals to knowledge
 Research helps improve the field of practice e.g. It helps in gaining new
ideas, it helps in gaining new insight into methods and corrects
misperceptions. It does this by explanations beyond common sense.
 Research creates data for policy discussions.
 Research helps people weigh different perspectives on issues.
 Research helps people make informed decisions regarding policy
 Research helps students build skills; Organization skills; Analytic skills;
Writing skills and presentation skills.
 Research helps in business management decisions
 Research helps in making formal, objective measurement and appraisal of
the extent to which a given activity, project, or program has achieved its
objectives. This is referred to as evaluation research.
 Regularly provides feedback for evaluation and control
 Indicates what things are or are not going as planned
 Research may be required to explain why something “went wrong”
 Research in business management decision-making process is mainly
associated with the development and implementation of strategy.
 Research helps in reducing uncertainty and to focus on decision making

1.2 General Features of Research

 Research gathers new knowledge or data from primary or firsthand sources.
It is not research when: one simply restates or re-organizes what is already
written. Research Endeavour’s to reach the first data.
 Research is expert, systematic and accurate investigation. The researcher
plans his/her procedures carefully, gathers data, records and analyses it as
accurately as possible, and uses standardized and valid data gathering tools
or instrument as could be found or devised.
 Research is logical and objective .it applies every possible test to verify the
data collected and the procedures employed. The researcher should
eliminate personal feelings and preferences from his /her research activity.

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  Research Endeavour’s to organize data in quantitative terms as far as
possible.
 Research is patient and unhurried. The researcher is willing to make
painstaking effort. S/he works patiently towards sound conclusions, knowing
that significant findings do not come as a result of hurried careless efforts.
 Research requires courage. The researcher should not be afraid of unpleasant
consequences of his or her findings. The truth should be spoken and recorded
even when the procedure reveals conclusions that may be unpopular and
bring social disapproval.
 Research is highly purposive. It deals with a significant problem which
demands a solution.
 Research places emphasizes upon the discovery of general principle and
scientific generalizations that can be applied to the solution of a wide range
of problems.
 Research maintains rigorous standards. The researcher is expected to be
scholarly, imaginative, with integrity who keeps his or her work scrupulously
free from loopholes. Research is a job of great responsibility and its findings
may have far reached implications.
 The research usually involves a step, a hypothesis or a set of a solution
concerning the tentative explanation of a phenomenon or the solution of a
problem
 Research is carefully recorded and reported. Every term is carefully defined,
all procedures are described in detail, all limiting factors are recognized, all
references are carefully documented and all results are objectively recorded.
All conclusions and generalizations are cautiously arrived at with due
consideration for all of the limitations of methodology, data collected, and
errors of human interpretation.

1.3 COMMON CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH

Although research projects vary in complexity and duration, research typically has
eight characteristics common to various other characteristics that may be described
by different authors:
1. It emanates from question or a problem
2. It articulates a goal

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 3. It subdivides the problem into sub problems
4. It is guided by a set of questions and hypothesis
5. It involves Collection, Analysis and Interpretation of data
6. It is Cyclical in nature
7. It is Helical in Nature
8. It involves dissemination of data
Summary:
 That research begins with unanswered question
 That research defines the goal
 That research subdivides the problem into sub problems
 There is formulation of tentative explanations ( hypothesis)
 This is followed by sampling, data collection and analysis
 Research proceeds to data interpretation and confirmation of
which hypothesis in form of dissemination of research findings.
I. However, Research is helical in that as one explores an area, there would
be additional problems that need resolving. In other words, research beget
more research.

1.4 Classification of research

Research can be classified under three broad categories: Basic or fundamental
research, applied research and action research. It must not, however, be forgotten
that the lines of demarcation between these Categories are not very clear-cut and
sharp. In many ways they appear to overlap one another.

i. Basic or fundamental research

It is also called pure research. It is not concerned so much with day to day
phenomena and problems. Rather it is concerned with the solution to fundamental
problems and major vital issues. An example of this type of research in the
education field can be discovery of concepts such as the role in activity in learning’
role of heredity and environment ‘curriculum, etc.

Thus basic research attempts to expand the limit of knowledge and is not directly
involved in the solution to a pragmatic problem. This type of research is done by

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outstanding experts with the help of choicest facilities. It demands a higher level of
problems, procedures, tools, controls, analyses, etc.

This type of research is one whose findings have no immediate applicability or use,
often uswed to develop theories for future use.

Applied research
It is also called field research. It is primarily this type of research work whose results
find direct application in the field. It is more interested in the theories, principles or
laws which work. Fundamental or basic research may propound a theory or discover
a law and stop at that. But applied research is concerned primarily with the testing
of such theories or laws in actual field setting. Applied research is however, subject
to sacrifice controls and precision to some extent as compared to fundamental
research. In business research applied research is conducted when a decision must
be made about specific real-life problem. E.g. should nandos add Italian pasta
dinners to its menu?

This type of research is one whose findings have an immediate applicability and the
main targeted audience are the Practitioners such as Social workers, Economists,
Counselors, Police, Program persons etc.

Applied research has various types including the following 3:

a. Action research

Type of research whose focus is on contributing to improved conditions or changes

in a particular scenario or community. Action research is a research initiated to
solve an immediate problem or a reflective process of progressive problem solving
led by individuals working with others in teams or as part of a " community of
practice" to improve the way they address issues and solve problems. It sometimes
called participatory action research.

Action research involves the process of actively participating in an organization

change situation whilst conducting research. Action research can also be
undertaken by larger organizations or institutions, assisted or guided by

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professional researchers, with the aim of improving their strategies, practices and
knowledge of the environments within which they practice. As designers and
stakeholders, researchers work with others to propose a new course of action to
help their community improve its work practices.

b. Evaluation Research

This is a kind of research that focuses on assessing the REEIS( Relevance,

Efficiency, Effectiveness, Impact and Sustainability of a particular program. The
primary purpose of evaluation, in addition to gaining insight into prior or existing
initiatives, is to enable reflection and assist in the identification of future change.

c. SOCIAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT

This is a research which documents potential consequences as a result of some

change introduced into a community. Or Social impact assessment (SIA) is a
methodology to review the social effects of infrastructure projects and other
development interventions. According to the International Association for Impact
Assessment, "Social impact assessment includes the processes of analyzing,
monitoring and managing the intended and unintended social consequences, both
positive and negative, of planned interventions (policies, programs, plans, projects)
and any social change processes invoked by those interventions. Its primary
purpose is to bring about a more sustainable and equitable biophysical and human
environment."

1.5 TOOLS OF RESEARCH

It is only true to say that every professional needs specialized tools to work
effectively. Without a hammer and saw a carpenter is out of business, without a
scalpel or forceps, a surgeon cannot practice. Researchers likewise, have their own
tool kit to carry out their plans and achieve their goals. While tools may vary in

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various disciplines or field of study, the six general tools usable by any researcher
include the following:

I) Use of Library: Generally, researchers have several library resources

at their disposal to locate the required information through the use of
catalogs, indexes, abstracts, reference librarians etc. Libraries have
certain way materials have been shelved and lined up, and one using a
library ought to have an idea how the whole process works if they were
to have maximum usage of the libraries.
2. The Computer and its software:

Over the past 2-3 decades, computer software packages have become increasingly
user friendly such that a novice researcher can learn to use them easily and quick
enough. However, suffice to mention that computers have their own limitations.
Learning on how to use a computer therefore is inevitable for any one intending to
try research work.

3. Computer software;

I. Internet: The internet provides many resources and these include World
Wide Web ( WWW), telnet, file transfer protocol, electronic mail and news.
II. Web site: is the most common site on the internet.
III. Telnet: This feature enables one to log on to other computer systems on the
internet. For instance one can log on to an electronic library in another
university using a given password and log number etc
IV. File Transfer Protocol: This is another powerful feature of the internet that
enables one to share files and data even across continents. One has to have
the FTP address location and a password.
V. Electronic Mail: The commonly known as email allows people to
communicate quickly with one another and it is cheap enough to the user.

4. Measurement as a tool of Research

There are four scales of measurement:

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a. Nominal scale of measurement: This means measuring data by assigning
names to them. E.g., we can measure a group of children by dividing them into
two groups: Boys and Girls.
b. Interval Scale of measurement: For instance , you can rate the students on
specific qualities of effectiveness such as : Never available, seldom available,
generally available etc.
c. Ratio Scale of Measurement: These express values in terms of multiples and
factional parts . 3:36, 1:12 etc.
d. Ordinal Scale of measurement: One can compare various pieces of data in
terms of greater or higher than another. We can measure level of education
using ordinal scale by classifying people as being unschooled or as having an
elementary , high school or college
5. Statistics as a tool of research: Statistics are important in social sciences as
they give a more tangible idea of the data obtained and contribute to easy
interpretation of data.

6. Human mind as a Tool of Research: This is the most important tool on the
researchers’ workbench as from this emanates logic, inductive reasoning and
critical thinking.
7. Language as another tool of Research: Language allows us to communicate
as well as think more effectively. E.g., one knowledgeable in a particular language.

1.6 ETHICAL ISSUES IN RESEARCH

Codes of ethics provide guidance but being ethical is a moral and professional
obligation of any individual researcher, even when the respondents are not aware of
the same ethics. As long as a research endeavor involves dealing with human
beings, ethical issues are inevitable. Ethics are simply moral principles that guide
our behavior and based on shared values and beliefs about what is good or bad.
Ethical principles actually help ensure that research is directed towards achieving
worthwhile goals.

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 I. Protection from Harm: the researcher should not expose respondents to
undue physical or psychological harm. Respondents should not be subjected
to unusual stress, embarrassment, Loss of self esteem, legal risks etc.
II. Informed Consent: Respondents should be informed of the nature of study
to be conducted and be given the choice of ether participating or not. They
should also be told that should they want to change their minds later, they
are free to withdraw at any time. Thus any participation in a research study
should be strictly voluntary.
III. Right to privacy: A researcher should respect the respondent’s right to
privacy. Under no circumstance should a researcher record orally or written
about a respondent in such a way that they are aware of which respondent
behaved or responded in particular manner.
IV. Principle of Anonymity and confidentially: This is where a participants’
identify is not disclosed and is done by anonymity and confidentiality E.G -
The respondent’s name is not collected or a researcher gives a fictitious
name and location etc. in case of a research report where one finds a need
to provide a social picture in the report. This also means that data collection
tools such as a questionnaire do not contain traceable details of the
respondents such as names and physical address etc.
V. Honesty with professional Colleagues: This is where a Researcher is
expected to report their findings in a complex and honest fashion without
misrepresenting what they have done or the nature of their findings.
VI. Value-neutrality: Researchers should not attempt imposing their values on
others or alter their respondent’s behavior, and one hand they should guard
against letting their values influence interpretation of their findings.
VII. Non guarantee to respondents: Researchers should not make any
guarantees to respondents, groups or organizations unless there are
intentions to honor such commitments.

1.7 RESEARCH PROCESS

1.7.1 GENERAL RESEARCH CYCLE

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There are about seven generic stages in research whose details feeds into the
various elements of the research proposal and Research Report.

1. Identifying and Selecting a Research Topic( Often this is done from within a
field of study)
2. Formulating Research Objectives ( These are a basis for one’s study
streamlining what exactly they need to achieve at the end of the study)
3. Literature Review ( Reviewing related materials to ascertain gaps, trends and
other milestones within one’s study selection)
4. Research Designing (This is where a researcher determine what design study
befits their research in a way that enables them achieve objectives).
5. Selecting and implementing a plan of procedure ( SCA) ( This is where one
selects sampling procedure, sample size, study population, data collection
instruments to be used and how one plans to analyze the data).
6. Interpretation of Findings
7. Dissemination of Findings ( This is a Final Research Report submitted which
attracts about 5 chapters currently)

The above stages of a research process are reflected in both a Research Proposal
and Research Report. However the stages stated are a reminder to any researcher
that there are several stages involved in any research endeavor and thus should
inform any research planning. The above stages can also help guide the researcher
of the critical action points which can reflect in the schedule of activities.

1.8 RESEARCH PROJECT PROPOSAL

Before the actual research work is undertaken by anyone, the first thing to do is to
write a research project proposal. The research proposal slowly develops into a
Research Report over the months that follow. While there are several research
formats one can adopt, standard items in any research proposal would include the
following:

Title, purpose/ goal of research, Hypotheses, Literature Review, Research

Methodology, Bibliography.

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Research is never a solo flight, never an individual excursion. It simply begins by
research communicating their plans, thoughts, and methods, objectives for others
to read, discuss and act upon.

The mechanism that begins such a research dialogue is the research Project
Proposal. It must be clearly planned, laid out and inspected. A student will have to
get it approved by an academic faculty.

A research proposal is a document that explains, describes exactly how the

research will be conducted. In other words, a proposal is important and essential to
successful research, just as architect plans are to the construction of a building.

In the research proposal, the problem and its sub problems are clearly stated;
Hypotheses or questions are well articulated, all necessary terms operationally
defined, delimitations carefully spelt out, justification of the study well stipulated
etc.

ADVANTAGES OF A RESEARCH PROPOSAL (by Students)

I. It helps students organize research activity
II. It communicates to the student’s advisor what they intend to do thereby
enabling them with counsel and guidance in areas needing attention or areas
that may pose some difficulty
III. It defines the researcher’s ability to think critically and express one’s
thoughts clearly
IV. It is also a practical application of one’s educational competence.

A PROPOSAL FORMAT ( UNILUS STANDARDS)

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

This includes the following components:

 Background to the study: provide a historical overview of what you are

focusing on and where it stemmed from. What has happened around it , how
was the situation before etc.
 The statement of the problem : Sometimes referred to as Problem
Statement: This part one highlights what the problem is, how serious the
problem, how widespread is the issue of concern. If possible cite some
statistics to indicate seriousness. Mind you, as you state how serious the
issue is, you need to be backed up. Meaning there is still reasonable amount
of citation from other sources that you consider. Explain what other problems
or gaps or needs the issue at hand has created. Then indicate what the gap
is( Create a gap), eg….in spite of having various policies and institutions that
combat issues of corruption in Zambia, factors contributing to its continued
increase in the civil service remains unknown”…etc Then the statement of

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 the problem lands on an intention…what is your intention as a researcher. Eg
you may state: It is against this background that the researcher intends or
study intends to assess factors contributing to an increase in corruption cases
in the civil service in Zambia.
 Research Objectives: These are normally divided into two segments of
General Objective and Specific objectives. These are milestone or activities
the researcher wishes to undertake in their research endeavor.
 Research Questions: These are questions posed to direct the research
work and normally stem from the set objectives ( ENCOUARGED in qualitative
research approach)
 The Hypotheses: This is where some Hypotheses are stated according to
the stated sub problems (Encouraged in Quantitative Research Approach)
 Significance of Study: This is where one states to what extent the study
shall contribute to the body of knowledge, who is likely to benefit etc. This is
where a researcher states some reasons for undertaking the study as well as
indicating practical value the study has.
 Delimitations ( Scope of study): This is where one indicates what they
intend to do and Not do. Simply indicate some of the limitation of the study
from the perspective of location, target sample, areas of research problem
etc.
 Limitations: In a proposal these are anticipated challenges or bottle necks
to the study that one anticipates to face during their research endeavor.
 Definition of terms: This is where one identifies some terms in relation to
the research problem and tries to define them operationally, i.e. define them
within the context of the research problem and not necessarily dictionary
based.
 Assumptions: This section, the researcher indicates what they must have
taken for granted with respect to the research problem( optional)

CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Under this section, a researcher ensures that they have a plan, emphasize on
relatedness and summarize the contents. Adequate and proper citations are
required on this section, highlighting and bringing out intelligent arguments
of what findings by others were, in relation to the study topic.

Chapter Two (Literature Review ought to reflect at least the following

aspects:

a. Introduction: State briefly what the Chapter is all about

b. Non empirical Review: ( General Review) This part lays foundation on
general information about the area of study and does not necessary refer
to any studies done by other scholars. This can be done with use of
themes or subheadings highlighted or depicted from key variables of the
study. Remember Lit review also educates the reader.

