Science 31

Chemistry
A French chemist, Lavoisier (1743–93) is regarded as • Elements which are liquid at room temperature are
father of modern chemisty. mercury (Hg) and bromine (Br2).
• Examples (of elements) are diamond, graphite, sulphur
MATTER AND ITS STATES (S8), phosphorus (P4), ozone (O3), oxygen (O2), etc.
• It exists in five states viz, solid, liquid, gas, plasma, • Elements have the following order of abundance in
Bose-Einstein condensate, out of which the former earth crust, Oxygen > silicon > aluminium (metal) >
three are commonly seen. iron > calcium.
• Anything that occupies space, possesses mass and • Elements have the following order of abundance in
can be felt by any one or more of our sense organs
human body: Oxygen > carbon > hydrogen > nitrogen.
is called matter.
Extraction Process for Various Elements
Frasch process Sulphur
STATES OF MATTER
Acheson process Graphite
Hall Herault Aluminium
SOLID STATE
Ostwald process Nitric acid
• A solid possesses definite shape and definite volume
which means that it cannot be compressed on Extraction of aluminium
Bayer process
applying normal pressure. from ore
Bessemer process Steel from molten pig iron
LIQUID STATE
Patio process Silver
• A l i qu i d p os sesses d ef i ni t e vo l ume bu t n o
definite shape. Dow process Bromine
Pidgeon process Magnesium
GASES
Fischer Tropsch process Gasoline
• These have neither definite volume nor definite shape.
• Solid, liquid and gases are inter-convertible Azeotropic distillation Absolute alcohol
by changing the conditions of temperature
and pressure. METALS
• Fluorescent tube contains helium (He) gas and neon
• Metals are solids (exception mercury which is liquid
sign bulb contains neon (Ne) gas.
at room temperature) are normally hard. They have
BOSE-EINSTEIN CONDENSATE lustre, high MP (Melting point) and BP (Boiling point)
• In 1924–25, Satyendra Nath Bose and Albert Einstein and also with increase in temperature due to vibration
gave the information about Bose-Einstein condensate. of positive ions at their Lattice points.
• It is a state of matter of a lower density gas of
boson cooled up to temperature which is very close NON-METALS
to absolute zero or –273.15°C. Infact, it is a fifth • Non-metals are the elements with properties
state of matter. opposite to those of the metals. They are found
• Pure substances: A single substance (or matter) in all states of matter. They do not possess lustre
which cannot be separated into other kinds of matter
(exception is iodine). They are poor conductors of
by any physical process is called pure substance.
electricity (exception is graphite) and they are not
malleable and ductile.
ELEMENTS
METALLOIDS
• Metalloids are the elements which have common
• They contain only single type of atoms. properties of both metals and non-metals.
 EVAPORATION
COMPOUNDS • If a solution of solid substance in a liquid is heated,
the liquid gets converted into its vapours and slowly
goes off completely. This process is called evaporation.
• Compounds are pure substances that are
composed of two or more different elements in fixed CRYSTALLISATION
proportion by mass. • This method is mostly used for separation and
• These contain more than one kind of atom. purification of solid substances. In this process, the
• Their examples are silica (SiO2), water (H2O), sugar impure solid or mixture is heated with suitable solvent
(C12H22O11), salt (NaCl), etc. to its boiling point and the hot solution is filtered. The
clear filtrate is cooled slowly to room temperature.
ORGANIC COMPOUNDS When pure solid crystallises out, this is separated
• The compounds obtained from living sources by filtration and dried.
are called organic compounds. Examples are
DISTILLATION
carbohyrates, proteins, oils, fats, etc.
• It is a process of converting a liquid into its vapour by
INORGANIC COMPOUNDS heating and then condensing the vapour again into
• The compounds obtained from non-living sources the same liquid by cooling. Thus, distillation involves
such as rocks and minerals are called inorganic vapourisation and condensation both.
compounds. Examples are common salt, marble, (A) Vacuum Distillation
washing soda, etc. ƒƒ It is also known as distillation under
reduced pressures.
(B) Steam Distillation
MIXTURES ƒƒ It is used to separate a steam volatile
compound from non-volatile or non-steam
volatile compounds.
• A material obtained by mixing two or more substances (C) Fractional Distillation
in any indefinite proportion is called a mixture. ƒƒ This process is similar to the distillation process
Examples are milk, sea water, petrol, paint, glass, except that a fractionating column is used to
cement, wood, etc. separate two or more volatile liquids which have
different boiling points.
(A) HOMOGENEOUS MIXTURE
CHROMATOGRAPHY
• A mixture is said to be homogeneous if it does have
a uniform composition throughout. • The technique of chromatography is based on the
Example: Salt-solution, sugar solution, etc. difference in the rates at which the components of a
mixture are absorbed in the suitable absorbent.
(B) HETEROGENEOUS MIXTURE
CENTRIFUGATION
• A mixture is said to be heterogeneous if it does
not have a uniform composition throughout and • It is based upon the principle that the denser particles
has visible boundaries of separation between the are forced to the bottom and the lighter particles stay
various constituents. at the top when spun rapidly.
Example: A mixture of sulphur and sand, a mixture SEDIMENTATION AND DECANTATION
of iron fillings and sand, etc.
• These methods are used when one component is a
liquid and the other is an insoluble solid, heavier than
SEPARATION OF MIXTURES liquid, i.e. mud and water.
• If muddy water is allowed to stand undisturbed for
some time in a beaker, the particles of earth (clay
SUBLIMATION and sand) settle at the bottom. This process is called
• In this process, a solid substance passes direct into sedimentation. The clear liquid at the top can be
its vapours on application of heat. The vapours when gently transferred into another beaker. This process
cooled, give back the original substance. is known as decantation.
FILTRATION REVERSE OSMOSIS
• This is a process for quick and complete removal of • It is a technique in which solvent mole­cules move from
suspended solid particles from a liquid, by passing the solution of higher concentration to the solution
the suspension through a filter paper. of lower concentration when these are separated by
 semipermeable membrane and excess pressure is STRENGTH OF SOLUTION
applied to the solution of higher concentration. • Molarity: It is defined as the number of moles of the
• It is used for desalination of sea water.
solute per litre of solution.
SOLUTIONS OR TRUE SOLUTIONS
Number of moles of solute
• These are homogeneous mixtures of two or   M =
more substances. The size of solute particles is Volume of solution per litre
less than 10–7 cm. • Normality: It is defined as the number of gram
COLLOIDAL SOLUTIONS equivalent of the solute per litre of solution.
Molecular mass
• These are heterogeneous mixtures. The size of solute Normality (N) = Molarity ×
particles is between 10–7 cm and 10–5 cm. Equivalent weight
• These can scatter light because of the presence of • Molality: It is defined as the number of moles of
large solute particles, i.e. they show Tyndall effect solute dissolved in 1000 g of the solvent.
and Brownian movement.
• The scattering of light by colloidal particles is called Moles of solute
    m =
Tyndall effect. Weight of solvent in kg
Types of Colloidal Systems
[Link]. Dispersed Phase Medium Name Example
1. Solid Solid Solid Sol Some coloured glasses
2. Solid Liquid Sol Muddy water
3. Liquid Solid Gel Cheese, butter, jellies
4. Liquid Liquid Emulsion Milk, Hair Cream
5. Gas Solid Solid Foam Pumice stone, foam, rubber
6. Gas Liquid Foam Froth, whipped cream

