Local Area Network (LAN) The term LAN refers to a local network or a group of interconnected network

that are under the same administrative control. In the early days of networking, LANS are defined as
small networks that existed in a single physical location. While LANs can be a single network installed in
a home or small office, the definition of LAN has evolved to include interconnected local networks
consisting of many hundreds of hosts, installed in multiple buildings and locations. LANs are designed to:
Operate within a limited geographic area.

LAN or Local Area Network is a wired network spread over a single site like an
office, building or manufacturing unit. LAN is set up to when team members
need to share software and hardware resources with each other but not with the
outside world. Local Area Network
A Local Area Network (LAN) is a network that is confined to a relatively small area. It is
generally limited to a geographic area such as a writing lab, school, or building.

WAN
WAN or Wide Area Network is spread over a country or many countries. WAN
is typically a network of many LANs, MANs and WANs. Network is set up
using wired or wireless connections, depending on availability and reliability.
Wide Area Network
Wide Area Networks (WANs) connect networks in larger geographic areas,

PAN
PAN is the acronym for Personal Area Network. PAN is the interconnection
between devices within the range of a person’s private space, typically
within a range of 10 metres. If you have transferred images or songs from
your laptop to mobile or from mobile to your friend’s mobile using
Bluetooth, you have set up and used a personal area network.
Ring Topology
In ring topology each terminal is connected to exactly two nodes, giving
the network a circular shape. Data travels in only one pre-determined
direction. When a terminal has to send data, it transmits it to the neighboring
node which transmits it to the next one. Before further transmission data may
be amplified. In this way, data raverses the network and reaches the
destination node, which removes it from the network. If the data reaches the
sender, it removes the data and resends it later.

Personal Area Network

A Personal Area Network (PAN) is smallest network which is very personal to
a user. This may include Bluetooth enabled devices or infra-red enabled
devices. PAN has connectivity range up to 10 meters. PAN may include
wireless computer keyboard and mouse, Bluetooth enabled headphones,
wireless printers and TV remotes.

Local Area Network

A computer network spanned inside a building and operated under single
administrative system is generally termed as Local Area Network (LAN).
Usually,LAN covers an organization’ offices, schools, colleges or universities.
Number of systems connected in LAN may vary from as least as two to as
much as 16 million.

LAN provides a useful way of sharing the resources between end [Link]
resources such as printers, file servers, scanners, and internet are easily
sharable among computers.
Star Topology
In star topology, server is connected to each node individually. Server is
also called the central node. Any exchange of data between two nodes must
take place through the server. It is the most popular topology for
information and voice networks as central node can process data received
from source node before sending it to the destination node.

Bus Topology In case of Bus topology, all devices share single communication line or cable.
Bus topology may have problem while multiple hosts sending data at the same time. Therefore,
Bus topology either uses CSMA/CD technology or recognizes one host as Bus Master to solve
the issue. It is one of the simple forms of networking where a failure of a device does not affect
the other devices. But failure of the shared communication line can make all other devices stop
functioning.

Point-to-Point Point-to-point networks contains exactly two hosts such as computer, switches,
routers, or servers connected back to back using a single piece of cable. Often, the receiving end
of one host is connected to sending end of the other and vice versa.

Star Topology All hosts in Star topology are connected to a central device, known as hub
device, using a point-to-point connection. That is, there exists a point to point connection
between hosts and hub. The hub device can be any of the following:

Ring Topology In ring topology, each host machine connects to exactly two other machines,
creating a circular network structure. When one host tries to communicate or send message to a
host which is not adjacent to it, the data travels through all intermediate hosts. To connect one
more host in the existing structure, the administrator may need only one more extra cable.
Failure of any host results in failure of the whole ring. Thus, every connection in the ring is a
point of failure. There are methods which employ one more backup ring.
Mesh Topology In this type of topology, a host is connected to one or multiple hosts. This
topology has hosts in point-to-point connection with every other host or may also have hosts
which are in point-to-point connection with few hosts only. Hosts in Mesh topology also work
as relay for other hosts which do not have direct point-to-point links. Mesh technology comes
into two types:

Q3 Devices that operate at the physical layer include repeaters, hubs, network interface
cards (NICs), cables and connectors. Repeaters are used to regenerate electrical signals that
have attenuated (i.e., weakened) as a result of distance

Physical Layer - OSI Reference

Model
Physical layer is the lowest layer of the OSI reference model. It is responsible for sending
bits from one computer to another. This layer is not concerned with the meaning of the bits
and deals with the setup of physical connection to the network and with transmission and
reception of signals.