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 c. Empirical Review: This indicate other similar studies done by other
gurus scholars.

SOURCES MAY BE ; ACADEMIC JOURNALS, articles etc

Lay down the empirical section according to:

i. GLOBAL PERSPECTIVE ( Meaning tap into at least three to four

studies done by others and identify findings and what you think are the
gaps in knowledge and how you hope your study would contribute to
bridge that gap. In other words, indicate your stand point. Eg studies
beyond Africa. Do same for the sections below.
ii. REGIONAL PERSPECTIVE : These could be studies from Africa or
indeed a particular region of Africa depending on your interest. Eg
West Africa, SADC region, or Africa as a whole. Look for at least
three studies minimum, indicate names of scholars, type of study
done, among who, where and what findings were. Critique those
findings, identify gaps and state your position etc.

iii. LOCAL PERPECTIVE ; Local could be your country, and who else has
done studies relating to your area of focus. Know their names,
where study was done and among who and what findings they are .
Critique that work, identify gaps and state your position etc.

gaps in Literature.

d. Theoretical framework ( Meaning a few theories that forms a

foundation to your study and explain how the assumptions of these
theories relate to your study. You should indicate also which theory or
Model you subscribe to more and why, from among the stated theories or
models.
e. Then conceptual framework is stated last indicating how the researcher
perceives or conceives how the variables are interlinked or inter-related.
Most commonly it comes in the form of a diagram with arrows showing the
relationship between variables. Literature review section ends with
summary or at least gaps in literature highlighting justification why you
propose to do that research.

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 f. Gaps in Literature: This comes in a paragraph indicating in summary
form what you think are gaps in literature based on what you reviewed so
far.

CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Note: This section needs justifications for all choices you make

a. Introduction: Explain briefly what the chapter is all about.

b. Research Design: This stage includes an indication of what kind of
study: Is it a quantitative or qualitative approach to be used, and if so
what specific research design to be adopted and justification of the choice
of the design.
c. Sampling: The researcher indicates the
i. Study location/site ( Indicate Location and why that choice)
ii. Study Population ( Indicate general characteristics of people
targeted, estimated population size etc)
iii. Sample Size: indicate the actual sample size you have
determined and how you determined that size. Justify
iv. Sample Technique: Indicate which technique you will use to
arrive at the determined sample size and why that choice.
d. Data Collection: This involves indicating the kind of data to be collected,
data collection tools or techniques to be used and justification, as well as
how that data shall be organized and managed. It is often encouraged to
indicate also some of the research ethics to be adhered to during the data
collection.
e. Data Analysis: This entails an indication of how one intends to analyze
the collected data, the kind of software or tools they envisage using for
analysis as well as data presentation. Ensure to indicate the following:
Data analysis method to be used ii. What software you intend to use
to aid you in the analysis process and what you want the stated software
to do for you. Eg what kind of analysis will it perform, will it be
correlational, regression. Descriptive analyses etc.
f. Reliability and Validity (Indicate how you ensure the data collected is
valid and reliable, or indeed how methodology to be used will be reliable).
Eg conducting pilot study, having the data collection tools checked by an
independent person such as supervisor etc.
g. Ethical Considerations: Indicate which ethical principles you will adhere
to and why
h. Schedule of Activities: : This entails a schedule of research activities
with tentative timings when they could be completed. This helps one to
remain in track as research is indeed a planned attack.
i. Budget for the research work.
j. Attachments (Appendices ) such as draft questionnaire/interviews
etc

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 Bibliography

1.9 RESEARCH TOPIC IDENTITICATION

Any research is likely to take a significant amount of your time and energy, so
whatever problem you study, should be worth that time and energy. As one begins
the process of identifying a suitable research problem to tackle, it is wise to keep
two criteria in mind:

• It should address an important question whose answer should make a

difference in some way

• It should advance the frontiers of knowledge such as leading to new ways of

thinking, suggesting possible applications or paving way for further research
in the field.

• As one identifies the research topic of interest, ensure that you are
sufficiently knowledgeable about the same topic so that you are aware of
what projects might make important contributions to the field of study. Some
strategies one can employ as novice or expert researcher therefore include:

I. Reading literature: Find out what things are already known about your topic of
interest and avoid reinventing the will. The existing literature is also likely to tell
one what is not known in the area, what still needs to be done etc. Reading
literature is also advantageous in that it gives one theoretical base to build ones
study. It can also help one interpret findings and relate them to what is already
known in the field.

II. Attending professional conferences: One can be lucky to find new research
projects at a national/regional conference in their discipline as they learn what could
be “hot” and not in their field. It can also be an avenue to meet and interact with
professionals, experts with whom ideas can be shared.

III. Seek the advice of experts: Simply seek advice of an expert as you try to
identify a research problem in a particular field as they will endeavor to answer
some questions.

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Other sources OF RESEARCH TOPICS include:

• Education agencies, schools, home, community etc could have prevailing

educational practices that require research evidence.

• Social Development and technological changes do bring about new

developments and new opportunities for research.

• Record of previous research such as encyclopedia of research, research

abstracts, research bulletins, research reports, journals, dissertations and
other similar publications.

• Discussions such as classroom discussions, workshops and exchange of

ideas with fellow scholars and students would suggest optional stimulating
research problems.

• Consultations with experts, research supervisors, research guides etc could

be helpful in finding researchable areas or problems.

1.9.1 TOPIC SELECTION

The term TOPIC refers to subject, issue or area under discussion. The topic one
selects to research is essential in the success of the research project. This is mainly
because one’s interest in the topic will sustain the research. If the researcher is
interested in a particular area they will enjoy reading related materials and will put
more time and effort into that work. The researcher will also be keen to collect the
required data, analyzing it and finding out the results.

STEPS IN TOPIC SELECTION

a. Identify what interests or puzzles one in an area of study
There are many issues in life that may puzzle or interests a researcher. These
may be social, economical, health, political, cultural, environmental, etc..
However it is always important to identify a puzzling aspect in one’s area of
study. This not only enables the researcher to go in-depth in one’s
professional area, but also to defend the researched work with authority. For
instance, in school of education one may be puzzled as to why in spite of
adequate teachers in secondary schools, the grade nine exam results are still
too low, one in the school of Accounting may be puzzled why , in spite of

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 yearly audit reports by the auditor general, misappropriation of funds in the
public institutions seem to be increasing, one in the school of Public health,
may be puzzled as to why despite awareness programs and mosquito net
distributions, malaria rates seem to be on the increase etc. These may be
fertile grounds in which students can identify research topics.
b. Identify key words for the topic
The researcher should then zero down to the real aspect puzzling them and
express it is specific keywords. These are words that represent the issue that
has puzzled them. For instance, the topic POVERTY can be looked at from
different angles by various researchers. Some key words would be …impact,
consequences, challenges, causes, opportunity windows, effects, social
factors contributing, economic factors contributing, political factors
contributing etc …to Poverty. Or to a researcher from Public health school,
their key words may be Awareness Creation verses Malaria Prevalence. One
from Accounting school, their keys words would be Auditors General Financial
Report verses Fund misappropriation etc. Basically the researcher should
think of what to concentrate on based on these words.
c. Define the Topic
After identifying the key words the researcher wants to concentrate on, they
need now to define the topic. Defining the topic involves analysing selected
keywords keenly. This is so because out of the key words identified there are
actually a number of topics that can be extracted from them or that can be
studied. For example, a TOPIC on Poverty, and imagine one of the key words
is CAUSES or Poverty. CAUSES is broad in its sense, therefore, from different
perspectives of social, economic, environmental, health, political etc…what
factors would you as a researcher concentrate on. It may be Economic factors
contributing to Poverty, Social aspects contributing to Poverty etc. Once one
defines the topic according to what they would like to concentrate on, it
enables them to or the study to be focused.
d. Formulate the Topic
After defining the Topic, the researcher should now formulate the Topic into a
Research Title. This is the start of having other aspects of the research to fall
in place. Such as Statement of the Problem, Objectives etc. However the
researcher ought to search for articles or materials related to the topic so

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 that they develop clarity over the topic selected before they formulate the
TITLE.

1.9.2 QUALITIES OF AN EFFECTIVE RESEARCH TOPIC

I. It is researchable; This means the research instruments can easily be

developed and the formulated objectives measurable.
II. It captivates the interest of the Researcher: Basically the topic selected
should be one where the researcher has sufficient interest.
III. It makes a contribution to knowledge: Meaning it ought not be knowledge
already existing, but rather new knowledge contributed.
IV. It is provocative-open to other views and interpretation: This means it is open
to varied views and interpretations.
V. It is clear and focused: This means the topic is not VAGUE or alien to the
researcher.

1.9.3 CHALLENGES ENCOUNTED IN TOPIC SELECTION

Selecting a research Topic requires a lot of care because the topic selected has a lot
of influence on then success or failure of the project/study. Suffice to mention that
they are various challenges uncounted in Topic selection and these may cause one
to abandon the work halfway or the project takes longer to be completed than
anticipated. Some challenges may include the following:

a. Choosing a Topic that is too Wide: A researcher may select a Topic that is too
wide and fails to limit the scope. For instance “ The Effects of High Interest
Rates”. This topic may be problematic since the issues of interest rates may
vary according to sector, such as banks, microfinance institutions, etc. The
scope of the topic is not clearly specified.
b. Choosing a Topic that is Too complex:
Sometimes one can choose a topic that is too complex for research at the
level of the student. The complexity may be based on sample size, study
period required, financial requirements etc.
c. Poor Timing:

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 Sometimes one may be tempted to select a topic that would require huge
amount of time to undertake, given the duration specified to students. So
timing remains key.
d. Limited accessibility to Materials and Respondents:
A particular topic may prove unsuitable simply because there is no ready
accessibility to the requisite source materials or indeed the kind of
respondents suitable for the study may not be readily available.

1.9.4 Criteria for selecting a research problem/Research Topic

Some of the factors that contribute to a successful selecting of the research
problem include the following criteria of selection.

 Relevance and IMPORTANCE-The problem should be significant enough

and involve an important principle or practice. If it is not worth while, if it
neither adds to knowledge nor lead to any improvement in the current
practices, it would be in vain. No research should be undertaken unless its
consequences promise to improve significantly to an important education
practice. How widespread is the phenomenon? Example: AIDS. How severe is
the problem? Who is affected by the problem? What constitutes a research
problem? The existence of a problem is occasioned by a discrepancy between
what exists and what you think should be, i.e. discrepancy between the ideal;
situation and what actually exists, e.g. problem of AIDS and AIDS campaign.
Ideal situation-condom sales- Aids cases reduced
Actual situation- condom sales- Aids cases still increasing
Question: why has this happened? By asking the question
“WHY”, this is threshold of the research problem and you are at
stage of formulating a hypothesis.
 Feasibility- the research may have a good problem but the researcher may
not be able to carry it out to its successful conclusion. The researcher should
posses the required competence, knowledge, skill and understanding. There
may be constraints in conducting a research, e.g. the magnitude of the
problem. The size of the problem matters and it is important to make it
feasible so as to handle it better. Also, some resource related problems may
arise, e.g. monetary constraints-Time can also be a constant especially if the
sample size is big. Equipment (transportation, data processing) may also be

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 constrained- other constraints are non- material. Cooperation from the
subjects; personnel, i.e.
 Avoidance of duplication- The research problem should be sufficiently
original so that it does not involve objectionable duplication. Originality is the
basic credit of research. Ignorance of prior studies may lead a student to
spend time on a problem already investigated by some other worker.
Moreover the research should employ the most recent data.
 Political and social acceptability is a situation where a chosen topic is
based on a certain political situation- this may not be acceptable due to
sensitivity which may hinder findings. Acceptability attracts funding.
 Level of research- The nature and scope of a study will be determined in
the light of such as, a diploma, degree, master’s degree, ph. D. It may simply
be an action researcher or a research to produce a research paper or an
experimental project.
 Interesting- The problem must be interesting to the investigator him/
herself. If the investigator is not interested in the problem, he or she will not
be able to face and overcome obstacles which come at every step in
research. If the problem statement seems dull and boring to the investigator,
there is little hope that he/she will do justice to it. The investigator must have
strong inherent motivation in the problem. This interest must be purely
intellectual and should not be there only for a reward, material benefit, and
advancement in position, increased authority and so forth.
 Ethical (issues) responsible-The sensitivity of the subjects should be taken
into account. The investigation should not be harmful to subjects. Subjects
should be willingly consent to personal matters.
 Availability of data- The researcher should ensure the availability of valid
data and reliable data gathering devices and procedures. In case the study
demands confidential, sensitive and classified information, will it be possible
for him to obtain it?
 Experience and creativity-Good research problems stem from a clear
understanding of the theoretical, empirical and practical aspects of the
subject derived from personal experience and from a thorough review of
literature. Conversely, lack of familiarity with the subject is almost certain to
result in poor choice.

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  Courage and confidence. Will I have enough courage and determination to
pursue the study in spite of the difficulties and social hazards that may be
involved? Will I be able to work aggressively when data is difficult to gather
and when others are reluctant to cooperate? Will I be willing to risk criticism,
suspicion or controversial study may rise? Sex Education, religious education,
communism and other controversial problems are most certain to stir up
emotional reactions.

1.9.5 RESEARCH TITLE SELECTION

The term TITLE refers to heading or label or tag. The title of the proposal
thesis describes what the study is about. The title is amini abstract, a
summary of key ideas in a proposal or thesis. EG. Abortion in Zambia’: An
examination of its causes and effects on female students in
secondary schools and colleges……..
The title clearly shows that the study is on abortion, and that the main focus
is on causes and effects, and that it is targeting female students in secondary
schools and Colleges.

STEPS IN TITLE SELECTION

a. Identify keywords for the Title:
Before formulating a title, the researcher should identify key issues in the
topic the researcher is interested in.
b. Reflect on key issues:
The researcher should brainstorm the key issues identified. This includes
attempting to find out the independent and dependent variables. The
variables ought to link in order to form a title.
c. Formulate The Title:
After the researcher is clear about the independent and dependent variables,
the title can be formulated. The formulation of the title involves trying to link
the key variables by using terms such as…The effects of, The impact of,…An
assessment of…An examination of…etc
d. Evaluation: After formulating the Title, the researcher ought to ensure that it
is clear and specific. This means the independent and dependent variables
are easily identified. For example if the topic is on Free Primary Education,

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 the Title can be : The effect of free primary education on student accessibility
retention and academic performance.

1.9.6 QUALITIES OF AN EFFECTIVE TITLE

 It should be brief and specific. Some guidance states 12+ or – 4. Meaning
minimum number of words could be around 8 and maximum around 16. This
would be able to bring out the title and easier to identify the independent and
dependent variable.
 It should be in line with the set objectives: The title is a brief summary on
what is to be studied. It should therefore portray the aims and objectives of
the study. The words used in the Title should clearly reflect the focus of the
study.
 It should be clear and unambiguous: The title should not lead to various
interpretations of the study.
 It should reflect a relationship between the independent and dependent
variables.
 It should portray an issue that is researchable. The aspects in question should
be measurable.

1.9.7 CHALLENGES ENCOUNTERED IN TITLE SELECTION

a. Choosing a Title that is not Specific. E.g Poverty in Zambia….is a wide Title
that is open to various interpretations. This is because Poverty can be seen
from various perspectives be it social, political, economic, etc.
b. Writing Title that is too wordy; A brief Title is more effective than a long one
simply because variables are easily identified. If one part Title fails, two part
title can be used separated by a colon. EG. Abortion in Zambia: An
examination of it causes and effect on female students in Secondary Schools
and colleges.
c. Poorly formulated Titles: Some titles are difficult to comprehend. For instance
..Understanding Poverty in Zambia. It is difficult to comprehend what the
term….”understanding” means.
d. Lack of consistency: Some Titles do not tally with the objectives nor the
problem statement.