PHYSICAL CHANGE
• It is the change which only affects the physical ATOMIC STRUCTURE
properties like colour, hardness, density, melting
point, etc. of matter. Atom
The smallest particle of an element is called an atom.
CHEMICAL CHANGE
The atom of the hydrogen is the smallest and lightest.
• These changes affect the composition as well as
chemical properties of matter and result in the Characteristics of Atoms
formation of a new substance. Atomic Number (Z)
• It is equal to the number of protons.
CONCEPT OF CHANGE IN STATE
• It is equal to the number of electrons in netural atom.
(a) Melting Point: The temperature at which solid Mass Number (A)
and the liquid forms of the substance exist at • It is equal to the sum of number of protons and
equilibrium or both forms have same vapour number of neutrons.
pressure is called melting point. • It is written as a superscript to the right of the
(b) Boiling Point: The temperature at which the symbol of the atom e.g., C12 here 12 is the mass
vapour pressure of a liquid becomes equal to number of carbon (C).
the atmospheric pressure is called boiling point.
Molecule
(c) Freezing Point: The temperature at which a • A molecule is the smallest particle of a compound
substance is changed from liquid state to solid that can have a stable and independent existence.
state is called freezing point.
Mole Concept
(d) Vapour Pressure: The pressure exerted by the
• One mole is just a number whose value is equal
vapours of liquid in equilibrium with liquid at
to 6.022 × 1023 i.e. Avogadro’s number. Thus, one
a given temperature is called vapour pressure. mole in quantity implies that the matter contains
Vapour pressure depends on (i) its nature and exactly 6.022 × 1023 number of particles (atoms,
(ii) temperature. molecules, ions, etc).
Higher the vapour pressure, lesser will be the • Number of moles of molecules
magnitude of intermolecular forces present in
molecules. Vapour pressure of a liquid increases with Weight in gm
=
increase in temperature. Molecular mass
• Number of moles of atoms • It has mass equal to 9.1 × 10–31 kg or 0.00054 u.
• It has charge equal to –1.6 × 10–19 C (by Millikan oil
Weight in gm
= drop experiment).
Atomic mass
• Number of moles of gases PROTON
Volume at STP i. A proton was discovered by Goldstein.
= ii. A proton was named by Rutherford.
Standard molar volume
iii. A proton is obtained from anode rays experiment.
• Standard molar volume of gas at STP = 22.4 litres • It is positively charged.
Atomic Mass • It is present in the nucleus.
• It is the ratio of mass of one atom of the element to • It has charge +1.6 × 10–19 C and mass equal to 1.672
the part of the mass of one atom of Carbon-12. × 10–27 kg or 1.00727 u.

Molecular Mass NEUTRON

• It indicates how many times one molecule of a i. A neutron was discovered by James Chadwick.
substance is heavier in comparison to the mass of ii. Charge on neutron is zero.
the atom of Carbon-12. iii. A neutron is obtained from radio­a ctivity
phenomenon.
ELECTRON • It has zero charge and mass equal to 1.674 × 10–27
kg or 1.00867 u.
i. Electron was discovered by J.J. Thomson.
• It is present inside the nucleus. Its antiparticle
ii. The name of electron was given by Stoney. is antineutrino.
iii. An electron is obtained from Cathode rays • Atomic number (Z): The number of proton or
experiment. electrons in an atom of the element is called atomic
• Its antiparticle is positron. number. It is denoted by Z.
Proton, Neutron and Electron Data
Particle Relative Charge Relative/C Charge/kgs Mass
Protons 1 +1 +1.6×10–19 1.67×10–27
Neutrons 1 neutral 0 1.67×10–27
Electrons 0.0005 –1 –1.6×10–19 9.11×10–31

NUCLEUS called Plum-Pudding model of an atom or watermelon

model of an atom.
• It contains protons and neutrons which are collectively
called nucleons. CATHODE RAYS
• Mass number (A): The sum of number of protons and
• These rays were discovered by J.J. Thomson.
neutrons in an atom of the elements is called mass
• These rays originate from cathode and travel in a
number. It is denoted by A. straight line towards anode.
• Isotopes: These are atoms of the elements having
the same atomic number but diff­erent mass number. ANODE RAYS
• Hydrogen (H-1) is the lightest isotope and lead-208 is
• These rays were discovered by Goldstein (also called
the heaviest isotope (with mass 207.974).
positive rays).
• The isotopes of hydrogen are Protium ( 1 H 1 ),
• These rays do not originate from anode.
Deuterium (1H2) and Tritium (1H3). 6C12 and 6C14 are
• These are positively charged and have velocity less
isotopes of carbon.
than cathode rays.
• Isobars: These are atoms of the elements having the
• Hydrogen is the only atom in which neutrons
same mass number but different atomic numbers,
are not present.
e.g.: 40S, 40Cl, 40Ar, 40K and 40Ca.
• According to de-Broglie, all particles have wave nature.
• Isotones: These are atoms of different elements
having the same number of neutrons. RUTHERFORD’S ATOMIC MODEL
• Isoelectronic: These are atoms/molecules/ions
• This model was based upon α-particle scattering
containing the same number of electrons.
experiment and it suggests that most of the part of
• Thomson’s model of an atom: According to
an atom is empty. It also suggests that the entire
Thomson, an atom is treated as sphere of radius
mass of an atom is concentrated in its centre at the
10–8 cm in which positively charged particles are nucleus. The nucleus is surrounded by electrons that
uniformly distributed and negatively charged move around the nucleus with a very high speed in
electrons are embedded through them. This is also circular paths called orbits.
 Spectrum: When a white light is allowed to pass ALPHA (a) PARTICLE
through a prism, it splits into seven colours. These
• These are positively charged helium nuclei (2He4)2+.
seven coloured bands are called spectrum. • An a-emission reduces the atomic mass by 4 and
NIEL BOHRS’S MODEL atomic number by 2.
• This model suggests that the electrons are confined BETA (β) PARTICLE
into clearly defined, quantized orbits, and could jump • These are negatively charged electrons (–1e0).
between these, but could not freely spiral inward or • A β-emission increases the atomic number by one
outward in intermediate states. with no change in atomic mass.
PLANCK’S QUANTUM THEORY GAMMA (γ) RAYS
• According to this theory: • These are electromagnetic radiations and have very
i. Atoms and molecules could emit or absorb energy high penetrating power.
only in the form of discrete packets of energy • Their emission increases does not affect the position
called quanta. of nuclei in the Periodic Table.
ii. The energy of quantum (E) is proportional to its NUCLEAR REACTOR
frequency (v). • It is a device that is used to produce electricity and
HEISENBERG’S UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE permits a controlled chain nuclear fission.
• It contains fuels e.g., 92U235, moderator (e.g., graphite
• This principle states that it is impossible to determine and heavy water, D2O) to slow down neutrons and
simultaneously the exact position and exact control rods (made up of boron steel or cadmium) to
momentum (velocity) of an electron. absorb neutrons.
QUANTUM NUMBERS • It may also contain liquid sodium as coolant.
• These show the position and energy of electrons in HALF-LIFE PERIOD
an atom. These are four in number • It is the time in which a radioactive sub­stance remains
1. Principal quantum number, n. half of its original amount.
2. Azimuthal quantum number, l.
3. Magnetic quantum number, m. RADIOISOTOPES
4. Spin quantum number, s. • Radioisotopes are the unstable form of an element
that emit radiation to transform into a more stable
ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION form. Radiation is easily traceable and can cause
• It is the arrangement of electrons in various shells, changes in the substance it falls upon. These special
subshells and orbitals in an atom. attributes make radioisotopes useful in medicine,
industry and other areas.
PAULI EXCLUSION PRINCIPLE
Uses of Radioisotopes
• It is the quantum mechanical principle which states
that no two identical fermions (particles with half- 1. Iodine-131 is employed to study the structure and
integer spin) may occupy the same quantum state activity of thyroid gland.
simultaneously. Or 2. Iodine-123 is used in external radiation therapy for the
treatment of cancer.
• Only two electrons may exist in the same orbital and
3. Cobalt-60 is used in external radiation therapy for the
these electrons must have opposite spin. treatment of cancer.
Zeeman’s effect: When spectral lines obtained from 4. Sodium-24 is injected along with salt solution to trace
atomic spectra are placed in a magnetic field, they the flow of blood.
are splitted into number of fine lines. This is called 5. Phosphorus-32 is used for leukemia therapy.
Zeeman’s effect. 6. Carbon-14 is used to study the kinetics of photosynthesis.
Stark’s effect: When spectral lines obtained from
atomic spectra is placed in electric field, they are RADIOCARBON DATING
splitted into number of fine lines this is called Stark’s • It is used in determining the age of carbon bearing
effect. materials such as wood, animal fossils, etc.
URANIUM DATING
RADIOACTIVITY • It is used to determine the age of earth,
minerals and rocks.