Functions of Physical Layer

Following are the various functions performed by the Physical layer of the OSI model.

1. Representation of Bits: Data in this layer consists of stream of bits. The bits must be
encoded into signals for transmission. It defines the type of encoding i.e. how 0's and 1's
are changed to signal.
2. Data Rate: This layer defines the rate of transmission which is the number of bits per
second.
3. Synchronization: It deals with the synchronization of the transmitter and receiver. The
sender and receiver are synchronized at bit level.
4. Interface: The physical layer defines the transmission interface between devices and
transmission medium.
5. Line Configuration: This layer connects devices with the medium: Point to Point
configuration and Multipoint configuration.
6. Topologies: Devices must be connected using the following topologies: Mesh, Star,
Ring and Bus.
7. Transmission Modes: Physical Layer defines the direction of transmission between
two devices: Simplex, Half Duplex, Full Duplex.
8. Deals with baseband and broadband transmission.

Data Link Layer - OSI Model

Data link layer performs the most reliable node to node delivery of data. It forms frames
from the packets that are received from network layer and gives it to physical layer. It also
synchronizes the information which is to be transmitted over the data. Error controlling is
easily done. The encoded data are then passed to physical.
Error detection bits are used by the data link layer. It also corrects the errors. Outgoing
messages are assembled into frames. Then the system waits for the acknowledgements to
be received after the transmission. It is reliable to send message.
The main task of the data link layer is to transform a raw transmission facility into a line
that appears free of undetected transmission errors to the network layer. It accomplishes
this task by having the sender break up the input data into data frames(typically a few
hundred or few thousand bytes) and transmit the frames sequentially. If the service is
reliable, the receiver confirms correct receipt of each frame by send back
an acknowledgement frame.

Functions of Data Link Layer

1. Framing: Frames are the streams of bits received from the network layer into
manageable data units. This division of stream of bits is done by Data Link Layer.
2. Physical Addressing: The Data Link layer adds a header to the frame in order to
define physical address of the sender or receiver of the frame, if the frames are to be
distributed to different systems on the network.
3. Flow Control: A flow control mechanism to avoid a fast transmitter from running a slow
receiver by buffering the extra bit is provided by flow control. This prevents traffic jam at
the receiver side.
4. Error Control: Error control is achieved by adding a trailer at the end of the frame.
Duplication of frames are also prevented by using this mechanism. Data Link Layers
adds mechanism to prevent duplication of frames.
5. Access Control: Protocols of this layer determine which of the devices has control over
the link at any given time, when two or more devices are connected to the same link.

Network Layer - OSI Model

The network Layer controls the operation of the subnet. The main aim of this layer is to
deliver packets from source to destination across multiple links (networks). If two computers
(system) are connected on the same link, then there is no need for a network layer. It routes
the signal through different channels to the other end and acts as a network controller.
It also divides the outgoing messages into packets and to assemble incoming packets into
messages for higher levels.
In broadcast networks, the routing problem is simple, so the network layer is often thin or
even non-existent.

Functions of Network Layer

1. It translates logical network address into physical address. Concerned with circuit,
message or packet switching.
2. Routers and gateways operate in the network layer. Mechanism is provided by Network
Layer for routing the packets to final destination.
3. Connection services are provided including network layer flow control, network layer
error control and packet sequence control.
4. Breaks larger packets into small packets.
OSI(Open System Interconnection) TCP/IP(Transmission Control Protocol / Internet
Protocol)

1. OSI is a generic, protocol independent 1. TCP/IP model is based on standard protocols

standard, acting as a communication around which the Internet has developed. It is a
gateway between the network and end communication protocol, which allows connection of
user. hosts over a network.

2. In OSI model the transport layer 2. In TCP/IP model the transport layer does not
guarantees the delivery of packets. guarantees delivery of packets. Still the TCP/IP
model is more reliable.

3. Follows vertical approach. 3. Follows horizontal approach.

4. OSI model has a separate Presentation 4. TCP/IP does not have a separate Presentation
layer and Session layer. layer or Session layer.

5. Transport Layer is Connection 5. Transport Layer is both Connection Oriented and

Oriented. Connection less.

6. Network Layer is both Connection 6. Network Layer is Connection less.

Oriented and Connection less.

7. OSI is a reference model around which 7. TCP/IP model is, in a way implementation of the
the networks are built. Generally it is used OSI model.
as a guidance tool.

8. Network layer of OSI model provides 8. The Network layer in TCP/IP model provides
both connection oriented and connectionless service.
connectionless service.

9. OSI model has a problem of fitting the 9. TCP/IP model does not fit any protocol
protocols into the model.
 10. Protocols are hidden in OSI model 10. In TCP/IP replacing protocol is not easy.
and are easily replaced as the technology
changes.