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1.9.8 TITLE FORMATS
There are various formats of developing Research Titles among which would include
the following:

1. Active verb format:

EG…An investigation into underlying factors to increased rates of GBV in
Lusaka

Other active verbs usable in research are Analyze, Assess, Evaluate,

Invigorate, Describe, Determine etc.
2. Question Form;
This is where one poses a question around their topic selected. Although
question format is not encouraged due to another segment of the research
proposal which require stating research questions, it must be mentioned that
it is usable especially in other types such as two part title.
EG> what are the aim underlying factors to increased GBV cases in Lusaka?
3. Two part Title : is where one breaks a title sentence into two parts. EG.
Gender Based Violence; An analysis of underlying factors to its increased rate
in Lusaka.
4. Statement format: This is where one simply states the title in the form of a
statement.
EG: The underlying factors of increased gender based violence in Zambia.

1.10 DEVELOPING A STATEMENT OF A PROBLEM

A problem statement is a concise description of an issue to be addressed
or a condition to be improved upon. ... A simple and well-defined problem
statement will be used by the RESEARCHER to understand the problem and
work toward developing a solution

INFORMATION TO CONSIDER UNDER STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

In a research proposal, there is section on Statement of the Problem which ought to
be considered. Apart from formulating a research problem either in the form of
question or declarative statement, the researcher ought to consider various issues
to include under this section. Basically, one ought to make a description of the

33
social, economic, cultural and political characteristics. This will help put the problem
into context and give an overview of the situation. Consider giving some statistics
to highlight the problem, magnitude of the problem and how severe the problem is
and who is affected the most etc.(For details Ref to proposal format section).

Example of problem statement

The overall research problem being addressed in this study is that despite an
increase in the number of female students in secondary schools and colleges
conducting abortions, little has been done to analyze its effects on education.
Studies carried out in Zambia indicate that roughly 250,000 abortions occur
annually among adolescents of ages 15 to 19 ( Mumba, 2010). Abortion is also
documented as one of the most common reasons for hospital admissions among
female teenagers with about 700 women dying each week due to abortion related
complications arising from illegal abortions ( Family Health Report, 2008).
Nevertheless the impact of abortion on school retention and performance has
hardly been analyzed. If the issue of abortion among female students is left
unattended to, opportunities that would have otherwise been available for female
students to advance academically will become foreclosed due to abortion
complications. It is against this background that the study wishes to examine the
causes and effects of abortion among female students in Zambia’s colleges and
universities.

KEY ISSUES TO INFUSE GENERALLY

I. What is the problem that is puzzling to you…something you think is an

anomaly
II. How serious is that problem and how widespread? Quote some statistics as
proof if possible
III. What other problems are emanating from the problem being addressed.
IV. What are the social, economic etc needs it has created if any
V. What is the gap in knowledge…are you sure there is no information already
available out there? Eg you may say, while the issue at hand has been
researched in other regions there seem insufficient information on the same
pertaining to Zambia, or Zesco etc
VI. Then indicate possible repurcassion should the issue left unattended to

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VII. Then finally state the intention of the study eg…it is against this background
that the study focusses on …….etc.

1.11. OBJECTIVE FORMULATION

Generally research requires indicators that reflect the intention and direction of the
study. Objectives are intentions or goals the researcher strives to achieve. There
are basically two main objectives: general and specific objectives.

General objective : This a general intention of the researcher. It highlights

generally what the researcher intends to achieve in the study.

It starts with the word “TO” and followed by an active verb such as analyze, assess,
ascertain etc.

OTHER CHARACTERISTICS OF GENERAL OBJECTIVE

 It often reflects the study location and study population

 It is often linked to the Research Title
 Generally one in number

Example: Imagine the Title of the Research Reads….An investigation of how Covid
19 has affected the learning process among university students in Zambia- A case
of UNILUS.

The General Objective would be stated as:

To investigate how Covid 19 has affected the learning among university students in
Zambia- A case of UNILUS.

SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES

These are specific intentions the researcher wishes to achieve. They highlight
specific variables to be considered in the study. These are normally several in
number. They also commence with the word “TO” and followed by active verb.

Other characteristics of objectives are as follows:

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 i. Specific
ii. Measurable
iii. Attainable
iv. Realistic
v. Time bound

Other features:

I. I. Each specific objective( sometimes called sub problems), should

be a completely researchable unit: A specific objective might be
researched as a separate subproject within a larger research goal. The
solutions to the sub problem taken together combine to resolve the main
problem. That is why it is important that each specific objective (sub
problem)is stated clearly.
II. II. Each specific objective must be clearly tied to the interpretation
of data: One needs to remain within the confines of the subject matter.
III. The specific objectives must add up to the totality of the
problem: Ensure that all specific objectives (sub problems) represent the
significant areas of the main problem
III. IV. Specific objectives should be small in number: generally a
researcher might come up with at least between 2-6 sub problems. For a
novice researcher, the attempt to come up with sub problems might lead to
more that 10 sub problems. That should be seen as positive in itself in that
after the various sub problems, one has an opportunity to analyze and
conclude on the sub problems which are more appropriate and related to the
main problem.

IMPORTANCE OF OBJECTIVE FORMULATION

I. It gives focus and clarity to research
II. It delimits the literature review of a researcher
III. It creates a basis for discussing findings and making inferences
IV. It helps in determining the research design suitable for the study

EXAMPLE OF SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES

I. To ascertain to what extent the use of virtual classes has impacted on the
assimilation of lessons among students
II. To assess how technological emphasis in the learning process has
disadvantaged students in rural areas
III. To examine the efficiency of internet use for learning purposes among
university students etc

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RESEARCH QUESTIONS
• these are specific questions the researcher asks to guide their focus of the
study

• research questions commonly would come after setting objectives

• they often times mirror the specific objectives

• they avoid words like, does, has, do, is etc , nevertheless they ought to be
posed using words such as why, how, what, to what extent etc.

note: Acc to Unilus guidelines, one is encouraged to formulate research questions if

their study is qualitative.

1.12 RESEARCH HYPOTHESES:

• An hypothesis is a reasonable guess,
• A tentative explanation to a situation
• It is an assumption

CHARACTERISTICS OF CAUSAL HYPOTHESIS

 It has at least two variables

 It expresses a causal or causal-effect relationship between the variables

 It can be expressed as a prediction or an expected future outcome

 It is logically linked to a research question and a theory

 It is falsified i.e. it is capable of being tested against empirical evidence and

shown to be true or false.

Examples of hypothesis with causal relationships

 Religious attendance reduces the likelihood of divorce

 Religious attendance is associated with reduced divorce
 The higher the religious attendance, the lower the likelihood of divorce.

IMPORTANCE OF HYPOTHESES
1. Hypotheses form the starting point of investigation.
2. Hypotheses make observation and experiment possible.
3. Hypotheses are an aid of explanation
4. Hypotheses make deduction
1. It guides the direction of the body
2. It identifies facts that are relevant and those that are not
3. It suggests which form of research design is likely to be most appropriate

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 4. It provides a framework for organizing the conclusions ETC

TYPE OF HYPOTHESES

NULL hypothesis: This is an hypothesis that states there is no significant effect of

an independent variable on a dependent variable. A null hypothesis actually
predicts no relationship between variables. It is important to understand that the
null hypothesis can never be proven. A set of data can only reject a null hypothesis
or fail to reject it. For example, if comparison of two groups (e.g.: treatment, no
treatment) reveals no statistically significant difference between the two, it does not
mean that there is no difference in reality. It only means that there is not enough
evidence to reject the null hypothesis (in other words, one fails to reject the null
hypothesis). A type of hypothesis used in statistics that proposes that no statistical
significance exists in a set of given observations. The null hypothesis attempts to
show that no variation exists between variables.

An example of a null hypothesis would be 'There is no relation between voter

preference and the sex of the mayoral candidate.
Alternative Hypothesis: This is an hypothesis paired with the null hypothesis
that says an independent variable has significant effect on a dependent variable. An
alternative hypothesis says that a

relationship between variables exist. An alternative hypothesis is one that specifies

that the null hypothesis is not true. The alternative hypothesis is false when the null
hypothesis is true, and true when the null hypothesis is false. An example of an
alternative hypothesis would be, ' There is a relation between voter preference and
the sex of the mayoral candidate.

Double –barreled Hypothesis: A confusing and poorly designed hypothesis with

two independent variables in which it is unclear whether one or other variables, or
both in combination, produces an effect. In fact researchers should avoid using it as
it shows unclear thinking and creates confusion.

RESEARCH HYPOTHESES:
• examples
h0: There is no relationship between ignorance and child abuse
h1: there is a significant relationship between ignorance and child abuse

NOTE: All the time hypotheses are stated in two, one in null(h0) and one in
alternative mode(h1).

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1.13 UNDERSTANDING RESEARCH VARIABLES
A Variable is something that can be changed, such as a characteristic or value. It
can be seen also as a logical set of attributes.

Variables aren't always 'quantitative' or numerical. The variable 'gender' consists of

two text values: 'male' and 'female'. We can, if it is useful, assign quantitative
values instead of (or in place of) the text values, but we don't have to assign
numbers in order for something to be a variable. It's also important to realize that
variables aren't only things that we measure in the traditional sense. For instance,
in much social research and in program evaluation, we consider the treatment or
program to be made up of one or more variables (i.e., the 'cause' can be considered
a variable). An educational program can have varying amounts of 'time on task',
'classroom settings', 'student-teacher ratios', and so on. So even the program can
be considered a variable (which can be made up of a number of sub-variables).

An attribute is a specific value on a variable. For instance, the variable sex or

gender has two attributes: male and female. Or, the variable agreement might be
defined as having five attributes:

 1 = strongly disagree
 2 = disagree
 3 = neutral
 4 = agree
 5 = strongly agree etc.

TYPES OF VARIABLES

INDEPENDENT AND DEPENDENT VARIABLES

A variable can be Independent and Dependent: An independent variable is one

produces an effect or results on a dependent variable in a causal hypothesis. It is
the presumed cause, whereas the dependent variable is the presumed effect. In
other words, it is the effect or result that is caused by an independent variable in a
causal hypothesis. In an experiment, the independent variable is the variable that is
varied or manipulated by the researcher, and the dependent variable is the

39
response that is measured. Or, the IV is the variable that is controlled and
manipulated by the experimenter; whereas the DV is not manipulated, instead the
DV is observed or measured for variation as a presumed result of the variation in
the IV.

EG: An assessment of the effect of Covid 19 on student’s academic performance at

Unilus.

From this Research Title, the IV is the ‘Effect of …’ then the DV is ‘Academic
performance.

2.0 Literature Review

The second critical stage in the process is Reading literature that relate to your
topic of interest and this can help one formulate a specific research problem. It
should be known that research proposals and reports typically have a section that
reviews related literature. Basically the review describes theoretical perspectives
and previous research findings related to the problem at hand.

Some benefits include the following:

 It gives one an opportunity to look at what others have done in similar areas
of interest

 It increases one’s confidence in the topic of interest after discovering that

others have invested time and energy in the similar area.

 To demonstrate a familiarity with a body of knowledge and establish

credibility.

 To learn from others and stimulate new ideas.

 It can provide one with new ideas and approaches that might not have
occurred to ones mind

 It can inform about other researchers conducting work in the area for
possible contact for advise and feedback

 It can reveal sources of data one may not know existed

 It can introduce you to methods used by other researchers for possible

learning and emulation

 It can help one interpret and make sense of findings and be helped to tie
ones results to the work of those who have gone before. Once literature has

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 been reviewed accordingly, a researcher is now ready to go through the
process of formulating some hypotheses.

2.1 Types of Literature Review:

 Context Review: This review is a type in which the author links a specific
study to a larger body of knowledge.
 Historical Review: This review allows the author to trace an issue over
time.
 Integrative Review: This review allows the author to present and
summarize the current state of knowledge on a topic.
 Self-study Review: This review allows an author to demonstrate their
familiarity with a subject area.
It must be noted that in a good literature review, a researcher does not merely
report related literature, but rather evaluates, organizes and synthesizes what
others have done.
Evaluation of literature involves one to critically look at the methods and
conclusions of others, as well as not taking such conclusions at face value, but
rather determine whether such conclusions are justified.
Addition to that, a researcher ought to organize ideas encountered during the
review. Basically, sub problems within ones main problem must in many cases
provide a general organizational scheme one can use.
Synthesizing what has been learned from the review remains paramount for a
successful literature review. One ought to pull together the diverse perspectives
and research results which one has come across during review into a cohesive
manner.

2.2 LAYOUT FORMATS

In terms of lay out of Lit review section there are various formats at a disposals of a
researcher such as the ones below:
Past to Present (this is where notes under review section are outlined from past t
present scenario).
From Global to Local (This is where one outlines the reviewed votes from Global
perspective to local scenarios
From Broader to Specific (This is where the researcher commences from broad
perspective to specific in the study focus)
Thematic Approach ( This is where one use key concepts or themes t create notes
that relate the study

2.2.1 HINTS TO A SUCCESSFUL REVIEW

One may consider to do the following suggestions:
 Compare and contrast varying theoretical perspectives on the topic
 Show how approaches to the topic have changed over time
 Describe general trends in research findings

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  Identify discrepant or contradictory findings and suggest possible
explanations for such
 Identify general themes that run through the literature which has been
reviewed etc

It is envisaged that once a researcher endeavors to do the above, basically one will
have contributed something to the knowledge in the related field even before the
study is conducted.

2.3 GUIDELINES FOR WRITING A SOLID REVIEW

Get a proper psychological orientation: Be clear in your thinking and know
precisely what you are attempting to do. Basically when one writes a section of the
Literature Review, it is a discussion of the studies, research reports and other
scholarly writings that bear directly on one’s effort and to what one plans to do.

Have a Plan: Writing a review of related literature takes planning organization,

where by one decides areas for discussion and the order or flow of the discussion in
relation to the research problem.

Emphasize relatedness: One ought to ensure that the discussion of the literature
review section maintains relatedness to ones research problem by precisely
pointing out what the relationship is, with appropriate citations.

Review literature and Do not reproduce it: As much as a researcher would cite
other authors, it is important to ensure that emphasis should be always be on how a
particular idea or research findings relates to one’s problem.

Summarize what you have said: Every discussion of the related literature should
end with a brief summary section where one gathers up what has been said and
describe its importance in terms of the research problem.

EMPIRICAL REVIEW:

Empirical research is based on observed and measured phenomena and derives

knowledge from actual experience rather than from theory or belief.

Key characteristics to look for:

 Specific research questions to be answered

 Definition of the population, behavior, or phenomena being studied
 Description of the process used to study this population or phenomena,
including selection criteria, controls, and testing instruments (such as
surveys)
 Author(s) present a new set of findings from original research after
conducting an original experiment
 First-hand collection of data

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 Empirical research is a type of research methodology that makes use of
verifiable evidence in order to arrive at research outcomes. In other words,
this type of research relies solely on evidence obtained through observation
or scientific data collection methods.

Empirical research can be carried out using qualitative or quantitative

observation methods, depending on the data sample, that is, quantifiable
data or non-numerical data.

NON EMPIRICAL REVIEW

Non EMPIRICAL RESEARCH is like like theoretical research that depends on

preconceived notions about the research variables, it is not data driven.

2.4 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

This is a collection of interrelated ideas based on the theories. A theoretical
framework accounts for and explains phenomena. It attempts to clarify why things
are the way they are based on the theories. This is a general set of assumptions
about the nature of phenomena.

One has to analyze theories in order to understand a theoretical framework.

A theory is a group of statements supported by evidence, meant to explain

phenomena. They are a systematic explanation of the relationship among
phenomena. They provide a generalized explanation to an occurrence.

While there are several theories that exist, a researcher concentrates only on those
applicable within their area of study. Where a theory fails to be supported by data,
it can be revised or rejected. In a practical situation, theories are testable.

Theories provide tentative theoretical answers to questions and issues before the
researcher practically confirms through research that the answer is correct.

Researchers apply theories to guide their work and help interpret findings. They
provide a foundation for inquiries.