• It was discovered by Henry Becquerel but term

radioactivity was given by Madam Curie. It is the PERIODIC CLASSIFICATION OF
process of spontaneous disintegration of nucleus and
ELEMENTS
is measured by Geiger counter.
• It involves emission of α, β and γ rays/particles and
has units Curie, Becquerel, Rutherford. Father of Periodic Table is Mendeleev.
PERIODIC TABLE ii. Ionic radii: The effective distance from the
centre of nucleus of the ion upto which it exerts
• It is a tabular display of the chemical elements,
its influence on the electron cloud is called ionic
organised on the basis of their properties.
radii.
MENDELEEV’S PERIODIC TABLE (1869) iii. A t o m i c S i z e : It generally increases on
moving down the group because number of
• It is based upon the Mendeleev’s periodic law, which
shells increases.
states, “Properties of the elements are the periodic iv. Valency: It is the combining capacity of an
function of their atomic masses.” element. It remains the same in a group.
• Modern Periodic Law: Modern periodic law was v. Metallic Character: It is the tendency of an
given by Moseley. element to form cation by the loss of electrons.
• According to Moseley: “The physical and chemical It decreases along a period from left to right and
properties of the elements are the periodic function increases in a group on moving downwards.
of their atomic numbers.” vi. Ionisation Energy: It is the energy required to
remove an electron from the outermost shell of
MODERN PERIODIC TABLE
an isolated gaseous atom. It generally increases
• It is just graphical representation of Aufbau principle. along a period from left to right but ionisation
It is based on the electronic configuration of elements energy of Be, Mg, Ca, Sr is larger than the
and contains 118 elements. ionisation energy of B, Al, In, Ti, respectively.
• Modern periodic table is classified as: It generally decreases along a group on moving
i. s-block; iii. d-block; downwards.
ii. p-block; iv. f-block. vii. Electron Affinity (EA): It is defined as the energy
liberated when an extra electron is added to
S-BLOCK an atom. It decreases on moving down a group.
• It contains group 1 and 2, i.e., hydrogen and alkali It is highest for chlorine.
metals (Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, Fr) and alkatine earth viii. Electronegativity: It is the tendency of an atom
metals (Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba, Ra). General electronic in a molecule to attract the shared electrons
configuration of these elements is ns0–2. towards it. It increases regularly along a period
• These elements are soft metals, electropositive. from left to right and decreases on moving down
a group. It is highest for fluorine.
P-BLOCK ix. Lattice Energy: The amount of energy released
• It comprises the last six groups (13–18). during formation of the mole of ionic compound
• General electronic configuration of this block from its constituent ions is called Lattice energy.
elements is ns2 np1–6. x. Hydration Energy: The amount of energy
• It is only block which contain metals, non-metals released during dissolution of one mole of
and metalloids. compound into water, is called hydration energy.
If hydration energy > Lattice energy, then compound
D-BLOCK is soluble in water and if hydration energy < Lattice
• It comprises 10 groups (3 to 12). These elements are energy, then compound is insoluble in water.
called transition elements.
• General electronic configuration of d-block elements
is (n–1)d1–10 ns 1–2.
CHEMICAL BONDING
• Hg, Zn, Cu, Sc etc. are d-block elements but not the
transtion elements. • The force which holds together the different atoms in
a molecule is called chemical bond.
F-BLOCK
• There are two series in this block 4 F and 5F series. IONS
4F series elements are called lanthanides and 5F • These are of two types: cations and anions. Cations
series elements are called actinides. are formed by the loss of electrons and carry positive
• General electronic configuration of this block ele- charge. Anions are formed by the gain of electrons
ments is (n–2)F1–14 (n–1) d1–10 ns 1–2. and carry negative charge.

PERIODIC PROPERTIES IONIC BOND OR (ELECTROVALENT BOND)

i. Atomic radii: The distance from the centre of A bond formed by the complete transfer of ions or
the nucleus to the outermost shell containing more electrons from one atom to other atom is called
electrons is called atomic radius. ionic bond.
COVALENT BOND • Due to intermolecular hydrogen bonding between
alcohol and water, alcohol is soluble in water.
• A bond formed between two same or different atoms
by mutual contribution and sharing of electrons is
VAN DER WAALS’ INTERACTIONS/FORCE
called covalent bond.
• Co-ordinate bond (or Dative bond): Co-ordinate • It is the attractive force among the non-polar
bond is a special type of covalent bond in which molecules in solid or liquid states.
one atom donates electrons of other atom. The
bonding between donor to acceptor atom is called CHEMICAL REACTION
co-ordinate bond. • The process in which substances (reactants) react
to form new compunds (products) is known as
VALENCY chemical reaction.
• It is the number of electrons taking part in bonding
(i.e., bond formation). TYPES OF REACTIONS
• Decomposition reactions: In these rea­c tions,
SIGMA BOND (σ -BOND) compound either of its own or upon heating
• A bond formed by the linear overlapping of atomic decomposes to give two or more components out of
orbitals is called sigma bond. Since the extent of which at least one is in the elemental state.
overlapping of atomic orbitals in σ-bond is large, Δ
2 KCl O3 2KCl + 3O2
hence, σ-bond is a strong bond.
Potassium Potassium Oxygen
Chlorate Chloride
pi-BOND (π-BOND)
• A bond formed by the sidewise (or lateral overlapping • Addition reactions: In such reactions, two or more
of atomic orbitals is called pi-bond. Since in this case, substances combine to give a single substance.
extent of overlapping of atomic orbitals is lesser than • Substitution reactions: In such reactions, an atom
σ-bond. So, π-bond is a weak bond. or a group of atoms of a molecule is replaced by
another atom or group of atoms.
BOND ENERGY
• Combination reactions: In combination reactions,
• The amount of energy required to break one mole compounds are formed as a result of the chemical
bonds of a particular type between the atoms in the
combination of two or more elements.
gaseous state of a substance is called bond energy.
• The greater the size of atoms, the lesser will CaO + H2O Ca (OH)2
be bond energy. Calcium Water Calcium
• The greater the bond multiplicity, the more will Oxide Hydroxide
be bond energy. • Displacement reactions: In these reactions, an
atom/ion present in a compound gets replaced by
BOND LENGTH an atom/ion of another element.
• The average equilibrium distance between the centres
CuSO4 + Fe FeSO4 + Cu
of the two bonded atoms is called Bond length.
Copper Ferrous
• Greater the size of atoms, greater will be bond length. Sulphate Sulphate
• Greater the multiplicity of bonds, lesser will
be bond length. • Disproportionation reactions: The chemical
reaction in which only one substance is oxidised
HYDROGEN BOND as well as reduced simultaneously is called
• When hydrogen atom is present between two most disproportionation reaction.
electronegative atoms (N, O, F) then it is bonded to • Dissociation reactions: These are those reversible
by a covalent bond and to other by a weak force of reactions in which a molecule dissociates into two or
attraction which is called hydrogen bond. more simple molecules.
• Intermolecular hydrogen bond arises when hydrogen
bonding occurs between two or more molecules. In 2HI H2 + 12
Hydrogen Hydrogen Iodine
this case, m.p. and b.p. of the compounds increase
iodide
due to molecular association.
• When hydrogen bonding occurs within a molecule, • Double decomposition reactions: These involve
then it is called intermolecular hydrogen bonding. exchange of ions between two compounds.
• Due to cyclisation, m.p. and b.p. of the compounds • Exothermic reactions: These are those reactions in
decrease in this case. which energy is released.
• Endothermic reactions: These are those in which CATALYSIS
energy is consumed. • It was discovered by Berzelius.
• Redox reaction: A reaction in which both oxidation • It is a term used for the reactions/processes which
and reduction take place simultaneously is called occur in the presence of certain substances that
redox reaction. increase the rate of the reaction without being
• Neutralisation reaction: When an acid reacts with consumed. Such substances are called catalysts.
a base, salt and water are formed. This reaction is Uses of Catalyst
called neutralisation rea­ction. S. No. Process Catalyst
• Reversible reaction: A reaction in which 1. Manufacture of Ghee from Nickel
reactants combine to form products and again vegetable oils
products recombine to form reactants is called 2. Conversion of milk into curd Lactase
reversible reaction. 3. Decon’s process for Cupric
• Irreversible reaction: A reaction which proceeds in manufacture of chlorine Chloride
only one direction is called irreversible reaction. 4. Conversion of sucrose into Invertase
glucose and fructose enzyme
OXIDATION (OLD CONCEPT) 5. Contact process for Pt Powder
• Oxidation is a process which involves either manufacture of sulphuric acid
of the following– 6. Conversion of proteins into Pepsin
i. Addition of oxygen. peptide enzyme
ii. Removal of hydrogen. 7. Conversion of glucose into Zymase
ethyl alcohol enzyme
iii. Addition of electronegative element or group.
iv. Removal of electropositive element or group. 8. Formation of vinegar from cane Mesoderm
sugar acetate
REDUCTION (OLD CONCEPT) 9. Conversion of starch into Diastase
maltose enzyme
Reduction is a process which involves either of the
following:
i. Addition of hydrogen.
ii. Removal of oxygen. ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS
iii. Addition of electropositive element or group.
iv. Removal of electronegative element or group.
ACID
MODERN CONCEPT OF OXIDATION AND An acid is a substance which
REDUCTION i. Is sour to taste.
ii. Turns blue litmus paper into red.
• According to modern concept, loss of electrons iii. Contains replaceable hydrogen.
is called oxidation whereas gain of electrons is iv. Gives hydrogen ion (H+) in aqueous solution.
called reduction. v. Can donate a proton.
• Oxidising agent (OA): A substance which undergoes vi. Can accept an electron.
reduction is called oxidising agent.
• Reducing agent (RA): A substance which undergoes Uses of Acid
oxidation is called reducing agent. 1. As food:
• Oxidation number: The charge present on atom in (a) Citric acid–Lemons or oranges.
molecule or ion is called oxidation number. It may be (b) Lactic acid–Sour milk.
(c) Butyric acid–Rancid butter.
zero, positive or negative.
(d) Tartaric acid–Grapes.
(e) Acetic acid–Vinegar.
RULES FOR DETERMINATION OF OXIDATION (f) Maleic acid–Apples.
NUMBER (g) Carbonic acid–Soda water, carbonated drinks.
i. Oxidation number of an atom in free state is zero, (h) Stearic acid–Fats.
(i) Oxalic acid–Tomato and wood sorrel.
positive or negative.
2. Hydrochloric acid (HCl) is used in digestion.
ii. Oxidation number of alkali metals (Li, Na, K, Rb, 3. Nitric acid (HNO3) is used in the purification of gold
Cs) in molecule is always +2. and silver.
iii. Sum of oxidation numbers of atoms in a molecule 4. Oxalic acid is used to remove rust spot.
is equal to zero. 5. Boric acid is a constituent of eyes wash.
iv. Sum of oxidation numbers of atoms in an ion is 6. Formic acid is present in red ants.
equal to magnitude of charge with sign. 7. Uric acid is present in urine of mammals.
 Basicity of an acid: The number of removable Uses of Tartaric acid
hydrogen ions from an acid is called basicity of that i. Souring agent for pickles.
acid. ii. A component of baking powder (sodium
Uses of HCI (Hydro-chloric Acid) bicarbonate + tartaric acid).
i. Used as bathroom cleaner.
ii. As a pickling agent before galvanization. BASES
iii. In the tanning of leather. • A Base is a substance which:
iv. In the dyeing and textile industry. i. Is bitter in taste.
v. In the manufacture of gelatin from bones. ii. Turns red litmus paper into blue.
iii. Gives hydroxyl ions (OH–) in aqueous solution.
Uses of HNO3 (Nitric Acid) iv. Can accept proton.
i. In the manufacture of explosives like TNT
v. Can donate electrons.
(Trinitrotoluene), TNB (Trinitrobenzene), Picric
acid (Trinitrophenol), etc. • Oxides and hydroxides of metals are bases.
• Water soluble bases are called alkalis.
ii. Found in rain water (first shower).
• All alkalies are bases but all bases are not alkalies
iii. In the manufacture of rayons.
because all bases are not soluble in water.
iv. In manufacturing fertilizers. • Acidity of a base: The number of removable hydroxyl
Uses of Sulphuric acid (H2SO4) (OH–) ions from a base is called acidity of a base.
i. In lead storage battery. • The pH scale: pH of a solution is the negative
ii. In the manufacturing of HCl. logarithm of the concentration of hydrogen ions on
iii. In the manufacturing of Alum. mole per litre.
iv. In the manufacturing of fertilisers, drugs, INDICATORS
detergents and explosives.
• These are the substances which give different colours
Use of Boric Acid: It is used as an antiseptic. in acid and base solution.
Uses of Phosphoric Acid
i. Its calcium salt makes our bones. pH VALUE
ii. It forms phosphatic fertilisers. • It is a measure of acidity or basicity of a solution.
• Use of Ascorbic Acid: Source of vitamin C. • It is defined as the negative logarithm of the
• U s e o f C i t r i c A c i d : Flavouring agent and concentration (mol/L) of hydrogen ions
food preservative. which it contains.
• Use of Acetic Acid: Flavouring agent and • It is seven for neutral solution, greater than seven for
food preservative. basic solution and less than seven for acidic solution.
pH Values of Common Substances
pH values Acidic Solutions pH Value Alkine Solution
1 0.1 N HCl 7.3 Blood (Human)
2.3 Citric and Lemons 7.9 Albumin (egg)
3 Carbonic acid (soft drink) 8.5 Sea water
3.5 Tartaric acid (Grapes) 10.5 Milk of Magnesia
5.3 Boric acid (eyewash) 11.6 0.1 N Na2Co3 Solution
6.6 Lactic acid 13 0.1 N NaOH Solution