2.4.1 IMPORTANCE OF THEORETICAL FRAMEWORKS

This plays a major role in research which may include the following:

I. It introduces a researcher to a new view of the research problem. The

researcher tends to understand the total realm of the problem.
II. It enables the researcher to conceptualize the topic in its entirety, or it
enables one to understand the problem from wider perspective and not from
a narrow personalized self interest approach.
III. It enhances the researcher’s objectivity

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2.4.2 QUALITIES OF AN EFFECTIVE THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
I. It accounts for and explains a phenomena
II. It is specific and well articulated
III. Reflects the research problem being addressed
IV. Be measured in a practical situation
V. Provides a tentative answers to the questions, issues and problems
addressed in a research problem
VI. Should systematically address various aspects of the problem particularly key
factors assumed to influence or cause a problem.

2.4.3. GUIDELINES TO FORMULATE THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

a) Reflect on the existing theories for the purpose of identifying a fitting context
b) Analyze the research title to identify the independent and dependent
variables. Reflect on the relationship between variables
c) Find out which theories best explain the relationship between the variables.
You can do this through the use of the library, reading books, articles related
to the topic, professional publications, journals, theses, doctoral dissertation
and master’s theses etc. One should look out for theories that relate to their
area of study.
d) Formulation: This is where the researcher writes down the theories
applicable, link the ideas and identify the relationship. After this the
researcher can now formulate a theoretical framework. This will involve
discussing several theories in an attempt to answer the research question.
e) Evaluation: After formulating, the researcher then can evaluate to find out if
it addresses all sections of the research problem.

2.4.4 CHALLENGES FACED IN FORMULATING THEORETICAL FRAMEWORKS

One of the major challenges may include the following

i. Lack of differentiation between a theory and a theoretical framework

ii. The difference between the two is that a theory simply states what
proponents relate to a particular issue while a Theoretical Framework uses a
particular theory or theories to account for and clarify why things are the way
they are. So the researcher should go beyond simply stating a theory.
iii. Another challenge is failure to identify appropriate theories that relate to the
area of study or issue under discussion or study.

2.5 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CONCEPTUAL AND THEORETICAL

FRAMEWORKS
i. Firstly, both frameworks help the researcher to make meaningful findings.
However, a conceptual framework is based on the researcher’s own
perception and can be drawn from observations, experiences etc. While a
theoretical framework is based on recognized theories.

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 ii. A conceptual framework cannot be refuted or tested through research while a
theoretical framework is testable and can be rejected or revised.
iii. Ideas in a conceptual framework are from the mind of the researcher with a
few references to support them, whole a theoretical framework is a
discussion of the related theories attempting to predict a phenomenon. A
conceptual framework is an idea stated.
iv. EG…..This study is based on Abraham Maslow’s Theory……etc

2.6 Conceptual Framework in Research

A concept is basically an abstract or general idea derived from specific instances. It

is a word or phrase that symbolizes several interrelated ideas.

To Conceptualize therefore is to invent an idea or explanation and formulating it

mentally. It is act of creating or formulating something but thinking up particular
ideas or actions intended to deal with the problem or situation. Conceptualizing is a
simplified view of the world that we wish to represent for some purpose.

FRAME (FRAMING) is the formulation of plans and important details. It is a way of

conceiving something.

A CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK therefore is a set of broad ideas and principles taken

from relevant fields of inquiry and used to structure a subsequent presentation.

A conceptual Framework is a research tool intended to assist a researcher to

develop awareness and understanding of the situation under scrutiny and to
communicate it.

When well articulated, a conceptual framework has potential usefulness as a tool to

assist a researcher to make meaning of subsequent findings.

2.6.1 USEFULNESS OF THE CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORKS

A conceptual framework increasing helps to keep the research on track by:

 Providing clear links from literature to the research goals and questions
 Contribute to the formulation of the research design
 Provide reference points for discussion of literature, methodology and
analysis of data
 Contribute to trustworthiness of the study
 Giving a broad scope of the research
 Conceptualize the problem and provide means to link ideas and data so that
deeper connections can be revealed.
 It helps a researcher to organize their thinking and complete an investigation
successfully. It must explain the relationship a, among interlinked concepts. It
must explain a possible connection between variables and answers and the
why questions.

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In order to find out how effective one’s conceptual framework is, one should analyze
whether their set objectives have been addressed.

2.6.2 STRATEGIES TO DESIGN EFFECTIVE CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORKS

i. Reflection-Assessing situations from social, economic and philosophical
perspectives. One has to be clear about what the research is all about (Titles,
objectives).
ii. Aspects of dependent and independent variables should also be put into
perspective
iii. Defining key issue(problem), to be addressed and defining its practical
boundaries
iv. Identify key uncertainties( gaps in understanding/knowledge) about the
situation or the social/economic systems etc( the question that needs to be
answered by the study)
v. Identifying and assessing different possibilities for action
vi. A well constructed conceptual framework can guide the entire research
writing process, keep the researcher in track, save time and enable
researchers to defend their augments soundly and readily.

2.6.3 QUALITIES OF AN EFFECTIVE CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

a) Should be clear and concise
b) Language used should be simple and straight forward
c) The conceptual framework should be self explanatory
d) Should have supportive evidence of ideas used
e) Should be logical and address the title, research objectives, and statement of
the problem
f) Should be consistent with the literature review
g) It should act as reference point from which to locate the research questions
h) It should provide a structure within which to provide the contents of the
research and frame conclusions within the context.

2.6.4 STEPS IN PREPARING AND EFFECTIVE CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

i. Selection of concepts: One has to select some concepts to use in relation to
the problem. One has to consider alternative ideas that bear directly on the
problem or situation, the ideas that relate directly to the problem.
ii. Creation of options: Possible actions ought to be constructed prior to the
selection. The need to imagine the circumstances immediately help give rise
to mental sets in relation to those circumstances. The mental sets may
include our own knowledge of what to do and potential outcomes
iii. Seek the tools to conceptualize: This is where the ideas are now linked and
their relationship identified.
iv. Direct the conceptualization process: This is where one offers certain insights
write the conceptual framework. Generally the conceptual framework
highlights the effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable

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 (outcome). In other words after identifying the variables, one should be able
to interpret and link the conceptual framework with the current study.

3.0 RESEARCH APPROACHES

There are basically two main approaches of Research, although until recently most
contributors recognize about three approaches. These are Qualitative, Quantitative
and Mixed Research approaches.

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

DEFINITION:

This is a type of social science research that collects and works with non-numerical
data and that seeks to interpret meaning from these data that help us understand
social life through the study of targeted populations or places.

The main purpose of qualitative research is that of describing and understanding

a phenomenon from a point of view of a research participant or respondent.

Qualitative research methods are designed in a manner that they help reveal the
behaviour and perception of a target audience with reference to a particular topic.

Qualitative Research is primarily exploratory research. It is used to gain an

understanding of underlying reasons, opinions, and motivations. It provides insights
into the problem or helps to develop ideas or hypotheses for potential quantitative
research. Qualitative Research is also used to uncover trends in thought and
opinions, and dive deeper into the problem.

PURPOSE OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

 To describe and understand a particular phenomenon

 While quantitative research is useful for identifying relationships between
variables, like, for example, the connection between Poverty and Racial Hate,
it is qualitative research that can illuminate WHY this connection exists by
going directly to the source -- the people themselves.
 It allows the research to investigate the meanings that people attribute to
their behavior, actions and interactions with others.
 Because its focus is everyday life and people's experiences, qualitative
research lends itself well to creating new theories using inductive method,
which can then be tested with further research.

COMMON QUALITATIVE METHODS

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Qualitative researchers use their own eyes, ears, and intelligence to collect in-depth
perceptions and descriptions of targeted populations, places, and events. Their
findings are collected through a variety of methods, and often, a researcher will use
at least two or several of the following while conducting a qualitative study.

 Direct Observation: With direct observation, a researcher studies people as

they go about their daily lives without participating or interfering. This type of
research is often unknown to those under study, and as such, must be
conducted in public settings where people do not have a reasonable
expectation of privacy. For example, a researcher might observe the ways in
which strangers interact in public as they gather to watch a street performer.
 Open ended surveys: While many surveys are designed to generate
quantitative data, many are also designed with open-ended questions that
allow for the generation and analysis of qualitative data. For example, a
survey might be used to investigate not just which political candidates voters
chose, but why they chose them, in their own words.
 Focus Group discussions: In a focus group, a researcher engages a small
group of participants in a conversation designed to generate data relevant to
the research question. Focus groups can contain anywhere from 5 to 15
participants. Social scientists often use them in studies that examine an
event or trend that occurs within a specific community. They are common in
market research too.

 In depth Interviews: Researchers conduct in-depth interviews by speaking

with participants in a one-on-one setting. Sometimes a researcher
approaches the interview with a predetermined list of questions or topics for
discussion but allows the conversation to evolve based on how the
participant responds. Other times, the researcher has identified certain topics
of interest but does not have a formal guide for the conversation, but allows
the participant to guide it.
 Oral History: The oral history method is used to create a historical account
of an event, group, or community, and typically involves a series of in-depth
interviews conducted with one or multiple participants over an extended
period of time.
 Participant Observation: This method is similar to observation, however
with this one, the researcher also participates in the action or events in order
to not only observe others but to gain the first-hand experience in the
setting.
 Ethnographic observation: This is the most intensive and in-depth
observational method. Originating in anthropology, with this method, a
researcher fully immerses herself into the research setting and lives among
the participants as one of them for anywhere from months to years. By doing
this, the researcher attempts to experience day-to-day existence from the

48
 viewpoints of those studied in order to develop in-depth and long-term
accounts of the community, events, or trends under observation.

 Content Analysis: This method is used to analyze social life by interpreting

words and images from documents, film, art, music, and other cultural
products and media. The researchers look at how the words and images are
used, and the context in which they are used to draw inferences about the
underlying culture.

MERITS AND DEMERITS OF Qualitative Research

Qualitative research has both benefits and drawbacks ( Demerits):

MERITS

 It creates an in-depth understanding of the attitudes, behaviors, interactions,

events, and social processes that comprise everyday life. I
 It enhances understanding how everyday life is influenced by societal factors
and social forces
 It is known to be flexible and easily adaptable to changes in the research
environment and can be conducted with minimal cost in many cases.
 It can be highly biased from the researchers’ point of view especially during
interpretation of findings.

DEMERITS

 Its scope is fairly limited so its findings are not always widely generalizable. In
other words findings are less generalizable.
 Researchers also have to use caution with these methods to ensure that they
themselves do not influence the data in ways that significantly change it and
that they do not bring undue personal bias to their interpretation of the
findings.
 It can bring forth too detailed information making interpretation of data
rather complex.

CONDITIONS UNDER WHICH TO OPT FOR QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

I. As a rule of thumb, use qualitative research methods for exploring ideas,

designs, or processes which do not require concrete hypotheses or
structured, statistically valid feedback.
II. Description: When one wants to reveal the nature of certain situations,
settings, processes, relationships, systems or people.

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 III. Interpretation: When one wants to (i) gain insights about the nature of a
particular phenomenon (ii) Develop new concepts theoretical perspectives
(iii) discover problems that exist within a phenomenon.
IV. Verification: When one wants to test the validity of certain assumptions,
claims, theories or generalizations.
V. Evaluation: When one wants to provide a means through which a
researcher can judge the effectiveness of particular policies, practices and
innovations.
VI. Qualitative research is by definition exploratory, and it is used when we
don’t know what to expect,
VII. When we want to define the problem or develop an approach to the
problem.
VIII. When the researcher wants to go deeper into issues of interest and
explore nuances related to the problem at hand.

QUANTIATIVE RESEARCH APPROACHES

DEFINITION

 Quantitative Research is a structured way of collecting and

analyzing data obtained from different sources.

 Quantitative Research is used to quantify the problem by way of generating

numerical data or data that can be transformed into usable statistics.
 It is used to quantify attitudes, opinions, behaviors, and other defined
variables – and generalize results from a larger sample population.
 Quantitative Research uses measurable data to formulate facts and uncover
patterns in research.
 Quantitative research is defined as a systematic investigation of phenomena
by gathering quantifiable data and performing statistical, mathematical, or
computational techniques.
 Quantitative research focuses on gathering numerical data and
generalizing it across groups of people or to explain a particular
phenomenon.

PURPOSE OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

I. To Explain and Predict a phenomenon.

II. To generate knowledge and create understanding about the social world.
III. Quantitative research also provides answers to questions about the
frequency of a phenomenon, or the magnitude to which the phenomenon
affects the sample population
IV. To quantify data and generalise the results from a sample to the population
of interest.

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 V. To test hypotheses
VI. To look for cause and effect relationship and make predictions
VII. To construct statistical models in an attempt to explain what is observed.

MERITS OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

SOME OF THE MERITS OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH INCLUDE THE

FOLLOWING:

Allows for a broader study, involving a greater number of subjects, and


enhancing the generalization of the results;
 Allows for greater objectivity and accuracy of results. Generally,
quantitative methods are designed to provide summaries of data that
support generalizations about the phenomenon under study.
 Quantitative research usually involves few variables and many cases, and
employs prescribed procedures to ensure validity and reliability;
 Applying well established standards means that the quantitative
research can be replicated, and then analysed and compared with similar
studies;
 You can summarize vast sources of information and make comparisons
across categories and over time.
 Personal bias can be avoided by keeping a 'distance' from participating
subjects and using accepted computational techniques.
 Collects reliable and accurate data
 Quick data collection: A quantitative research is carried out with a group of
respondents who represent a population. A survey or any other quantitative
research method applied to these respondents and the involvement of
statistics, conducting, and analyzing results is quite straightforward and less
time-consuming.
 Wider scope of data analysis: Due to the statistics, this research method
provides a wide scope of data collection.
 Eliminate bias: This research method offers no scope for personal
comments or biasing of results. The results achieved are numerical and are
thus, fair in most cases.
SECURE, COLLABORATIVE

DEMERITS OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

Some specific limitations associated with using quantitative methods to study

research problems include:

 Quantitative data is more efficient and able to test hypotheses, but may
miss contextual detail;
 Uses a static and rigid approach and so employs an inflexible process of
discovery;

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  The development of standard questions by researchers can lead to
"structural bias" and false representation, where the data actually
reflects the view of the researcher instead of the participating subject;
 Results provide less detail on behavior, attitudes, and motivation;
 Researcher may collect a much narrower and sometimes superficial
dataset;
 Results are limited as they provide numerical descriptions rather than
detailed narrative and generally provide less elaborate accounts of
human perception;
 The research is often carried out in an unnatural, artificial environment so
that a level of control can be applied to the exercise. This level of control
might not normally be in place in the real world thus yielding "laboratory
results" as opposed to "real world results"; etc.
 Preset answers will not necessarily reflect how people really feel about a
subject and, in some cases, might just be the closest match to the
preconceived hypothesis.

COMMOM QUANTITATIVE DATA COLLECTION METHODS

Quantitative data collection methods are much more structured than Qualitative
data collection methods. Quantitative data collection methods include:

 Structured Interviews

This is where the researchers asks only a standard set of questionnaires and
nothing more than that, and the questions have optional answers already
indicated. Interviews can be in various forms such as:

 Telephone interviews: For years, telephone interviews ruled

the charts of data collection methods. However, nowadays,
there is a significant rise in conducting video interviews using
the internet, Skype, or similar online video calling platforms.
 Face-to-face interviews: It is a proven technique to collect
data directly from the participants. It helps in acquiring quality
data as it provides a scope to ask detailed questions and
probing further to collect rich and informative data.
 Computer-Assisted Personal Interviewing (CAPI): It is
nothing but a similar setup of the face-to-face interview where
the interviewer carries a desktop or laptop along with him at the
time of interview to upload the data obtained from the interview
directly into the database.
 Surveys/questionnaires
Surveys or questionnaires created using online survey software are playing a
pivotal role in online data collection be is quantitative or qualitative research.

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 The surveys are designed in a manner to legitimize the behaviour and trust of
the respondents. More often, checklists and rating scale type of questions
make the bulk of quantitative surveys as it helps in simplifying and
quantifying the attitude or behaviour of the respondents.

Survey questionnaires include web based questionnaire, Mail questionnaire

among others.

 Structured observation:
In this type of observation method, the researcher has to make careful
observations of one or more specific behaviors in a more comprehensive or
structured setting compared to naturalistic or participant observation. In a
structured observation, the researchers, rather than observing everything,
focus only on very specific behaviors of interest. It allows them to quantify
the behaviors they are observing. When the observations require a judgment
on the part of the observers – it is often described as coding, which requires a
clearly defining a set of target behaviors.

 Document Review

Document review is a process used to collect data after reviewing the

existing documents. It is an efficient and effective way of gathering data as
documents are manageable and are the practical resource to get qualified
data from the past. Apart from strengthening and supporting the research by
providing supplementary research data document review has emerged as
one of the beneficial methods to gather quantitative research data.

Three primary document types common in collecting supporting quantitative

research data may include:

 Public Records: Under this document review, official, ongoing records of an

organization are analyzed for further research. For example, annual reports policy
manuals, student activities, game activities in the university, etc.
 Personal Documents: In contrast to public documents, this type of document
review deals with individual personal accounts of individuals’ actions, behavior,
health, physique, etc. For example, the height and weight of the students,
distance students are traveling to attend the school, etc.
 Physical Evidence: Physical evidence or physical documents deal with previous
achievements of an individual or of an organization in terms of monetary and
scalable growth.

CONDITIONS THAT ENCOURAGE OPTING FOR QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH APPROACH

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  You can use quantitative research methods if you wish to validate or choose
a design based on user satisfaction scores, perceived usability measures,
and/or task performance.
 Quantitative methods are best when you want to compare data in a
systematic way, make generalisations to the whole population or test
theories with hypothesis.

 It can want to see a bigger picture.

 If you wish to ascertain the cause and effect relationships between variables
and make predictions.

 If you wish to ascertain the correlation between variables.

 If you wish to use statistical expression to your observations.

CHARACTERISTICS OF QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

FEATURES QUALITATIVE RESEARCH QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

PURPOSE To describe and Understand in To explain and Predict a
detail phenomenon
TYPE OF QUESTIONS Unstructured ( Open ended) Structured( closed ended)
LEVEL OF Between researcher and Low
INVOLVEMENT respondent is HIGH
SAMPLE SIZE Small sample size Large sample size
WHEN TO ANALYSE During data collection After Data collection
REPORTING TYPE Narration form Statistical form
GENERALISATION Very low High
REASONING Inductive Reasoning ( where you Deductive Reasoning ( where
make broad generalizations from you begin with a general
specific observations) statement or hypothesis and
arrive at a specific conclusion)

4.0 RESEARCH DESIGNS AND RESEARCH METHODS

 Research Design is about determining what one is going to observe, analyze,

why and how. Research design is a plan to be followed using a particular
process or methods.

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  Research Design is a plan while Research method is a process of carrying out
that plan.

 Research Design focuses on the end-product while Research Method focuses

on what kind of tools, procedures etc would be required or used. EG>
Construction of the house follows the basic process of Fixing Foundation, slab
and type of slab, laying of bricks etc.

 Once one has formulated a research problem either in the form of question or
declarative statement, the next step is to select the appropriate research
design. In other words, one should ask themselves and say” what kind of
study would they want to undertake”? What type of study best answer your
question?

Explorative:
These are studies whose questions are explorative in nature. They endeavor to
explore a topic and provide a basic familiarization with a particular topic. This is
typical when a researcher examines a new area of interest or when the study is
relatively new. Exploratory studies can also be undertaken to simply satisfy a
Researcher’s curiosity and desire for better understanding. These studies often
use in-depth interviews, use of key informants, use of case studies etc. The
studies has questions such as ‘What is the case? What are the key distinguishing
features of a good leader? What are the key contributing factors ….?Etc

Descriptive
These are studies which deal with questions such as...how many? What is the
incidence of x? How many people died of HIV in Zambia last year? Is there a
correlation between parental guidance and substance abuse? Etc. The main
purpose is to describe situations and events e.g. CSO census in Zambia, opinion
polls of who is most famous among electorate? Etc.

Explanation
The third general purpose of scientific research is to Explain Things. Reporting
the intentions of the electorate for instance is a Descriptive activity while
reporting why some people plan to vote for candidate A is an Explanatory
activity. A researcher has an explanatory purpose if he wishes to know the
causal and effect scenario. E.g. the recent uprising in Egypt. In other words,
indicating causality between variables or events.

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WHAT IS CAUSALITY?
When a researcher considers variables to be causally related, it means one
event does affect the other event, or one issue does contribute to the
occurrence of the other.

Every Research design is determined by what Research Method or approach

could be used. There are two common approaches, Qualitative and Quantitative
approach.

4.1 QUALITATIVE APPROACH RESEARCH DESIGNS

1. CASE STUDY
A case study is an intensive analysis of a person, group, event or problem. In other
words, in case study, a particular individual, program or event is studied in depth
for defined period of time. For instance a Medical researcher might study the
nature, course and treatment of a rare illness for a particular patient. A case study
would also be appropriate for learning more about a little known or poorly
understood situation. Case studies are also useful in studying infrequent events
such as riots or natural disasters e.g. When Tsunami occurred.

Method of Data Collection

In a case study, one collects extensive data on the individuals, programs, events on
which the investigation is focused. These often include: Observations, interviews,
documents etc. In many instances the researcher might spend considerable time on
site interacting regularly with the people being studied. Furthermore, the
researcher records the context in which the situation is found, such as physical
environment, historical, economic and social factors etc. This helps one to draw
conclusions about the extent to which its findings might be generalized.

2. ETHNOGRAPHY
This is a study where the researcher undertakes study of a particular culture in
depth. The researcher studies the group in its natural setting for a period of time
investigating language, behaviors, rituals etc with an intent to identify cultural
norms, beliefs, social structures and other cultural patterns. Ethnography study is
also useful for an understanding of complexities of a particular intact culture.

Method of Data Collection

Site base field work is common, participation observations, recording of processes,
interviews of key informants such as traditional leaders etc.

3. PHENOMENOLOGICAL STUDY

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Phenomenological refers to a person’s perception of the meaning of an event as
opposed to the event as it exists to the person. Thus the study attempts to
understand people’s perceptions, perspectives and understandings of a particular
situation. It tries to answer the question: What is it like to experience such and
such? What do you think would be the outcome of such and such a situation? Etc

Method of Data Collection

Phenomenological researchers depend on lengthy unstructured interviews with
carefully selected sample of participants. A typical sample size could be from 5-25
individuals with some direct experience with the phenomenon being studied.

4. GROUNDED THEORY STUDY

The major purpose of grounded theory is to begin with the data and use them to
develop a Theory. It uses a prescribed set of procedures for analyzing data and
constructing a theoretical model from them. The term grounded refers to the idea
that the theory that emerges from the study is derived from and ‘grounded’ in data
that have been collected in the field rather than taken from researcher literature. It
is also used to examine people’s actions and interactions and has been found useful
for topics such as remarriage after divorce, spouse abuse etc.

Method of Data Collection

Data collection is field based, flexible and likely to change over the course of the
study. Interviews play a major role, but also observations, documents, historical
records etc. The only unique issue is that the data collected must include the
perspectives and voices of the people being studied.

5. CONTENT ANALYSIS
This is a detailed and systematic examination of the contents of a particular body of
material for the purpose of identifying patterns, themes, biases etc. It is a technique
used to analyze existing sources and the process often involved counting the
number of times a particular word, phrase, idea, event, symbol etc appears in a
given context. These are performed on forms of human communication such as
books, films, newspaper, art, music etc. For instance a researcher might undertake
a content analysis on the film to be aired, to determine the contents whether they
are fit for public eye, for children etc.

Method of Data Collection

The data is collected from identification of materials to be analyzed, coding of the
materials in terms of predetermined and defined characteristics.

 Exploratory Design

An exploratory design is conducted about a research problem when there are few or
no earlier studies to refer to or rely upon to predict an outcome. The focus is on
gaining insights and familiarity for later investigation or undertaken when research
problems are in a preliminary stage of investigation.

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  Historical Design

The purpose of a historical research design is to collect, verify, and synthesize

evidence from the past to establish facts that defend or refute a hypothesis. It uses
secondary sources and a variety of primary documentary evidence, such as, diaries,
official records, reports, archives, and non-textual information

Cross cultural study design: social behavioural patterns between two or more
cultures

4.2 QUANTITATIVE APPROACH RESEARCH DESIGNS

In quantitative there are two major types: Descriptive and Experimental research

A. DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH
Sometimes known as descriptive quantitative research, it involves identifying the
characteristic of an observed phenomenon or explaining possible correlations
among two or more variables.

It examines the situation as it is and does not change or modify the situation under
investigation.

TYPES OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGNS UNDER DESCRIPTIVE

1. Correlation Research:

This study examines the extent to which differences in one variable are related
to differences in one or more other variables/characteristics. A correlation exists
when one variable increase another variable either increases or decreases. One
can find substantial correlation if both variable have reasonable degree of
validity and reliability.

2. Developmental Designs:

This is a research study that focuses on the unfolding or changing of some

events in an individual such as growth process. And this is done over an
extended period of time. Developmental designs have other sub studies:

 Cross Sectional study: This is where people from various different ages
get sampled and compared. It assesses a small group of different ages at
the same time than using them over an extended period of time.
 Longitudinal study: This is where a singe group of people are followed
over the course of several month or years and data is collected relating to
specific characteristics at various times. It assesses changes over time by
looking at the same groups or subjects for months or years EG Assessing

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 academic performance of students/pupils every 3 months for a period of 2
years etc. The major concern is that it takes too long to complete a study.
 Cross sequential studies: These combine both longitudinal and cross
sectional methods in an attempt to shorten the length of research.

3. Observation Studies

This study focuses on a particular aspect of behavior. The behavior is somewhat

quantified and counted to determine its overall frequency. Sometimes it is rated for
accuracy, intensity, maturity etc. Observations are recorded in great detail with
field notes, videotapes etc, to capture a wide variety of ways in which people act
and interact. From there a researcher constructs a complex yet integrated picture
of how people spend their time. The researcher ought to remain as objective as
possible in this study. Observation study requires an advance planning, attention to
detail and great deal of time and help from other research assistants. Suffice to
mention that data can be collected through either detached observation or
participant observation.

4. Survey Research
These may be used to descriptive, explanatory, explorative purposes. Surveys can
be used to collect data on attitudes and opinions from large numbers of people.
They are used in studies involving individual people as units of analysis. Although it
may target groups or interactions, some individuals ought to serve as respondents
or key informants.

A survey is also seen as any observation or in investigation of facts about a

situation. It is also a method of gathering information from a number of individuals
in order to learn something about a population from which a sample has been
drawn. Survey research uses a combination of face to face interviews, telephone
interviews, questionnaire administration etc.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A SURVEY

 They gather information from only a small sample of people

 Information is collected by means of standardized questions so that every

individual surveyed responds exactly to the same questions

 Individual respondents are never identified but rather survey results are
presented in the form of statistical charts and tables

B. EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES
The basic purpose of experiment studies is to examine the possible influences that
one factor or condition may have on another factor. It examines the cause and

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effect relationships. It does so by controlling all factors except those whose possible
effects are the focus of the investigation.

There are various experimental designs that a researcher can undertake. It must
also be noted that in Experimental designs, Internal Validity is essential, without
it any results that the researcher obtains are UN interpretable.

Internal Validity is the extent to which a design and the data it yields allow a
researcher to draw accurate conclusions about a cause and effect and other
relationships within the data.

In Experimental studies, it is always important to introduce Control groups. In fact

in order to maximize the internal validity the researcher needs to Control
confounding variables so that they are not the ones to be ruled out as explanations
for any effects observed. However, a researcher undertaking experimental studies
ought to be aware of Hawthorne Effect. This is a psychological response in which
subjects or participants alter their behavior because they are aware of the
participation in a study. An experimental can have two factors: Stimuli and
Control group. A stimulus is a variable or condition that you manipulate as a
researcher while the control group is one with no manipulation.

EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS

1. True Experimental Design

This is where a researcher manipulates the independent variable and examines its
effects on another dependent variable. For instance undertaking a Malaria control
intervention in Linda Township while Kanyama Township has none. Later, an
assessment is done to ascertain the levels of malaria infections in both townships.
The results may show that Linda has lower rates compared to Kanyama due to the
intervention. In other words, Malaria control program will be attributed to the
positive results.

2. Quasi Experimental Design:

Quasi means almost. This design has no control group as a factor, but rather only
stimuli and can be appropriate for evaluating social programs. In other words, a
quasi-experimental design is one that looks a bit like an experimental design but
lacks the key ingredient -- random assignment or randomization. The design of a
quasi-experiment relates to the setting up a particular type of an experiment or
other study in which one has little or no control over the allocation of the
treatments or other factors being studied. The first part of creating a quasi-
experimental design is to identify the variables. The quasi-independent variable will
be the x-variable, the variable that is manipulated in order to affect a dependent
variable. “X” is generally a grouping variable with different levels. The predicted
outcome is the dependent variable which is the y-variable. In a time series analysis,
the dependent variable is observed over time for any changes that may take place.

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Quasi-experimental designs are commonly employed in the evaluation of
educational programs when random assignment is not possible or practical.
Although quasi-experimental designs need to be used commonly, they are subject
to numerous interpretation problems.

3. Pre-Experimental Design

These are designs not possible to show cause and affect relationships because the
independent variable does not vary. Pre-experimental designs are so named
because they follow basic experimental steps but fail to include a control group. In
other words, a single group is often studied but no comparison between an
equivalent non-treatment group is made. Examples include a situation where
subjects or participants are presented by the same type of treatment, such as
college students being given a test, and measure the outcome.

4.3 Other Forms of Research Designs:

EVALUATION RESEARCH
This is the use of scientific methods to measure the implementation and outcomes
of the programs for decision making purposes.

It is also a systematic application of social research procedures for assessing

conceptualization, design, implementation and utility of social intervention
programs.

Evaluation research is in the field of applied science which utilizes the whole range
of social methods in the evaluating social intervention programs.

It can also be seen as a systematic acquisition and assessment of information to

provide useful feedback about some object. It looks at what is working and what is
not working.

Program: This is any intervention or set of activities mounted to achieve external

objectives of some recognized social need or solve an identified problem.

Evaluation research is also known to be a fast growing field in applied social

research.

BACKGROUND

Some social scientists such as Herbert Spencer, argue that the world is filled with
social ills such as poverty, crime, sickness etc that in order to address such ills,
human beings devised various interventions such as SAP, poverty alleviation
campaigns etc. The aim then is basically to improve the status quo of the human
conditions.

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However, social scientists over the past years advanced their efforts in
understanding whether the effort or program on interventions do in fact meet the
intended goals and objectives. What is the impact of such programs is the question.
This justifies the existent of Monitoring and Evaluation units in most organizations,
meant to monitor, assess accountability, efficiency, implementation and impact of
program interventions.

PURPOSES OF EVALUATION
 For program mgt, improvement, refinement and financial accountability

 For quality assurance and control

 To make judgment of merit or worth

 To improve programs and generate knowledge

 To provide useful feedback to a variety of audiences, including sponsors,

donors staff etc.

Based on the purposes, evaluation can be:

1. Judgment oriented-aimed at establishing value, merit or worth of a

program with questions such as, was it worth it, was it successful, was it
effective, did it attain its intended goal etc.

2. Improvement oriented evaluation; this focuses on quality enhancement

for the sake of program improvement with questions such as, what are the
program’s strengths and weaknesses? Has program been properly
implemented, what have been the constraints, is the response to the
intervention positive? It involves collection of data for a period of time in
order to make suggestions about improvement, solve unanticipated problems
and ensure beneficiaries make required progress towards the desired
outcomes.

3. Knowledge oriented evaluations: Meant to improve our understanding of

how programs work and how people change their attitudes and behaviors
because of successful interventions. To generate new knowledge aimed at
reducing uncertainty, risk of failure, enlighten funders and other
stakeholders.

TYPES OF EVALUATIONS

FORMATIVE
Formative evaluation is a type of evaluation which has the purpose of improving
programs. It goes under other names such as developmental evaluation and
implementation evaluation. It can be contrasted with other types of evaluation

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which have other purposes, in particular process evaluation and outcome
evaluation.