SALTS • Efflorescence is the property of salts to lose their

water of crystallisation.
• These are the product of neutralisation reaction • Deliquescence is the property of salts to absorb
between an acid and a base. moisture at ordinary temperature to form a solution.
• A salt can be acidic, basic or neutral. Strong acid + • Hygroscopy is the property of salts to absorb
Weak base  Acidic salt atmospheric moisture at ordinary temperature
Weak acid + Strong base/alkali  Basic salt. without dissolving in it.
Strong acid + Strong base/alkali  Normal/neutral salt. WASHING SODA
• Mohr’s salt [FeSO4(NH4)2 . SO4 . 6H2O] and Alum • Its chemical name is sodium carbonate decahydrate
[K2SO4 . Al2 (SO4)3, 24H2O] are double salts. (Na 2CO 3.10H 2O) and is used in glass, soap and
• Hydrolysis is a reaction in which salt reacts with paper industries and for removing permanent
water to form a solution. hardness of water.
BAKING SODA THE COMBINED GAS LAW OR IDEAL GAS
• It is sodium hydrogen carbonate (NaHCO3). It is a EQUATION
mild non-corrosive base. • It is a gas law which combines Charles law, Boyle’s
• When mixed with a mild edible acid such as tartaric law and Gay-Lussac’s law.
acid it is called baking powder and is used to make Avogadro’s Gas Law
bread or cake soft and spongy. • At constant temperature and pressure the
volume of a gas is directly proportional to the
• It is used as mild antiseptic for skin infections, in
number of molecules.
soda-acids and as fire extinguishers.
Ideal Gas Equation
BLEACHING POWDER PV = nRT is called ideal gas equation, where
• It is chemically Ca (OCl)Cl or CaOCl2. P = Pressure
• It is used for disinfecting drinking water and in the V = Volume
manufacture of chloroform. n = Number of moles
T = Temperature in Kelvin.
PLASTER OF PARIS • Diffusion of gases: The process of intermixing
of gases irrespective of the density relationship
• It is chemically calcium sulphate hemihydrate, and without the effect of external agency is called
i.e. (CaSO4)2 . H2O diffusion of gases.
• It is formed from gypsum, that is, CaSO4 . 2H2O.
• It is used to plaster fractured bones, for making GRAHAM’S LAW OF DIFFUSION
toys, materials for decoration and for making • According to this law, “the rate of diffusion of a
gas is inversely proportional to the square root
surfaces smooth.
of its density.”
COPPER SULPHATE
IDEAL AND REAL GASES
• Copper sulphate when anhydrous, is white and when
• Ideal gases follow gas laws in all conditions of
associated with water of crystallisation (i.e. CuSO4.
temperature and pressure.
5H2O), is blue, so it is called blue vitriol. It is used
• Critical temperature is the temperature above which
to test the presence of water. a gas cannot be liquefied.
LIME • Dalton’s law of partial pressure: It states that, if
two or more gases which do not react chemically are
• It is chemically calcium oxide and also called quicklime. enclosed in a vessel, the total pressure, of all gases
• It is used in the manufacture of glass, cement, etc. of the gaseous mixture is equal to the sum of the
and for drying ammonia and alcohol. partial pressures of all gases which exert pressure
POTASSIUM NITRATE when enclosed separately in the same vessel at
constant temperature.
• It is used as fertilizer, in gun powder, in matchsticks, etc.
• Ant or bee sting contains methanoic or formic acid.
ELECTROLYSIS
BEHAVIOUR OF GASES
Boyle’s Law
1. Electrolytes: These are the substances which
• At constant temperature, the volume of a
allow the electricity to pass through them in their
definite mass of a gas is inversely proportional to
molten state or in their aqueous solution and
1
pressure, i.e. P ∝ . undergo chemical decomposition.
V 2. Strong Electrolytes: The electrolytes which are
Charles’ Law
ƒƒ At constant pressure volume of a fixed mass almost completely dissociated into ions in solution
of a gas is directly proportional to its absolute are called strong electrolytes, e.g., HCl, HNO3,
temperature, i.e. V  T. H2SO4, NaOH, KOH.
ƒƒ Applications of Charles’ Law: Bursting of 3. Weak Electrolytes: The electrolytes which
hydrogen balloon, making of chapatti. do not ionise completely in solution are called
weak electrolytes. e.g. Acetic acid, carbonic acid,
Gay-Lussac’s Law Ammonium hydroxide, sodium carbonate.
• At constant volume, the pressure of given mass of 4. E l e c t r o l y s i s : T h e p r o c e s s o f c h e m i c a l
a gas is directly proportional to the temperature in decomposition of an electrolyte by the passage
1 of electric current through its molten state or its
Kelvin, i.e. P ∝ . solution is called electrolysis.
T
 Example: Allotropes of Carbon are diamond, graphite
FARADAY’S LAWS OF ELECTROLYSIS and charcoal.
Diamond
i. It is the purest form of carbon.
FIRST LAW OF ELECTROLYSIS
ii. It is hardest natural known substance.
• It states that, the quantity of elements separated iii. It is transparent and its specific gravity is 3.52.
by passing an electric current through a molten or iv. It is a bad conductor of electricity and heat.
dissolved salt is proportional to the quantity of electric
v. It has very high refractive index of 2.415.
charge passed through the circuit.
vi. It is chemically inert and on heating above
SECOND LAW OF ELECTROLYSIS 15000°C, it gets transformed into graphite.
• It states that, the mass of the resulting separated vii. It has high MP and density.
elements is directly proportional to the atomic viii. Black diamond called Carbonado contains traces
masses of the elements when an appropriate integral of graphite.
divisor is applied. Graphite (Plumbago or Black Lead)
• Electrodes: In order to pass the current through an i. It is soft, greasy, dark grayish colored crystalline
electrolyte in molten state or in aqueous solution, two solid.
rods or plates are needed to connect with the terminal ii. It is good conductor of heat and electricity.
of a battery. These rods or plates are called electrodes. iii. It is chemically more reactive than diamond.
• Anode: The electrode which is attached to positive iv. Its layer structure is headed by weak van der
terminal of battery. Waal’s forces.
• Cathode: The electrode which is attached to negative
terminal of batteries. FULLERENES
ELECTROCHEMICAL CELL • It (C60) looks like a soccer ball (or bucky-ball).
• It is a device that produces an electric current from GRAPHENE
energy released by a spontaneous redox reaction. This
kind of cell includes the galvanic cell or voltaic cell. • Graphene is an allotrope of carbon.

BATTERY CARBON MONOXIDE (CO)

• It is an arrangement of one or more cells • It is formed by incomplete combustion. It is a
connected in series. colourless, odourless gas.
• These are of two types:
i. Primary batteries (non-rechargeable), e.g., dry ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
cell, mercury cell, etc.
ii. Secondary batteries (rechargeable) e.g., lead • These are the compounds of mainly carbon and
storage battery, nickel cadmium battery. hydrogen or compounds of carbon and hydrogen with
other elements like phosphorus, oxygen, nitrogen,
Mercury Cell sulphur, halogens, etc.
• It is suitable for the low current devices like hearing
• Urea is the first synthesised organic
aids and camera, etc.
compound (by Wöhler).
• It consists of zinc-mercury amalgam as anode and a
paste of HgO and Carbon as cathode. The electrolyte • Acetic acid was the first organic compound
is a paste of KOH and ZnO. synthesised in the laboratory from its elements.
Lead Storage Battery
• It is a secondary battery. HYDROCARBONS
• It acts as electrochemical cell during discharging (e.g.,
during use) and as electrolytic cell during charging.
• It is used in automobiles and invertors. • Compounds made of carbon and hydrogen atoms
• A 38% solution of sulphuric acid is used as only, are called hydrocarbons. The natural source of
an electrolyte. hydrocarbons is petroleum.
1. Saturated hydrocarbons: The hydro­carbons in
which carbon atoms are singly bonded are called
CARBON AND ITS COMPOUNDS saturated hydrocarbons. Saturated hydrocarbons
are also called alkanes or paraffins.
General formula of alkane–CnH2n + 2.
ALLOTROPY
2. Unsaturated hydrocarbons: The hydro­carbons
• The substances which have same chemical properties, in which carbon atoms are either doubly or triply
but different physical properties are called allotropes bonded are called unsaturated hydrocarbons.
and this property is called allotropy. Doubly bonded (carbon atoms) hydrocarbons
 are called alkenes. The general formula of • Vulcanization is a process of treating the natural
alkene is CnH2n. rubber with sulphur or some compound of sulphur
• Triply-bonded carbon: Hydrocarbons containing (SF6) under heat. Vulcanized rubber is used for
at lease one carbon–carbon triple bond between two manufacturing rubber bands, gloves, car tyres, etc.
carbon atoms are called alkynes. The general formula
of alkynes is CnH2n–2. NATURAL RUBBER
• It is an elastomer. It is a polymer of cis-isoprene.
AROMATIC HYDROCARBONS • It is heated with sulphur compounds at 373 K in the
• These are homocyclic compounds which contain presence of ZnO to improve their properties. This
at least one benzene ring in which carbon atoms process is called vulcanisation of rubber.
are linked to one another by alternate single • If vulcanised with 5% sulphur, it is used for
and double bonds. making tyres and if with 30% sulphur, it is used in
• Isomerism: Two or more compounds having same making battery cases.
molecular formula but different physical and chemical EXPLOSIVES
properties are called isomers and this phenomenon
• Some examples of explosives are trinitrotoluene (TNT),
is called isomerism.
nitroglycerin or trinitroglycerin, cyclotrimethylene-
• Polymerisation: The simple molecules which combine
trinitramine (RDX, also called cyclonite).
to form a macro molecule are called polymer. The
process by which the simple molecules (monomers) FIBRES
are converted into polymer is called polymerisation.
• These have strong intermolecular forces like
• Natural occurring polymers are protein, nucleic acid,
hydrogen bonding.
cellulose, starch, etc.
Rayon: Synthetic fibre obtained from cellulose is
known as Rayon.
PLASTICS
USES OF SOME IMPORTANT ORGANIC
These are cross-liked polymers. COMPOUNDS
• lac is a natural plastic (polymer).
i. Thermoplastics: These are the polymers which
• Methane (CH4) is used to manufacture printer ink,
can be easily softened repeatedly when heated
methyl alcohol and to obtain light and energy.
and hardened when cooled with little change in • Ethylene (C2H4) is used to prepare mustard gas (war
their properties. gas) and for ripening of fruits.
Examples: Polyethylene and teflon. • Glycol (C2H6O2) is used as an antifreeze mixture
ii. Thermosetting plastics: These are the polymers in car radiator and to prevent the freezing of fuel
which when condensed have a permanent change in spacecrafts.
on heating. On heating they undergo extensive • Acetylene (C2H2) is used to generate light, weld
cross linking in moulds and become hard and metals as oxy-acetylene flame and to prepare
infusible; therefore, they cannot be reused. synthetic rubber (neoprene).
Examples: Bakelite, glyptal. • Methyl Alcohol (CH3OH) is used as a fuel with
• Bakelite (Phenol-formaldehyde resins): It is a petrol, used to synthesise varnish and polish, used
condensation polymer and is obtained from phenol to denature ethanol.
and formaldehyde in presence of either an acid or a • Chloroform (CHCl3) is used as an anesthetic and
to preserve substances obtained from plants and
base catalyst. It is used in making combs, fountain
animals. It converts into poisonous phosgene (COCl2),
pens, photographs, records, electrical goods, etc.
when exposed to sunlight. So, it is kept in dark bottles.
• Rubber: It is a polymer which is capable of returning
• Glycerin (C 3H 8O 3) is used as a preservative for
to its original length, shape or size after being
fruits and juices, in leather industry and in
stretched or deformed. The rubber obtained from
coagulation of rubber.
natural sources is called natural rubber, and polymer
• Acetic acid (CH3COOH) is used in vinegar, medicines,
prepared in laboratory, which is similar to natural
and as a solvent.
rubber, is known as synthesised rubber.
• Oxalic acid (C2H2O4) is used in printing of clothes, in
iii. Thiokol: Thiokol is made by polymeri­sation of
photography and in the synthesis of coal tar.
ethylene chloride and sodium polysulphide. • Glucose (C6H12O6) is used for the synthesis of alcohol
Thiokol is chemically resistant polymer. It is used in and as a preservative for fruit juice.
the manufacture of houses and tank linings, engine • Benzene (C6H6) is used as a solvent for oil fat and in
gaskets and rocket fuel. drycleaning. Sodium benzoate is a food preservative.
• Toluene (C6H5CH3) is used to synthesise explosive • Coal gas: It is a mixture of H2, CH4, CO and gases
TNT, for drycleaning and for the synthesis of like N2, C2, H4, O2, etc.
medicines like chloramine. • Oil gas: It is a mixture of H2, CH4, C2H4, CO and other
• Phenol (C6H5OH) is used to synthesise explosive, gases like CO2.
2,4,6-trinitrophenol (picric acid) and bakelite. • Gobar gas: It contains CH4, CO and H2.
• Ethyl Alcohol (C2H5OH) is used for drinking, in • Natural gas: It is a mixture of gaseous hydrocarbons,
medicine to prepare tincture and as insecticide, and viz. methane 85%, ethane, propane, butane, etc.
as a fuel with petrol.
COAL
• It is believed to have been formed by the slow
FUELS carbonisation of vegetable matter buried underneath
the earth centuries ago, in limited supply of air under
• A substance that can supply energy either alone or high temperature and pressure prevailing there.
by reacting with another substance is known as fuel. • Bituminous is the most common variety of coal.
Heat produced by fuel is measured in Calories. An • On the basis of carbon % and calorific value there
ideal fuel should: are four types of coal.
i. Have high calorific value.
Nature % of carbon
ii. Be cheap and easily available.
iii. Be easily stored and transportable. Peat 50–60%
iv. Be regulated and controlled. Lignite 60–70%
v. Have low ignition temperature.
The quantity of fuel is expressed in the form of calorific Bituminous 75–80%
value. Anthracite 90–95%
CALORIFIC VALUE