Formative evaluation is typically conducted during the development or

improvement of a program or product (or person, and so on) and it is conducted,
often more than once, for in-house staff of the program with the intent to improve.
The reports normally remain in-house; but serious formative evaluation may be
done by an internal or an external evaluator or preferably, a combination; of course,
many program staff is, in an informal sense, constantly doing formative evaluation.

It is seen as evaluation done to provide feedback to people who are trying to

improve a program. It is done with small group of people to test run
something/materials.

KEY ROLES FOR FORMATIVE EVALUATION

Formative evaluation encourages a process of reflective practice. More specifically,

formative evaluation can strengthen conflict management systems in many ways.
These include:

i. Rapid feedback. Primarily, formative evaluation provides rapid feedback

on the efficacy of conflict management and resolution work. While a
project in is progress, a formative evaluation process provides feedback
on how the work is going.
ii. Documentation. A formative evaluation process can document how
conflict management and resolution work is proceeding, what techniques
are used, what problems encountered, and what impacts are made in
early and middle stages of work. Such documentation may be useful
iii. Planning. Formative evaluations assist with planning and allows for
revision of or recommitment to plans. Formative evaluation involves a
comparison of program implementation with program plans. It also allows
for a reconsideration of program goals and plans. When a formative
evaluation reveals that a program has diverged from previous plans, those
involved in the work can choose to revise plans to take advantage of new
opportunities or return to previous plans in order to respond to current
realities. Information from formative evaluation can provide input to future
planning and implementation, thus forming the project's future.

The rapid feedback, documentation, and planning roles of formative

evaluation make formative evaluation a useful component of reflective
conflict resolution practice.

Types of Formative Evaluation

There are many evaluation tools -- observation, in-depth interviews, surveys, focus
groups, analysis, reports, and dialogue with participants, each of which can be
part of formative evaluation. Depending on the goals of the formative evaluation, it
may emphasize one or more of these tools.

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Within the range of formative evaluation approaches, there are four main goals for
formative evaluation, each of which may be more or less emphasized depending on
the program needs

I. Planning evaluation. Planning evaluation clarifies and assesses a

project's plans. Are the goals and timelines appropriate? Are the methods
utilized to reach the goals appropriate? In addition, a planning evaluation
can lay the groundwork for future formative and summative evaluations
by developing indicators and benchmarks. In conflict resolution work, it is
often useful to include a planning evaluation component in order to
ensure that all stakeholders share common enough visions of the project
plans. A planning evaluation can be a form of consensus building amongst
those involved in conflict resolution.

II. Implementation evaluation. An implementation evaluation focuses on

the extent to which a program is proceeding according to plan.
Information about ways in which a program is not proceeding according to
plan can be used to either revise plans or to revise programming. In
conflict resolution assessment, implementation evaluation can be a useful
component to feed into a planning-focused evaluation. (Implementation
evaluations can also be part of Summative Evaluations.) Where work is
not proceeding according to plan, participants and facilitators can use an
implementation evaluation with a planning focus to ask themselves why
things are not going according to plan, and adjust plans or strategies
accordingly.
III. Monitoring evaluation. A monitoring evaluation is usually conducted by
an outside evaluator during the course of a program. A funder may choose
to monitor implementation of a conflict resolution project by visiting a
workshop, checking in with participants, or talking with project personnel.
For long-term conflict resolution work, a monitoring evaluation can
provide a funder useful reassurance that money is being well spent.
IV. Progress evaluation. A progress evaluation assesses a program's
progress. The project's unique goals should serve as a benchmark for
measuring progress. Information from a progress evaluation can later be
used in a summative evaluation. In conflict resolution work, a progress
evaluation might assess attitude change part-way through a multi-year
program, providing both feedback on what's working, and evidence of
impact early on in a program

B. SUMMATIVE EVALUATION

Summative evaluations assess program outcomes or impacts. Summative

evaluation is a method of judging the worth of a program at the end of the program
activities. The focus is on the outcome. They can be used for collecting data on the
impact of a program operating in a community for a period of time

In terms of evaluating educational technology, a summative evaluation might ask if

teacher technology skills improved as a result of a professional development

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activity, if teachers are using technology to a greater extent in their instruction, or if
technology improved student motivation or performance.

Some advantages of summative evaluations include:

 They can, if designed correctly, provide evidence for a cause-and-effect

relationship.
 They assess long-term effects
 They provide data on impacts.
 They can provide data on change across time.
 This looks at final program outcomes meant to provide information to
decision makers who have to decide whether to continue funding or
terminate a program.
 It is typically quantitative using numeric scores to assess impact or outcomes
 It is a method of judging the worth of a program at the end of the program
activities

UNOBSTRUSIVE RESEARCH

Devised by Eugene Webb (1966), these are ways of collecting data in which
subjects or participants are not aware of their being studied. The researcher does
not intrude but rather looks for clues.
This is opposite of participant observation and other participatory research
approaches.
In an Obtrusive research, data is collected via observation and there is often no
contact with subjects. It is a type of research approach that believes that one can
study human behavior simply by observing what human beings leave behind them.
Unobtrusive measures then refer to data gathered by means that do not involve
direct acquisition of information from research subjects. The UM measures include
two types of Trace Data:

i. Accretion: This is stuff left behind as a result of human activity, such

as going through garbage used by someone (Garbology), to try and
trace any clues to a particular area of investigation.
ii. Erosion: This is stuff worn own as a result of human activity, EG
Examining wear and tear of floor tiles in order to estimate the flow of
customers or those using a rest room etc. This is commonly used in
Criminology.
This approach is also useful when subjects to be studied are suspicious or
distrustful.

Unobtrusive research is also known as non reactive research. One simply

looks out for clues and that everything you see as a researcher represents
the answer to some important social scientific question. For instance it will

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 take a researcher to observe some tiles in order to have some clues on how
busy a restraint is, or what room in a school is the most famous. If it is a
kindergarten, the researcher might observe stuff such as mucus and hand
finger prints on window panes in order to have an idea which room is most
famous and most visited by the children etc.

CLASSIFICATION OF DATA IN AN OBSTRUSIVE MEASURE

i. Found Data

These are physical traces produced by erosion of an environment or accretion

to it. In other words, found data are in the form of accretion or erosion. It is of
the view that what people leave behind, tell you much about their material
culture.

ii. Captured Data

This includes simple observation in research. This is the observation that
occurs when observer has no control over the behavior in question and plays
an observed, passive and non intrusive role in the research situation.
Captured data can also be seen through various categories:
a. Exterior Physical Signs: Such as body tattoos, body piercings. For in
instance, a study undertaken in prison among hard core criminals
revealed that the ones with most elaborate set of tattoos were hard core
criminals thus sugge4tsing a relationship between the number of tattoos
and severity of crime.
b. Expressive movement: This is another category of captured data and
involves simple observation of human expressive movements, gestures of
mental patients and other non verbal clues etc.
c. Physical Location: This entails how human beings organize and use space
for purposes of social interaction EG, How do people seat in libraries,
cafeterias etc.
d. In Situ Conversation: This deals with conversational studies such as
studying cowboys and how they communicate etc.

iii. Retrieved Data

These include data retrievable such as birth records, marriage records, death
certificates, telephone directories etc.

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4.4 PARTICIPATORY RESEARCH APPROACHES

WHAT IS PARTICIPATORY RESEARCH

SOURCE: ARTICLE BY Ajit Krishnaswamy 1 Krishnaswamy, A. 2004.
Participatory Research: Strategies and Tools. Practitioner: Newsletter of the
National Network of Forest Practitioners 22: 17-22.

Participatory research or PR presents people as researchers in pursuit of answers to

questions encountered in daily life. PR is not a research method, but an approach
that presents people as researchers. It builds the capacity of the researched in
understanding their problems as well as finding tangible solutions to their own
problems. It enhances the understanding of the researched or community of some
of their own capacities and how they can utilize them to overcome some of their
vulnerabilities.

Important to note is that PR uses both qualitative and quantitative approaches.

Strategies used in participatory research (PR) focus on process and capacity

building. In PR, the process of conducting research is as important as the research
outcome. The PR process is intended not only to produce useful and sound
information, but also to build capacity among the research participants. Capacity
building occurs as community members identify research questions, carry out
research activities, and in the process develop research skills and techniques.
Community members learn to analyze information they have collected and decide
how to use this information.

Strategies and Tools Used to Define a Research Question

Strategies associated with the different stages of identifying a research question in
PR, and examples of tools that can be used in each stage are described below.
These strategies and tools can also be used to address the other elements of the PR
process, such as selecting research methods, collection of data, and analysis of
results, use and dissemination of research results.
The strategies and tools described here are not exhaustive, but indicate the type of
group activities that are integral to PR. The heart of the strategies is the emphasis
on people

Stage 1: Clarify purpose of the research

Before a PR project is started, the research partners (researchers and community
members) must have a clear understanding of the broader goals of the research
project. It is also important to clarify the goals of the researcher, and how these
relate to the goals of potential partners from the community. Without a clear sense
of what the research project is trying to accomplish, it will be difficult to design a
practical and effective PR project. For instance, what is the research trying to
accomplish? For example: the research intends to provide wild mushroom
harvesters more information about the condition of the mushroom crop so as to
help them have an informed dialogue with the Forest Service

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Stage 2: Identifying and involving diverse stakeholders in the research

The second stage in a PR project is to identify “stakeholders” and facilitate their

participation in the research. Stakeholders are defined as any person, group, or
institution that affects or is affected by the research. They are broadly
representative of different interests.

Stakeholder participation means active involvement right from the conceptual

stages of the research and includes identifying the research question, implementing
and using the research. It goes far beyond just notifying or informing community
members about the research.

Stage 3: Building Trust

Unlike conventional research processes, developing the research question is not the
starting point of the PR process. Building trust is a necessary stage prior to
developing the research question. Building community member’s trust in the
research process which is so crucial in PR takes a lot of time and patience.

Stage 4: Building Common Understanding

Once stakeholders are identified, and a degree of trust exists amongst them, the
next stage is to build a common understanding. This process, while time
consuming, will ensure that all stakeholders have a set of agreed expectations from
the research so that they can remain invested in the process.

It is critical to the PR process that all stakeholders are actively engaged in building a
common understanding. They should be provided with the opportunity to fully
participate, and have access to information in order to do so.

Stage 5: Identify the Research Question or Questions

The next stage after building a common understanding is to specifically identify a

research question or questions. The list of issues or concerns developed during the
stage of building a common understanding could be used at this stage. From that
list, the research question would be chosen.

DATA COLLECTION TOOLS

PR uses a variety of data collection tools which may include the following:

 Participatory listening and observation

 Maps
 Daily activity diagrams
 Institutional and Venn diagrams
 Livelihood analysis
 Semi-structured interviews
 Focus group discussion etc

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TYPES OF PARTICIPATORY RESEARCH APPROACHES

i. PARTICIPANT OBSERVER (PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION)

Participant observation is a type of research strategy which is a widely used

methodology in many disciplines, particularly, cultural anthropology, sociology,
communication studies, and social psychology. Its aim is to gain a close and
intimate familiarity with a given group of individuals (such as a religious,
occupational, or sub cultural group, or a particular community) and their practices
through an intensive involvement with people in their natural environment, usually
over an extended period of time. The approach is more of qualitative study.

In anthropology, participant-observation is organized so as to produce a kind of

writing called ethnography. It can be applied or academic in nature. A key principle
of the method is that one may not merely observe, but must find a role within the
group observed from which to participate in some manner, even if only as "outside
observer

Such research usually involves a range of methods: informal interviews, direct

observation, participation in the life of the group, collective discussions, analyses of
personal documents produced within the group, self-analysis, results from activities
undertaken off or online, and life-histories.

Although the method is generally characterized as qualitative research, it can (and

often does) include quantitative dimensions. Participant observation is usually
undertaken over an extended period of time, ranging from several months to many
years. An extended research time period means that the researcher will be able to
obtain more detailed and accurate information about the people he/she is studying.

There are two main types of participant observation; covert and overt:-

Covert observation involves:

 The social researcher participating fully without informing members of the

social group of the reasons for her presence, thus the research is carried out
secretly or covertly.
 Contact with a 'gatekeeper', a member of the group under study who will
introduce the researcher into the group.

Problems of covert observation include:

 The researcher having to become involved in criminal or dangerous activities,

particularly where the research is studying a 'deviant' social group.
 Problems of negotiating and having to act out forms of behavior which the
researcher may personally find unethical or distasteful.
 The researcher having to employ a level of deceit, since the researcher is
essentially lies about the nature of their presence within the group.

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  Close friendships often resulting from connections with members of the group
under study and the covert nature of the research can put a tremendous
strain on the researcher, both in and out of the fieldwork setting.
 The problem of 'going native', which refers to the fact that a researcher will
cease to be a researcher and will become a full-time group participant.

Advantages of this type of covert participant role are:

 The researcher may gain access to social groups who would otherwise not
consent to being studied.
 The avoidance of problems of observer effect, the conception that individuals'
behavior may change if they know they are being studied. However, there
are problems of recording data.

Overt observation involves:

 The researcher being open about the reason for her presence in the field of
study since the researcher is given permission by the group to conduct her
research.
 The use of a 'sponsor', who is an individual likely to occupy a high status
within the group, therefore lessening any potential hostility towards the
researcher.

Problems with overt observation include:

 Observer effect, where the behavior of those under study may alter due to
the presence of the researcher.

Advantages of the use of overt observation include:

 The avoidance of problems of ethics in that the group is aware of the

researcher's role.
 The group is being observed in its 'natural setting'.
 Data may also be openly recorded.
 Problems of 'going native' are avoided.

One famous example of covert participant observation is that undertaken by Erving

Goffman in his study of mental hospitals, published as Stigma in 1968. Goffman
worked in an asylum for the mentally ill as Assistant Athletic Director. His research
was mainly covert, with only a couple of staff being privy to the knowledge of his
research, and via this method he was able to uncover the 'unofficial reality' of life in
a mental institution.

In a PO, as a researcher, you can make observations either as a relative outsider or

participant observer.

 Participant Observation has an advantage of flexibility in terms of collection

data. However, one of the major disadvantages is that of Hawthorne Effect. This

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 is a condition that occurs when a researchers’ presence affects the quality of
data as a result of participants being aware of the presence of the researcher.
 It is also limited in capturing richness of what is being observed.
 Video camera for instance can capture only one direction of events, there by
missing part of important data. Thus one ought to be careful on how they
interpret what is being observed.

ROLES OF A RESEARCHER IN PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION

 Complete participation: This is where a researcher participates in a deviant or
illegal activity and goes on to actively influence the direction of the group.
 Participant as observer: This is where the researcher participates in deviant
or illegal activities but does not try to influence the direction of the group
 Observer as participants: This is where a researcher participates in a one-
time deviant or illegal activity but then takes a back seat to any further activity.
 Complete observation: This is where a researcher is a member of the group
but does not participate in any deviant or illegal activities.

ii. PARTICIPATORY ACTION RESEARCH (PAR)

Participatory action research – or action research – is a recognized form of

experimental research that focuses on the effects of the researcher's direct actions
of practice within a participatory community with the goal of improving the
performance quality of the community or an area of concern.

COMMON FEATURES OF PAR

 This is one of the most widely used research approaches characterized by a
participatory element.
 It is commonly used at grassroots level such as rural setting especially in the
3rd world countries.
 It has a bottom up nature and often considered as an alternative approach to
development projects. PAR is one of the research approaches that can be
implemented in various fields.
 It is also used to learn more about a community’s material conditions such as
environment, housing, water reticulation concerns etc, when there is little or
no information available reflecting their experiences.

The "research" aspects of PAR attempt to avoid the traditional “extractive” research
carried out by universities and governments where “experts” go to a community,
study their subjects, and take away their data to write their papers, reports and
theses. Research in PAR is ideally BY the local people and FOR the local people.
Research is designed to address specific issues identified by local people, and the
results are directly applied to the problems at hand. The case study is often used as
a research method as part of PAR.