CHARCOAL
• It is defined as the heat obtained when 1 g of a fuel is
burned in excess of oxygen and is expressed in kcal/g. • It can be wood charcoal, animal charcoal, and
• Hydrogen is the fuel of future. activated charcoal depending upon the source from
• Alcohol, when mixed with petrol, is called power which it is obtained.
alcohol. It is an alternative source of energy. LAMP BLACK OR CARBON BLACK
• For the combustion of substance, its ignition
temperature should be low. • It is the most pure amorphous form of carbon (contain
about 98–99% carbon).
FLAME • It is used for making printer ink, black paint,
• It is the hot part of fire and has three parts: varnishes and carbon papers.
1. Innermost region
PETROLEUM
ƒƒ It is black because of the presence of unburned
carbon particles. • It is a dark coloured oily liquid with offensive
ƒƒ It has the lowest temperature. odour. It is also called rock oil, mineral oil, crude
2. Middle region oil or black gold.
ƒƒ I t i s y e l l o w l u m i n o u s d u e t o p a r t i a l LIQUEFIED PETROLEUM GAS (LPG)
combustion of fuel.
• It is a mixture of n-butane, iso-butane
3. Outermost Region
and some propane.
ƒƒ It is blue (non-luminous) due to com­plete • A strong foul smelling substance called ethyl
combustion of fuel. mercaptan is added to LPG to detect the gas leakage.
ƒƒ It is the hottest part of flame.
SAFETY MATCHSTICK COMPRESSED NATURAL GAS (CNG)
• Safety matchstick contains a mixture of antimony • It consists mainly of methane (95%) which is a
trisulphide and potassium chlorate at its one end. Its relatively unreactive hydrocarbon and makes its
box side contains a mixture of powdered glass and nearly complete combustion possible.
red phosphorus. Gaseous fuels are considered to be
the best fuels. OCTANE NUMBER
FUEL-GASES • It is a measure of quality of petrol (gasoline).
• The higher the octane number, the better is the fuel.
• Producer gas: It is mixture of CO and H 2. It is
the cheapest gaseous fuel; however, its calorific ANTIKNOCK COMPOUNDS
value is not very high because it has a large
• These are used to reduce the knocking property, e.g.,
proportion of nitrogen.
tetraethyl lead (TEL).
CETANE NUMBER CORROSION
• It is a measure of quality of diesel. • It is the process of oxidative deterioration of a
metal surface by the action of environment to form
unwanted corrosion.
METALLURGY • Corrosion of iron is called rusting.
• It is prevented by the following methods:
ƒƒ By electroplating
• The process of extracting metal in pure form from its
ƒƒ By surface coating
ore is known as metallurgy.
ƒƒ By alloying
• Metals: These are the elements which are hard,
ƒƒ By galvanisation of iron
lustrous, ductile, malleable, sonorous and conductors
of heat and electricity in their solid as well as molten ALLOYS
state. These evolve hydrogen gas when react with • These are mixtures of two metals or a metal
water and acids. Mercury (metal) is liquid at room and a non-metal.
temperature. Ti is called strategic metal.
[Link]. Alloys Constituents
• Minerals: The compound of a metal found in nature
1. Brass Copper (80%) & Zinc (20%)
is called a mineral.
• Ores: Those minerals from which metal can be
2. Bronze Copper (90%) & Tin (1%)
economically and easily extracted are called ores.
• All ores are minerals but all minerals are not ores. 3. German Copper (60%), Zinc (20%) &
Silver Nickel (20%)
• Gangue (or matrix): The ore is generally associated
with earthy impurities like sand, rocks and limestone 4. Duralumin Aluminium, Copper, Magnesium
and Manganese
known as gangue or matrix.
• Flux: A substance added to ore to remove impurities 5. Alnico Aluminium, Nickel, Cobalt &
Iron
is called flux. There are two types of flux–(i) acidic
6. Magnalium Aluminium (95%) & Magnesium
flux, (ii) basic flux.
(5%)
• Slag: Combination of gangue with flux in ores forms
7. Babbitt Metal Tin, Antimony, Copper & Lead.
a fusible material which is called slag.
Used in ball bearings to reduce
• Concentration: The process of removal of gangue friction.
from the ore is known as concentration of ore. 8. Invar Iron & Nickel. Used in precision
• Calcination: It is the process of heating the instruments
concentrated ore in absence or in limited supply of 9. Bell metal Copper & tin
air, below its melting point.
10. Gun Metal Copper, Tin & Zinc
• Roasting: Roasting is a process in which ore is heated
11. Monel Metal Nickel (67%), Copper & Iron
usually in the presence of air, at temperatures below
its melting point. 12. Pewter Tin (80–90%), Copper & Lead
• Smelting: The reduction of oxide ore with carbon at 13. Solder Tin, Lead & Antimony
high temperature is known as smelting.
AQUA-REGIA
SOME COMMON ORES • It is a mixture of concentrated hydrochloric acid
• Aluminium: Bauxite (Al2O3,2H2O), Kryolite (Na3AlF6), (HCl) and concentrated nitric acid (HNO3) in the
Corrundum (Al2O3) ratio of 3:1. It is used to dissolve noble metals like
gold and platinum.
• I r o n : Magnetite (Fe 3 O 4 ), Haematite (Fe 2 O 3 ), • Amalgam: An alloy in which one of the component
Siderite (FeCO3) metals is mercury is called amalgam.
• Copper: Copper pyrite (CuFeS2), Copper glance (Cu2S)
• Zinc: Zinc blende (ZnS), Calamine (ZnCO3)
• Lead: Galena (PbS), Angelsite (PbCl2)
COMPOUNDS OF METALS AND NON-
• Mercury: Cinnabar (HgS), Caloment (Hg2Cl2). METALS AND THEIR USES
• M a g n e s i u m : M a g n e s i t e ( M g C O 3) , D o l o m i t e
(MgCO 3 . CaCO 3 ), Epsom salt (MgSO 4 . 7H 2 O), 1. Ferrous sulphate (FeSO4). 4H2O: In dye industry,
Kieserite (MgSO4 . H2O). and Mohr’s salt.
• P o t a s s i u m : K a r n a l i t e ( K C l M g C l 2. 6 H 2O ) , 2. Iodine (I2): (i) As antiseptic, (ii) In making tincture
Salt Petre (KNO3). of iodine.
 3. Bromine (Br 2): (i) In dye industry (ii) As a Yttrium Used in TVs to produce red colour
laboratory reagent.
Bismuth Mixed with iron to make it malleable
4. Chlorine (Cl2): In the formation of (i) Mustard gas
Sodium Street lamp
(ii) Bleaching.
5. Sulphuric acid (H2SO4): (i) As a reagent (ii) In Gadolinium CDs. Aluminium is sometimes used to
purification of petroleum (iii) In lead storage coat the disc
battery. Cesium Atomic clocks
6. Sulphur (S): Antiseptics, vulcanization of rubber, Tellurium Tint glass (one-way visibility used in
gun powder, medicine. cars)
7. Phosphorus (P): (i) Red Phosphorus refrigerant, Technetium Superconductor at–262 degree Celsius
in match industry, etc. (ii) White Phosphorus–Rat Paraformaldehyde Common disinfectant and contraceptives
killing Medicine.
Potassium Used in breath analyser for detecting
8. Carbon dioxide (CO 2 ): Soda water, Fire
Dichromate alcohol. Safe limit is 0.1%.
extinguisher.
9. Graphite: As electrodes.
10. Alum [K2SO4Al2 (SO4)3.H2O]: (i) Purification of
water (ii) Leather industry. IMPORTANT FACTS ABOUT SOME
11. Mercuric Chloride (HgCl2): Calomel, Insecticides
METALS
(Corrosive sublimate).
12. Mercuric oxide (HgO): Ointment, poison.
13. Zinc Sulphide (ZnS): White pigment. • Zinc Phosphide is used for killing rats.
14. Zinc Sulphate (White vitriol) (ZnSO4:7H2O): • Wood furnitures are coated with zinc chloride to
Lithopone, Eye ointment. prevent termites.
15. Zinc Chloride (ZnCl2): Textile industry. • Galvanised iron is coated with zinc.
16. Zinc oxide (ZnO): Ointment. • Rusting of iron is a chemical change which increases
17. Plaster of Paris [CaSO4)2. 2H2/CaSO4½H2O)]: the weight of iron.
Statue, Surgery. • In flash-bulb, magnesium wire is kept in atmosphere
18. Calcium sulphate (CaSO 4. 2H 2O): Cement
of nitrogen gas.
industry.
• Titanium is called strategic metal because it is
19. Calcium carbonate (CaCO3): Lime and toothpaste.
lighter than iron.
20. Cupric oxide (CuO): Blue and green glass,
purification of petroleum. • Gun powder contains 75% potassium nitrate, 10%
21. Cuprous Oxide (Cu2O): Red Glass, pesticides. sulphur and 15% charcoal.
22. Copper (Cu): Electrical wire. • Nichrome wire is used in electrical heaters (Ni, Cr, Fe).
23. Sodium nitrate (NaNO3): Fertilizer. • Zeolite is used to remove hardness of water.
24. Sodium Sulphate (Glauber’s salt) (Na2SO4.10H2O): • In cytochrome, iron (Fe) is present.
Medicine, cheap glass. • Selenium metal is used in photoelectric cell.
25. Sodium bicarbonate (Baking soda) (NaHCO3): • Gallium metal is liquid at room temperature.
Fire extinguisher, bakery, reagent. • Palladium metal is used in aeroplane.
26. Sodium Carbonate (Washing soda): (i) Glass • Radium is extracted from pitchblende.
industry, (ii) Paper industry, (iii) Removal of • World famous Eiffel Tower has steel and cement base.
permanent hardness of water, (iv) Washing. • Cadmium rod is used in nuclear reactor to slow down
27. Heavy Water (H2O): Nuclear reactor. the speed of neutron.
28. Liquid Hydrogen: Rocket fuel. • Co-60 is used in cancer treatment.
Elements/Compounds and Their Uses • Onion and garlic odour due to potassium.
• Silver and copper are the best conductors of electricity.
Xenon High-speed photographic tubes. Electric
valves and T.V. tubes
• Gold and silver are the most malleable metals.
• Mercury and iron produces more resistance in
Krypton Incandescent bulb. Airfield lights
comparison to the other during the flow of electricity.
because of characteristic red colour.
• Lithium is the lightest and the most reductant element.
Lithium Deoxidizer and to remove unwanted • In fireworks, crimson red colour is due to presence
gases during the manufacture of metals.
of strontium (Sr).
Beryllium X-ray (Transparent) window. Moderator in • Green colour is due to the presence of
nuclear reactions around the core.
Barium in fireworks.
Neon Neon lights. Cryogenics • Osmium is the heaviest metal and the platinum
Hopsalite Mixture of oxides of manganese, cobalt, is the hardest.
copper and silver-Antipollution • Silver chloride is used in photochromatic glass.
Ammonia Refrigerant, fertilisers • Silver iodide is used in artificial rain.
• Silver iodine is used as marker during election. AMMONIA
• Silver spoon is not used in egg food because it forms
black silver sulphide. • As refrigerant, in the manufacture of HNO3.
• To harden the gold, copper is mixed. Pure • In fertilizer like urea, ammonium sulphate, etc.
gold is 24 carat. • In the manufacture of Na2CO3 and NaHCO3.
• Iron Pyrites (FeS2) is known as fool’s gold. • In preparation of ammonium salt.
• Mercury is kept in iron pot because it does not form • In preparation of explosive.
amalgam with iron. • In preparation of artificial silk.
• In a tubelight, there is the vapour of mercury and argon. • Nitrogen fixation in leguminous plants.
• Tetraethyl Lead is used as an anti-knocking compound.
• Fuse wire is made up of lead and tin. PHOSPHOROUS
• An important constituent of animals and plants. It is
present in bones and DNA.
NON-METAL
HALOGENS
• Fluorine is used in the preparation of UF 6 and
• In Modern Periodic Table, there are 24 non-metals.
• Electronegative elements are non‑metals. SF 6 for energy production and as dielectric
• Non-metals are bad conductors of heat and electricity constant, respectively.
except graphite. Bi and Ge are semi-conductors. • By using HF, chlorofluorocarbon com­pound and
• Protium is the only one isotope in Periodic Table polytetrafluoroethylene can be syn­thesised.
having zero neutrons. • Chlorofluorocarbon is known as Freon and is used
• Deuterium oxide is known as heavy water and used as refrigerant and aerosol.
in nuclear reactor as moderator. • Non-stick utensils are made up of teflon.
• Liquid hydrogen is used as rocket fuel. • Chlorine is used to prepare PVC, insecticides
• Hydrogen is known as range element because it may
be kept in group I and group VII A. herbicides, etc.
• These may be solid, liquid or gas (bromine is the only • Bromine is used in ethylene bromide synthesis which
liquid non-metal). is mixed with leaded petrol.
• These are soft, non-lustrous, brittle, non-sonorous
and non-conductor of heat and electricity INERT GASES
excepting graphite. • They belong to 18th group of Periodic Table. For
• These form oxides with oxygen which are
example, He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe, Rn.
generally acidic.
• Except Rn, all inert gases are present in atmosphere.
HELIUM • Argon is used in Arc. welding and electric bulbs.
• It is noble gas. • Helium is light and non-inflammable so, used in
• It is used for filling balloons and other lighter aircraft. balloon, weather indicator, etc.
• Helium (He), when mixed with O2, is used by deep- • Neon is used in discharge tube glow light.
sea divers for breathing and for respiratory patients.
NEON COMMON FACTS
• It is used in neon signs.
ARGON
• It is used to generate inert atmosphere for welding SOME IMPORTANT EXPLOSIVES
and to fill incandescent light bulbs.
• Dynamite: It was discovered by Alfred Nobel in 1863.
XENON It is prepared by absorption of raw dust with nitro-
• It is called stranger gas. glycerin. In modern dynamite, Sodium Nitrate is used
in place of Nitro‑glycerin.
WATER (H2O)
• Tri Nitro Phenol (TNP): It is also known as picric acid.
• Hard water–Less froth with soap. • R.D.X. is highly explosive known as plasticiser in
• Soft water–More froth with soap. which aluminium powder is mixed to increase the
OXYGEN temperature and the speed of fire.
• Ozone (O3) is the allotrope of Oxygen. SOME IMPORTANT FACTS
NITROGEN • Age of fossils and archeological excavation is
• 78% by volume in atmosphere, liquid nitrogen is used determined by radioactive carbon (C14).
for [Link] is an important compound • Diamond has maximum refractive index and due to
of N2 which is prepared by Haber’s process. total internal reflection, it has lustre.
• Cream is a type of milk in which amount of fat is • It is dangerous to have charcoal fire burning in a
increased while amount of water is decreased. closed room because it produces carbon monoxide
• N2O (Nitrous oxide) is known as laughing gas. gas, which is suffocating.
• Red phosphorus is used in match industry. • ENO produces effervescence if dissolved in water due
• Urea contains 46% nitrogen. to evolution of CO2 gas.
• A candle blows off when covered because it does not
get oxygen which helps in burning. WATER
• Phosphorus catches fire if kept in air but is • It contains two elements: hydrogen and oxygen (H2O).
unreactive with water, so it is kept in water. • It has boiling point 100°C and freezing point 0°C. Its
• Urea was the first organic compound density is maximum at 4°C.
synthesised in laboratory. Soft Water
• Ferric chloride is used to stop bleeding. • Soft water easily lathers with soap.
• Sea weeds contain iodine. Hard Water
• During cooking maximum vitamin is lost. • It does not lather with soap.
• For the preparation of silver mirror, glucose is used.
Heavy Water
• Silver nitrate (AgNO3) is used to prepare the ink • It is deuterium oxide, D2O. (Molecular mass is 20).
used during noting.
• Silver iodide (AgI) is used for artificial rain. POLLUTANTS
• Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) is used as an oxidising
• These are the substance that contaminate the
agent, bleaching agent, as an insecticide, and for
environment and of two types.
washing old oil paintings.
1. Primary Pollutants: These persist in the
• For artificial respiration mixture of oxygen and helium environment in the form they are formed,
gas cylinder used. for example, sulphur dioxide (SO 2), nitrogen
• Sodium is kept in kerosene oil. dioxide (NO2), etc.
• The heaviest element is osmium (Os). 2. Secondary Pollutants: These are the products of
• The lightest element, least dense and most reductant reaction of primary pollutants, e.g., PAN, ozone
element is lithium (Li). (O3), aldehyde, etc.