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 KEY PRINCIPLES IN PAR

I. The role of the researcher as a change agent: Often PAR is more

appropriate to communities where:
 People are poor, underprivileged or socially and economically exploited and
oppressed
 Community is culturally vulnerable in that it is not a dominant culture, thus a
researcher in this approach is seen to be a change agent offering solutions or
helping to bring about transformation and change and deal with those
problems.

II. Importance of participation: It involves participation and collaboration

between
Participants and change agents. Particular communities are integrated in
the research process for full participation from its onset to the end.
III. The democratic nature of the research relationship: The participants’
voices are counted and there is freedom of speech and suggestions of what can
be done.
IV. The incorporation of local knowledge: Often data is collected from within
the locality thus incorporating local knowledge which often is helpful at a time
of decision making.
V. The generation of knowledge for purpose of action: The knowledge that
gets generated is for the sole purpose of enhancing action such as developing a
particular program that improves the living standards of a particular area.
VI. The empowerment component of the approach: The participation of
various local people in the research process contributes to their own
empowerment in that the knowledge gained during research enriches them
individually by gaining a better understanding of their own situation
VII. The respect of participant’s interests and culture: Normally the actions
that follow after a research have to take care of participant’s interests and
culture. In other words, whatever program is devised as a way of intervention,
ought to be within the participant’s culture and interest being local people.

Some of the program stages participation takes place Include:

Problem formulation: Where they explore the need for some inquiry and decide
the purpose or goal of the research. The community set the agenda for the research
and this is collaboratively done.
Project design: This is where the researcher and participants decide on how to
conduct the study, the techniques to use, time frame etc.
Implementation stage: This includes collection of data from the participant’s
environment
Research conclusions: Participants then try to make sense of the data collected and
communicate the results through a report.

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COMMON DATA COLLECTION TOOLS IN PAR

Although it uses both qualitative and quantitative approaches, PAR has more
preferences to qualitative analysis.
 In PAR, data can range from song, dance, theatre etc. It is an open minded
approach.
 It uses also focus group discussions, interviews, observations, interviews and
key informants interviews.
 It uses largely field notes and field diaries, etc.
 It uses poetry, music, photo and video documents, story telling, oral history
etc.

Once a researcher has decided on the research design/method to pursue, the

obvious stage would be sampling in preparation for data collection.

iii. PARTICIPATORY RURAL APPRAISAL (PRA)

Participatory rural appraisal (PRA) is an approach used by non-governmental
organizations (NGOs) and other agencies involved in international development.
The approach aims to incorporate the knowledge and opinions of rural people in the
planning and management of development projects and programmes. It is a
methodology for action research and utilizes a range of techniques. It involves local
people and outsiders from different sectors and disciplines. Basically, outsiders
facilitates local people in analyzing information, practicing critical self awareness,
taking responsibility and sharing their knowledge of life and conditions to plan and
to act.

Hundreds of participatory techniques and tools have been described in a variety of

books and newsletters, or taught at training courses around the world. These
techniques can be divided into four categories:

 Group dynamics, e.g. learning contracts, role reversals, feedback sessions

 Sampling, e.g. transect walks, wealth ranking, social mapping
 Interviewing, e.g. focus group discussions, semi-structured interviews,
triangulation
 Visualization e.g. Venn diagrams, matrix scoring, timelines

To ensure that people are not excluded from participation, these techniques avoid
writing wherever possible, relying instead on the tools of oral communication like
pictures, symbols, physical objects and group memory. Efforts are made in many
projects, however, to build a bridge to formal literacy; for example by teaching
people how to sign their names or recognize their signatures.

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PRINCIPLES OF PRA
While different practitioners would find different principles, most would agree to
include the following:

1. Using optimal ignorance: This refers to the importance of knowing what is not
worth knowing. It avoids unnecessary details and irrelevant data, but also
entails that a researcher ought to assume ignorance if they were to grasp as
much data as possible.
2. Offsetting Biases: This is where it allows a researcher deal with own biases
by seeking the concerns of the poor people.
3. Triangulation: This is where a researcher uses more than one source of
information in order to cross check the responses and it is for the purpose of
heightening accuracy.
4. Learning from and with Rural People: One tends to gain so much indigenous
knowledge, social knowledge etc on site. In fact, during the process, the
research learns or gains new knowledge and some of the subjects in the
team such as focus group discussion tend to learn from others as well.
5. Learning rapidly and progressively: With conscious exploration, flexibility of
methods, cross checking etc, one adapts through the learning process.

GOOD FEATURES OF PRA

 Iterative: This involves a learning as you go principle
 Innovative: This is where techniques are developed for particular situations
depending on the skills and knowledge available
 Interactive: There is some interaction with the participants and helps
communication easy.
 Informal: This means focusing on partly structures and informal discussions or
interviews
 In the Community: This entails that learning takes place largely in the field for
maximum data capturing.

PARTICIPATORY TOOLS
i. TIMELINE: This is used to gather information about what happened in the
past in order to understand present situation.
ii. MAPPING:

This involved drawing ones’ main features and landmarks as a map, and may
include such things as houses, community facilities, vulnerable to particular…

iii. RANKING

This tool explores people’s perceptions of risks and helps them understand their
priorities.

iv. DRAMA

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People could be asked to act out a situation who is most affect4ed and what is most
damaged etc.

v. VENN DIAGRAM

This shows key organization and individuals in the local area and their relationship
with one another

vi. TRANSECT WALK

This is a planned walk through the local area to explore different land uses.

vii. DIRECT OBSERVATION: This is where one observes people and

relationships, objects, structures, events and processes in order to
develop a picture of community issues.
viii. SEASONAL CALENDAR

This shows when significant activities such as household chores are undertaken
based on the seasons.

IV. RAPID RURAL APPRAISAL

Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA) is another research approach usually conducted by a

multi-disciplinary team, and its chief techniques include:

 Review of secondary sources, including aerial photos, even brief aerial

observation
 Direct observation, foot transects, familiarization, participation in activities
 Interviews with key informants, group interviews, workshops
 Mapping, diagramming
 Biographies, local histories, case studies
 Ranking and scoring
 Time lines
 Short simple questionnaires, towards end of process
 Rapid report writing in the field.

Dangers and drawbacks

The range of techniques can be effective, but it remains fundamentally an

extractive, externally-driven process. Many researchers who use standard RRA
methods claim that they are using PRA, when the "participation" is restricted to
provision of information to the researcher by the community. The simple test is
what is the value added and who owns the product. If the community draws a map
because you ask them to, it's RRA. If they realize that the map belongs to them, and
want to keep it for their own use, then it's PRA.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN RRA AND PRA

Some major differences would include the following:

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RRA PRA

Information is collected by the Information is collected both by

Outsider outsider and rural participants

Information is owned outsider Information is owned by the local

people

Information is NOT shared with Information is shared with the Local

the local people people

Information is analyzed by the Information is analyzed with the

Outsider participation of the local people.

5.0 SAMPLING
Sampling is approached differently for both the qualitative and quantitative studies.

A sample is a small collection of units from a much larger collection or population

in order to provide for an accurate generalization about the larger group. Or can be
seen as a set of cases a researcher selects from a larger pool and generalized to the
population.

Sampling is a process of arriving at the representative unit from the targeted study
population.

Sampling Technique : A strategy used to arrive at a determined sample size.

Sampling has two major categories; Probability and Non probability sampling
techniques:

PROBABILITY SAMPLING
In probability sampling, each segment of the population has a likelihood of being
part of the sample size. The general process is that of random Selection-meaning
choosing a sample in such a way that each member has an equal chance of being
selected.

 Simple Random Sampling: This is the least sophisticated of all sampling

and a sample is chosen by simple random selection where by every member
of the population has an equal chance of being selected.
 Stratified Random Sampling: This is where a sample is equal from each
other according to layers or strata in the overall population. EG. One who
decides to collect data from grades 4, 5 an 6 in a public school.
 Proportional Stratified Sampling: This is where a sample is chosen in
accordance with the proportion of the each group in a population being
targeted.

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  Cluster Sampling: this is done when the population targeted is widely
spread. So in order to be feasible, clusters or grouping are formed to make
sample size manageable. In other words, one can subdivide an area into
manageable units.
 Systematic Sampling: This involves selecting individuals according to
predetermined sequence. E.g. selection of every 5 th person within a
population in order to come up with a sample size.

NON PROBABILITY SAMPLING

 Convenience sampling: Also known as accidental sampling makes no
pretense of identifying a representative’s subset of a population. It simply
takes people who are available for interviews etc. This form of sampling
may be appropriate for some less demanding research problems.
 Quota Sampling: This is a variation of convenience sampling. It selects
respondents in the same proportions that are found in general population,
but not randomly. For instance, one may aim at interviewing 20 Backs
and 20 Whites in a particular place on a particular topic.
 Purposive Sampling: This is done with the purpose, where particular
individuals are sort after as research respondents depending on the
research topic. Normally a researcher ought to justify why they selected a
particular sample of research participants or respondents.

JUSTIFICATION FOR SAMPLING

 When the population is very large, it can satisfactorily be covered using
sampling
 It saves a lot of time, energy, and money
 When the units of an area are homogenous, sampling technique is really
useful
 When data is unlimited, the use of sampling remain inevitable
 When 100% accuracy is not required, sampling is the only option
 When the number of people to be studied is manageable, intensive study
becomes possible.

IMPORTANCE/ADVANTAGES OF SAMPLING

 For Reduced cost during the entire process.

 For greater speed as it takes less time consumption in data collection,
tabulation and analysis
 For greater scope in that a complete enumeration of all units of the
population are not practical as it requires more personal and
sophisticated equipment

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  Greater accuracy: -As it ensures completeness and high degree of
accuracy due to limited area of operation making execution rather
possible.
 Organization of convenience in that even small organizations with few
resources can manage.
 Intensive and Exhaustive data is possible to collect
 Suitable if one has limited resources
 Better rapport-in that it is virtually impossible for the researcher to
establish better rapport if they are dealing with the large [population than
a manageable sample size

DISADVANTAGES OF SAMPLING
 Chances of bias
 Difficulties ins selecting a truly representative sample
 Need for specialized knowledge
 Changeability of units
 Impossibility of sampling

CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD SAMPLE

 Should be one able to reproduce the characteristics of a population with
the greatest possible accuracy
 Should be free from error due to bias or due to deliberate selection of the
unit of sample
 Should be free from random sampling error as it should be selected by
procedure
 There should not be any substitution of originally selected units by some
other more convenient way
 It should not suffer from incomplete coverage of units selected for study
 Relatively small samples properly selected may be much more reliable
than large samples poorly selected.

DETERMINING SAMPLE SIZE

Qualitative analyses typically require a smaller sample size than quantitative

analyses. Qualitative sample sizes should be large enough to obtain enough data to
sufficiently describe the phenomenon of interest and address the research
questions. Two main ways sample is determined in a qualitative research is by
Saturation and Rule of Thumb

The goal of qualitative researchers should be the attainment of saturation.

Saturation: This occurs when adding more participants to the study does not result
in additional perspectives or information.

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Rule of Thumb: This is based on other guidelines other experts have
recommended. For instance; for an ethnography, Morse (1994) suggested
approximately 30 – 50 participants. For grounded theory, Morse (1994) suggested
30 – 50 interviews, while Creswell (1998) suggested only 20 – 30. For
phenomenological studies, Creswell (1998) recommends 5 – 25 and Morse (1994)
suggests at least six. These recommendations can help a researcher estimate how
many participants they will need, but ultimately, the required number of
participants should depend on when saturation is reached.

IN QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

Sample size is determined in various ways in a quantitative research. These may

include the following:
 Sample equation
 Sample Table
 Sample calculator

Other ways Include a standard way eg

Identifying a sufficient sample size

 In determining the sample size, the basic rule is: the larger the sample the
better….. Some researchers have suggested the following guidelines:
 For small populations (N, 100), there is little point to sample, Survey the
entire population.
 If population is around 500, 50% of the population could be sampled
 If the population is around 1500, 20% could be sampled
 Beyond 5000, sample size is almost irrelevant, and could be around 8%.

When the researcher has laid out the research process based on a particular
research design and method, it is time for Data Collection. What are data?

6.0 THE ROLE OF DATA IN RESEARCH

It should be noted that research is a viable approach to a problem only when there
are data to support it. The term data is plural (singular is datum) and derived from a
Latin verb “dare”, which means to give. Data are those pieces of information that
any particular situation gives to an observer.
Data can be Primary and Secondary: Primary data is one the researcher makes
an effort to collect, while Secondary data is one collected from already existing
documents and other materials etc.
In terms of role of data therefore, data and methodology are interdependent.

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DATA VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY

Reliability: The extent to which results are consistent over time and an accurate
representation of the total population under study is referred to as reliability. If the
results of a study can be reproduced under a similar methodology, then the
research instrument is considered to be reliable. Reliability refers to the consistency
of a measure. A test is considered reliable if we get the same result repeatedly.
Embodied in this citation is the idea of replicability or repeatability of results or
observations.

Validity: This determines whether the research truly measures that which it was
intended to measure or how truthful the research results are. In other words, does
the research instrument allow you to hit "the bull’s eye" of your research object? It
is about accuracy of the data collected. Researchers generally determine validity by
asking a series of questions, and will often look for the answers in the research of
others.

In general, VALIDITY is an indication of how sound your research is. More

specifically, validity applies to both the design and the methods of your research.
Validity in data collection means that your findings truly represent the phenomenon
you are claiming to measure. Valid claims are solid claims.

TYPES OF VALIDITY

INTERNAL VALIDITY is affected by flaws within the study itself such as not
controlling some of the major variables (a design problem), or problems with the
research instrument (a data collection problem).

"Findings can be said to be internally invalid because they may have been affected
by factors other than those thought to have caused them, or because the
interpretation of the data by the researcher is not clearly supportable" (Seliger &
Shohamy 1989, 95).

Factors which affect internal validity:

 Subject variability
 Size of subject population
 Time given for the data collection or experimental treatment
 History
 Attrition
 Maturation
 Instrument/task sensitivity

EXTERNAL VALIDITY is the extent to which you can generalize your findings to a
larger group or other contexts. If your research lacks external validity, the findings
cannot be applied to contexts other than the one in which you carried out your

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research. For example, if the subjects are all males from one ethnic group, your
findings might not apply to females or other ethnic groups. Or, if you conducted
your research in a highly controlled laboratory environment, your findings may not
faithfully represent what might happen in the real world.

Important factors affecting external validity:

 Population characteristics (subjects)

 Interaction of subject selection and research
 Descriptive explicitness of the independent variable
 The effect of the research environment
 Researcher or experimenter effects
 Data collection methodology
 The effect of time

DATA COLLECTION TOOLS

There are various data collection tools that a researcher ought to be aware of for
triangulation in the research process. Triangulation is process of ensuring that as
much as possible the required data is collected using a combination of two or more
tools. Or a process of using more than one data source for the sake of cross
checking the responses. Data can be collected using the following tools:

 Secondary data sources such as :Review of literature using existing

documents, reports, etc
 Questionnaire administration
 Interviews( Face to face, telephone interview, Focus group Discussions etc)
 Participatory observations
 Use of unobtrusive measures etc

QUESTIONAIRE ADMNISTRATION
A questionnaire is a research instrument consisting of a series of questions and
other prompts for the purpose of gathering information from respondents. A
questionnaire be structured or not structured.

A questionnaire ought to have opening questions, middle questions and concluding

questions.

Questionnaires have advantages over some other types of surveys in that they are
cheap, do not require as much effort from the questioner as verbal or telephone
surveys, and often have standardized answers that make it simple to compile data.
Questionnaires are also sharply limited by the fact that respondents must be able to
read the questions and respond to them. Thus, for some demographic groups
conducting a survey by questionnaire may not be practical, unless one chooses to
administer the questions accordingly, and may be translating into a local language.

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GUIDELINES FOR A GOOD QUESTIONNAIRE
 Keep it short: One’s questionnaire ought to be as brief as possible soliciting
only for required information essential for research project.
 Use simple, clear, unambiguous language: Write questions that communicate
exactly what you want to know.
 Check for unwarranted assumptions : Avoid assumptions in your
questionnaire
 Word your questions in ways that do not give clues: Ensure that you do not
give any clues to any desired responses. Remain as objective as possible.
 Check for any inconsistency: Ensure the questions flow within the realm of
the research topic
 Determine in advance how you code the responses: Consider how you will
process the responses you get well in advance as you lay down the
questions.
 Keep the respondent’s task simple: Make the instrument as simple to read
and respond to as possible.
 Provide clear instructions: Communicate exactly how you want people to
respond.
 Make the questionnaire attractive and professional looking: The instrument
should have clear lines for easy readability.
 Conduct a pilot test: Give the questionnaire to at least half a dozen of your
colleagues and friends to see whether they have difficulty understanding any
items etc. It also gives you an opportunity type makes corrections, adjust and
revise the instrument to an acceptable standard.

(Source: [Link] )

INTERVIEW
An interview can either be open ended or structured. In a structured interview, the
researcher asks standard set of questions, while in a semi-structured interview, the
researcher may follow standard questions with one or more individually tailored
questions to get clarification or probe the interviewee.

FORMS OF AN INTERVIEW
Face to face interview: These have a distinct advantage of researcher
establishing rapport with the interviewee and gain cooperation. In fact, these forms
of interviews yield higher response rates.

Telephone Interview: These are less time –consuming and less expensive. The
response rate is not as high as the face to face interview, it is definitely higher that
the mailed questionnaire and there is not much rapport.

Group Interview: The focus group discussion (FGD) is a rapid assessment, semi‐
structured data gathering method in which a purposively selected set of
participants gather to discuss issues and concerns based on a list of key themes

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drawn up by the researcher/facilitator (Kumar 1987). The focus group discussion
has become extremely popular because it provides a fast way to learn from the
target audience.
A FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSION (FGD) is a group discussion of approximately 6 - 12
persons guided by a facilitator, during which group members talk freely and
spontaneously about a certain topic.

A FGD is a qualitative method. Its purpose is to obtain in-depth information on

concepts, perceptions and ideas of a group. A FGD aims to be more than a question-
answer interaction. The idea is that group members discuss the topic among
themselves, with guidance from the facilitator.

STRENGTHS

 Each focus group discussion builds on the previous one, with a slightly
elaborated or better-focused set of themes for discussion.
 Provided the groups have been well chosen, in terms of composition and
number (see below), FGDs can be a powerful research tool which provides
valuable spontaneous information in a short period of time and at relatively
low cost.
 FGD should not be used for quantitative purposes, such as the testing of
hypotheses or the generalization of findings for larger areas, which would
require more elaborate surveys. However, FGDs can profitably complement
such surveys or other, qualitative techniques.

LIMITATIONS

Depending on the topic, it may be risky to use FGDs as a single tool. In group
discussions, people tend to centre their opinions on the most common ones, on
‘social norms’. In reality, opinions and behavior may be more diverse. Therefore it is
advisable to combine FGDs with at least some key informant and in-depth
interviews. Explicitly soliciting other views during FGDs should be routine as well.

In case of very sensitive topics, such as sexual behavior or coping with HIV/AIDS,
FGDs may also have their limitations, as group members may hesitate to air their
feelings and experiences freely. One possible remedy is the selection of participants
who do not know each other (e.g., selection of children from different schools in
FGDs about adolescent sexual behavior), while assuring absolute confidentiality.

It may also help to alternate the FGD with other methods, for example, to precede it
by a self-developed role play on sexual behavior, or to administer a written
questionnaire immediately after the FGD with open questions on sexual behavior in
which the participants can anonymously state all their questions and problems. .

Interviewing therefore, involves much more than just asking questions. Thus the
questions for the interview ought to be carefully planned and precisely worded to
yield the kind of data the researcher needs. Some guidelines to maximize an
interview may include the following:

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Interviewing therefore, involves much more than just asking questions. Thus the
questions for the interview ought to be carefully planned and precisely worded to
yield the kind of data the researcher needs. Some guidelines to maximize an
interview may include the following:

GUIDELINES ON MAXIMISING AN INTERVIEW

I. Ensure that you’re your interviewees are representative of the group: This
means you endeavor choosing people you expect to give you typical
perceptions and perspectives
II. Find a suitable location: Endeavour to find a conducive, quite place for the
interview for maximum output.
III. Take a few minutes to establish rapport: Begin the conversation with small
ice breaker-talk while you remain courteous and respectful at all times.
IV. Get written permission: Explain the nature of your study to array any fears
and doubts in the interviewee as well as making clear how you wish to use
the results. It may be helpful to offer sharing the report once completed.
V. Focus on the actual rather than abstract: Stick to your topic of study and
keep close track of the conversation.
VI. Do not put words in people’s mouths: Allow the interviewee express
themselves in their own way and remain a good listener who lets people say
what they want to say.
VII. Record responses verbatim: Capture every discussion using a combination of
handwritten notes, tape recorder etc, especially if the interview is
unstructured.
VIII. Keep your reactions to yourself: You are more likely to get more accurate
information if you try not to show surprises or disapproval of what someone
tells you.
IX. Remember that you are not necessarily getting facts: Treat the response of
the interviewee as perceptions rather than facts, as confident and convincing
as they may be.

7.0 STATISTICS
Statistics is a science of collection, analysis and interpretation or explanation and
presentation of data. It is often used to make predictions based on the data and is
widely applicable in various social and natural sciences.

IMPORTANCE OF STATISTICS
I. It can be used for counting attributes or things
II. It is useful for easy data compilation
III. It helps in record keeping of an organization or research
IV. It is used in analyzing data and drawing conclusions from it. It is a backbone
of any research

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 V. It is used in the characterization, summarization, presentation and
interpretation of result for proper action
VI. It helps in the presentation of data in the form of graphs, charts etc.
VII. It is relevant in checking accuracy, consistency or degree of usage of the
results obtained by the researcher.
VIII. It helps communicate the results of an experiment or research

STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
This is an analysis where a chosen subset of the population called a sample is
studied by the collection of data from a sampled individuals and subjecting to serve
2 purposes:

Descriptive and Inference Statistics:

Descriptive Statistics: Summarizes the population data by describing what was

observed in the sample numerically or graphically.

Inferential Statistics: These are patterns in the sample data to draw inferences or
conclusions about a population represented.

AVERAGES IN STATISTICS

In statistics, one often deals with estimates or averages. In statistics, there are
many kinds of averages, but most common are the measures of central tendency
being: Mean, Mode, Median and Range.

Mean: This is average one arrives at after adding all the numbers in a set and
dividing by using the number of the numbers in the set. It is generally understood
as standard average.

EG: 10, 10, 15, 20, 30, 50, and 10.

Mean= 10+10+15+20+30+50+10=145/7=20.71

Median: This is a middle value in a list of numbers ordered from smallest to largest
number.

EG: 10, 10, 10, 15, 20, 30, and 50=15

Mode: This is the value that occurs most often. If there is no number repeated, it
simply means that there is no mode.

EG: from the set of numbers= 10 is most repeated.

Range: The difference between largest and smallest values.

EG: 50-10=40.

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ORGANISING STATISTICAL DATA
The process of organizing large amounts of data used to be cumbersome, but now
made simple by existence of electronic spreadsheet. This is a software program that
allows the user to manipulate data displayed in a table. Electronic spreadsheets
may be Excel, Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS), Epi-info, Microsoft
access etc.

IMPORTANCE OF SPREADSHEET TO A RESEARCHER

i. Sorting: This is the organization of data into rows and columns according
to attributes such as sex, age etc.
ii. Searching: Spreadsheets do search for desired pieces of information in a
quicker way
iii. Recoding: Spreadsheet is used to record data according to categories.
iv. Graphing: Most spreadsheets programs have graphing capabilities. This
is where one produces data in the form of graphs, such as line charts, pie
charts, bar charts, scatter grams etc.
v. Formulas: Spreadsheets also can be used to carry out simple calculations
using statistical formulas.

8.0 DATA CODING

In a research report, normally you will find charts, graphs, tables etc full of numbers
that give you a reader a condensed picture of the data. There is a way one
organizes, manipulates the quantitative data in order for it to give you a clear
picture about a social world. The beginning point is data coding. This is when one
has collected all the data, for instance in a questionnaire with structured questions.

Codes represent attributes composing variables, which in turn are assigned within a
data file. The end product of the coding process is the conversion of data items into
numerical codes.

If one is using SPSS (Statistical package for Social Sciences), Ensure that each
variable is abbreviated in the Data view window, while the details of the variables
will be in the Variable view window, under the column indicating Label.

What is Data Coding then? This means systematically reorganizing raw data into a
form that is machine readable or easy to analyze using computers.

Data coding is done before you input or enter data on a spreadsheets. Normally,
before testing hypotheses, a researcher puts the data in a different form.

Coding can be simple when data are recorded as numbers on well organized
recording sheets. But it is rather difficult to code responses of open-ended
questions.

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 A researcher ought to come up with a Code Book, where all variables are coded. A
code book is a document describing the coding procedure and location of data for
variables in a format computers can use.

WHY DO DATA CODING?

 It lets you make sense of and analyze your data

 For qualitative studies, it can help you generate a general theory.
 The type of statistical analysis you can use depends on the type of data you
collect, how you collect it, and how it’s coded.
 Coding facilitates the organization, retrieval, and interpretation of data and
leads to conclusions on the basis of that interpretation.”

A code book remains key before data analysis.

EXAMPLE OF CODE BOOK

COLUMN VARIABLE DESCRIPTION

1 SEX GENDER OF
RESPONDENT
1=FEMALE
2=MALE
3=TRANSEXUAL

2 MARITAL STATUS MARITAL STATUS OF

RESPONDENT
1=SINGLE
2=MARRIED
3=DIVORCED/DIVORCEE
4=WIDOWED

3 LOCATION LOCATION FOR A

RESPONDENT
1=KAMWALA
2=CHILENJE
3=AVONDALE
4=WOODLANDS

DATA ANALYSIS

Analysis of data is a process of inspecting, cleaning, transforming, and modeling

data with the goal of highlighting useful information, suggesting conclusions, and
supporting decision making.

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Data analysis has multiple facets and approaches, encompassing diverse
techniques under a variety of names, in different business, science, and social
science domains.

BENEFITS OF DATA ANALYSIS

Data analysis can offer the following benefits:

Structuring of the findings from survey research or other means of data collection
Break a macro picture into a micro one
Acquiring meaningful insights from the dataset
Basing critical decisions from the findings
Ruling out human bias through proper statistical treatment

Data analysis in Qualitative and quantitative approach is somewhat different but

also there are similarities. Qualitative data are in the form of text, written words,
phrases or symbols describing actions and vents in social life and researchers rarely
use statistical analysis.

SIMILARITIES BETWEEN QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS

 In both styles researchers carefully examines empirical information to reach

some conclusion based on evidence.
 Both approaches emphasize on triangulation in order to attain adequacy
where sufficient data has been collected.
 Both analysis involve a public method or process so that data can easily be
accessible by others
 Both types also collect large amounts of data and there is some description
on how it was collected and examined.
 In both qualitative and quantitative approaches, both researchers strive to
avoid errors, false conclusions and misleading inferences.

DIFFERENCES
 Quantitative researchers choose from a specialized, standardized set of data
analysis techniques while in qualitative research data analysis is less
standardized, and it has wide variety of approaches.
 Quantitative researchers do not begin data analysis until they have collected
all the data and condensed them into numbers, while a qualitative researcher
will undertake data analysis during the data collection.
 Quantitative researchers manipulate numbers in order to test hypotheses
while qualitative research illustrates a theory, generalization or interpretation
of some phenomenon.
 Quantitative research draws on a large body of data using numbers and
statistics while qualitative analysis does not draw on a large body of formal
knowledge from statistics and numbers.

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DATA ANALYSIS SOFTWARE PACKAGE-SPSS

STATISTICAL PACKAGE FOR SOCIAL SCIENCES

Being one of the major data analysis tools used by most students undertaking a
quantitative research, STATISTICAL PACKAGE FOR SOCIAL SCIENCES (SPSS), has
various usages that help one to analyze and present data in the most professional
way possible.

When one opens SPSS, the first thing that can be seen as is the Data Editor Window
which has File, Edit, View, Data, Transform, Analyze, Graphs Utilities, Add-ons,
Window and help.

Beneath it is the Data view and Variable View.

Variable View:

To open the file, simply go to file and open data. The best part of SPSS to
commence with in an attempt of data inputting from the Code Book is the Variable
view. Variable view under “name” takes in a max of 8 letters. However, full
description of the variable is indicated under “Label”. The section on “type” has
various options such as numeric, string, dollar etc.

One critical aspect is the “Value” section within Data Editor where one transfers
codes from the Code Book.

Data View: This section only require inputting the codes according to the numbers
assigned to specific variables.

Once data has been inputted, the obvious step is to analyze by going to “analyze”
section, then descriptive Statistics which leads to various options such as
Frequencies, Descriptive, Explore, Crosstabs, and Ratio etc...

1.9 ORGANISING A RESEARCH REPORT

Once a researcher has undertaken the data analysis and stored the information
accordingly, it is time to prepare a Research report. Research reports for most
quantitative studies are similar in the format.

Basic aspects contained in a report include the following:

 Title Page: This includes the details of the name of the researcher, course
being studied, computer number, title of the research etc.
 Preliminaries: These include:
 Copyright Notice: This is where a researcher gives some kind of warning and
prohibition that actually the information contained in the report is not so

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 open for duplication, redistribution etc otherwise one will have to acquire
some permission from the one who undertook the research work.
 Abstract: This is basically a summary of all that has been studied
 Dedication: this is a part one would opt to mention special individuals to
whom the work is dedicated to.
 Acknowledgements: This is where one shows some courtesy to all those they
felt contributed in one way or the way to the success of the research work.
 Table of Contents:
 List of tables and figures
 Chapter 1: Introduction
 Statement of the problem( sub problems/hypotheses)
 Purpose of the study
 Limitations of the study
 Assumptions
 Chapter 2: Literature Review and summary of Lit Review
 Chapter 3; Methodology
 Research design
 Sample/size/techniques and justifications
 Data collection (tools and ethics to be considered).
 Analysis-tools and approach/techniques
 Chapter 4: Presentation, analysis and interpretation of data
o This is the heart of any research work, with depictions in the form of
tables, figures such as pie charts, bar charts, graphs etc. The section
includes findings and interpretations.
 Chapter 5: Conclusions and Recommendations
o A brief restatement of the problem and procedures, summary of
findings, conclusions and recommendations including the areas that
may require further study.

 Bibliography.

REFERENCES

( Source: [Link]/unupress/food2/UIN11E/[Link],
[Link]/papers/[Link] and [Link]/cp/ev-56615-201-1-
DO_TOPIC and [Link]/wp-content/uploads/2009/10/focus-group-
[Link])

Earl,B.M. and Payze,V.B.P 2001. The practice of Social Research. Oxford University
Press. Cape [Link]

Glesne, C. and Pestikin, A. (1992).Becoming qualitative researchers. An introduction

. White Plains

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Lawrence,W. Neuman. (2006) Social Research Methods: Qualitative and
Quantitative Approaches).Pearson Education Inc. USA.

Merriam, S.B. and Simpson, E.L. (1995). A guide to research for Education and
trainers of Adults. Melbourne, Florida: Krieger publishing company

Paul,D.L. and Jeanne,E.O.(2001) Practical Research. Planning and Design.

Courier/Kendllville, [Link] Jersey Columbus, Ohio-USA.

[Link]

[Link]

NOTES ON RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY

Research measurement in research is deemed important in that one has to be

cautious to avoid getting wrong answers or findings that are wrong. In other words
research data ought to be of value and use. Research process insists on rigor,
meaning the need for credibility, believability in the study findings. Raw data often
leads to information which later leads to facts then knowledge. If the study findings
are wrong it means that the knowledge generated may not be in line with what is
deemed to be true, authentic or real or factual. Thus the need to emphasize on two
aspects referred to as Reliability and Validity.

Reliability is basically the repeatability of findings and the common question posed
is if the study was to be done a second time would it yield similar findings?

On one hand validity is the credibility or believability of the research and so the
question is how credible are the findings or how ge nuine are they?

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