GREENHOUSE EFFECT
AIR, WATER AND THEIR POLLUTION
• It is the heating of earth and its objects because of
the trapping of IR radiations by carbon dioxide (CO2),
methane (CH4), NO, ozone (O3), chlorofluorocarbons
AIR and water vapours.
• It is homogeneous mixture of different gases.
• It has the following composition — 78% nitrogen; 21% GLOBAL WARMING
oxygen, 0.03–0.05% carbon dioxide (CO2), argon etc. • It is the result of increased concentration of
Oxygen (O2) greenhouse gases.
• It was discovered by K. Scheele.
• It is non-combustible but helps in combustion. ACID RAIN (BY ROBERT AUGUST)
Ozone (O3) • It is due to oxides of nitrogen and sulphur.
• It is an allotrope of oxygen.
• It is used as insecticide, in purification of water to PARTICULATES
preserve food, to synthesis artificial silk and camphor
• These are minute solid particles and liquid droplets
and as a bleaching agent.
dispersed in air, e.g., dust, smoke, fumes, etc.
Nitrogen (N2)
• It was discovered by Rutherford. It is neutral and
lighter than air. SMOG
• It is filled in sealed packets and bulbs to create
inert atmosphere.
• Living beings die in an environment of nitrogen. • It is a consequence of particulate pollution and
Carbon Dioxide (CO2) is of two types.
• It is used by plants for photosynthesis. 1. Classical Smog
• It turns the lime water milky. • It is also called London type smog.
• It is used to extinguish fire and for artificial respiration • It is formed in cool humid climate when carbon soot
when mixed with oxygen (carbogen). particles combine with gaseous oxides of sulphur.
 2. Photochemical Smog are ammonium sulphate, calcium cyanamide,
• It is also called Los Angeles smog. sodium nitrate, ammonium nitrate, urea, and
• It occurs in warm, dry and sunny climate by the ammonium phosphate.
action of sunlight on unsaturated hydrocarbons and 2. Dyes: Coloured substances used for colouring
nitrogen oxide. textiles, foodstuffs, silk, wool, etc. are called dyes.
3. Cement: It is a complex material containing the
TROPOSPHERIC POLLUTION
silicates of calcium and aluminium. A paste of
• Presence of undesirable solid or gaseous sand, cement and water is called mortar.
particles in the air.
A mixture of stone chips (gravel), cement and
STRATOSPHERIC POLLUTION water is known as concrete. Concrete with steel
bars and wires is called reinforced concrete. It is
• Stratospheric pollution means depletion of ozone
used for constructing roads, bridges and pillars.
layer (ozone hole) by certain compounds like
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), oxides.
GLASS
WATER POLLUTION
• It is due to the presence of foreign substances like
sewage, algae, soluble salts, etc. in water. • It is an amorphous or transparent solid, also called
supercooled liquid.
SOIL POLLUTION • It contains mainly silica (SiO2).
• It is caused by pesticides like insecticides 1. Soda or soft glass is sodium calcium silicate used
(e.g., DDT, BHC, etc.) herbicides (e.g., sodium for making bottles, window panes, etc.
chlorate and sodium arsenate), fungicides (e.g.,
2. Potash glass or hard glass contains potassium. It
organomercury compounds).
• Barium sulphate is used in X-rays of abdomen is used for making chemical apparatus: beakers,
as barium meal. flasks, funnel, etc.
• Silver and copper are best conductors of electricity. 3. Crown glass contains potassium oxide, barium
Gold and silver are the most malleable metal. oxide, boric oxide, and silica. It is used for
• Zinc oxide (ZnO) is known as flower of zinc or Chinese optical apparatus.
white and is used as white paint. 4. Flint glass contains lead oxide and is used in
• Mercury is stored in iron pot. optical instruments like lenses, prisms.
• Radium is extracted from pitch blends.
5. Crook’s glass contains cesium oxide. It is used
• Artificial perfumes are prepared from ethyl acetate.
• Chlorine is used for the purification of water, for for spectacles as it absorbs UV rays.
synthesis of bleaching powder, etc. 6. Jena glass contains B2O3 and alumina. It is
used for making laboratory bottles, for keeping
acids and alkalies.
MAN-MADE SUBSTANCE 7. Milky glass is prepared by adding tin oxide,
calcium phosphate or cryolite to the melt glass.
1. Fertilisers: The substances added to the soil to 8. Glass laminates is made by fixing polymer
make up the deficiency of essential elements are sheets between layers of glass. It is used to make
known as fertilisers. These are either natural or window and screens of cars, trains and aircraft.
synthetic (chemical). Specially manufactured glass laminates are used
Among the chemical fertilisers, the two important as bulletproof material.
categories are: • It has the following composition: calcium oxide (CaO)
ƒƒ Phosphate fertilisers: The most abundant = 50–60%, silica (SiO2) = 20–25%, alumina (Al2O3) =
phosphate is rock phosphate [3Ca3 (PO4)2], which
5–10%; magnesium oxide (MgO) = 2–3%.
is mostly consumed by the fertiliser industry in
• It is manufactured from limestone and clay.
the man­ufacture of ‘superphosphate of lime’,
• P a i n t s : Chemical contains a pigment as a
‘triple superphosphate’ and ‘altrophs’–a combined
vehicle and a thinner.
phosphatic and nitrogenous fertiliser. • White pigment: Zinc oxide, white lead and titanium
ƒƒ Nitrogenous Fertilizers: Plants need nitrogen for dioxide. The pigment mixed with a vehicle, which is an
rapid growth and increase in their protein content. oil like linseed or soyabean oil a polymer. A thinner
For this reason, nitrogenous fertilizers are of some is a solvent such as turpentine oil or kerosene.
more importance. The chief nitrogenous fertilizers • Luminous paints: Glow when exposed to light.
 • Antacids are used as a remedy for acidity.
SOAPS • Pesticides are used to destroy the organisms
that harm the crop.
These are of the following types.
• These are sodium and potassium salts of 1. I n s e c t i c i d e s , e . g . , D D T , a l u m i n i u m
higher fatty acids. phosphate, gammexane.
2. Fungicide, e.g., Bordeaux mixture.
DETERGENTS
3. Herbicides, e.g., benzepam, benzadox.
• These are sodium or potassium salts of long chain 4. Rodenticides, e.g., aluminium phosphide.
alkyl or aryl sulphonates or sulphates. • Chloroform: A sweetish, colourless liquid. It is used
• These are also called soapless soaps. as a solvent and anaesthetic.
• Antibiotic: Medicinal compounds produced by • Saccharin: A white crystalline solid which is 550
moulds and bacteria, capable of destroying or times sweeter than sugar, but does not have any food
preventing the growth of bacteria in animal systems. value. It is used by diabetic patients
• Antibody: Kinds of substances formed in the blood, • DDT: Dichlorodiphenyltricholoro ethane is a white
tending to inhibit or destroy harmful bacteria, etc. powder used as an insecticide.
• Antidote: Medicine used against a poison. Propellants
• Antigen: Substance capable of stimulating Liquid propellants Liquid hydrogen, liquid ammonia,
formation of antibodies. hydrazine, nitromethane, methyl
• Antipyretics are used to reduce body tem­perature nitrate, hydrogen peroxide
during high fever, e.g., paracetamol, aspirin, Solid propellants Polybutadiene, acrylic acid,
phenacetin, analgin, and novalgin. nitroglycerine + nitrocellulose
• Tranquilizers are used to treat stress, mild, and Hybrid propellants N2O4 + Acrylic rubber
severe mental diseases.
• Antiseptic: Prevent the growth of micro­organisms or Dyes
kill them but are not harmful to living tissues, e.g., Nitro dyes Less important as the colours are
dettol and savlon. not fast
• Analgesics: Painkillers are called analgesics, e.g., Azo dyes Azo (-N=N-) group is
aspirin, paracetamol and morphine. chromophore
• Antimalarials are used to treat malaria,
Triphenylmethane dye Malachite green
e.g., chloroquin.
• Sulphadrugs: Alternatives of antibiotics, sulphanil- Direct dyes Mautius yellow, Naphthol yellow,
amide, sulphadiazine sulphagunamidine. Congo red, etc.
• Antacid: Substances which remove the excess acid Mordant dyes Alizarin
and raise the pH to appropriate level in scotch are Vat dyes Indigo
called antacids.