11. OSI model defines services, interfaces 11. In TCP/IP, services, interfaces and protocols are
and protocols very clearly and makes not clearly separated. It is also protocol dependent.
clear distinction between them. It is
protocol independent.

12. It has 7 layers 12. It has 4 layers

Q8 The Open System Interconnection (OSI) reference model describes how

information from a software application in one computer moves through a network
medium to a software application in another computer. The OSI reference model is a
conceptual model composed of seven layers, each specifying particular network
functions. The model was developed by the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO) in 1984, and it is now considered the primary architectural
model for intercomputer communications. The OSI model divides the tasks involved
with moving information between networked computers into seven smaller, more
manageable task groups. A task or group of tasks is then assigned to each of the
seven OSI layers. Each layer is reasonably self-contained so that the tasks assigned to
each layer can be implemented independently. This enables the solutions offered by
one layer to be updated without adversely affecting the other layers. The following
list details the seven layers of the Open System Interconnection (OSI) reference
model:
The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model is a reference tool for understanding data
communications between any two networked systems. It divides the communications processes
into seven layers. Eachlayer both performs specific functions to support thelayers above it
and offers services to the layers below it.

Q5 The most popular guided media are:

With guided transmission media, the waves areguided along a physical path;
examples of guided media include phone lines, twisted pair cables, coaxial cables, and
optical fibers.
Guided Media:
Guided media, which are those that provide a conduit from one device to another,
include twisted pair cable, coaxial cable, and fiber-optic cable. A signal traveling along
any of these media is directed and contained by the physical limits of the medium.
Twisted-pair and coaxial cable use metallic (copper) conductors that accept and
transport signals in the form of electric current. Optical fiber is a cable that accepts and
transports signals in the form of light.

1. Twisted pair cable

2. Coaxial cable
3. Power lines
4. Fiber optics

Twisted Pair Cable

This cable is the most commonly used and is cheaper than others. It is lightweight, cheap,
can be installed easily, and they support many different types of network. Some important
points :
Twisted Pair:
 Although the bandwidth characteristics of magnetic tape are excellent, the delay
characteristics are poor.
 A twisted pair consists of two conductors (normally copper), each with its own
plastic insulation, twisted together, as shown in fig. below
 One of the wires is used to carry signals to the receiver, and the other is used
only as a ground reference. The receiver uses the difference between the two.
 In addition to the signal sent by the sender on one of the wires, interference
(noise)and crosstalk may affect both wires and create unwanted signals.

Twisted Pair Copper:

 It is the most widely deployed media type across the world, as the last mile
telephone link connecting every home with the local telephone exchange is made
of twisted pair copper. These telephone lines are reused as last mile DSL access
links to access the internet from home.
 They are also used in Ethernet LAN cables within homes and offices.
 They support low to High Data Rates (in order of Giga bits)
 However, they are effective only upto a maximum distance of a few
kilometres/miles, as the signal strength is lost significantly beyond this distance.
 They come in two variants, namely UTP (unshielded twisted pair) and STP (shielded twisted
pair). Within each variant, there are multiple sub-variants, based on the thickness of the
material (like UTP-3, UTP-5, UTP-7 etc.)
  E.g. DSL, 10/100/1000Mbps Ethernet cables

Co-axial Cables:
 Coaxial cable (or coax) carries signals of higher frequency ranges than those in
twisted pair cable, in part because the two media are constructed quite
differently.
 Instead of having two wires, coax has a central core conductor of solid or
stranded wire (usually copper) enclosed in an insulating sheath, which is, in turn,
encased in an outer conductor of metal foil, braid, or a combination of the two.
The outer metallic wrapping serves both as shield against noise and as second
conductor which completes the circuit. This outer conductor is also enclosed in
an insulating sheath, and the whole cable is protected by a plastic cover.

Coaxial Cable
Coaxial is called by this name because it contains two conductors that are parallel to each
other. Copper is used in this as centre conductor which can be a solid wire or a standard
one. It is surrounded by PVC installation, a sheath which is encased in an outer conductor
of metal foil, barid or both.

Copper Co-axial Cables

 Co-axial copper cables have an inner copper conductor and an outer copper
shield, separated by a di-electric insulating material, to prevent signal losses.
 It is primarily used in cable TV networks and as trunk lines between
telecommunication equipments.
 It serves as an internet access line from the home.
 It supports medium to High Data Rates
 It has much better immunity to noise and hence signal strength is retained for
longer distances than in copper twisted pair media.

Fiber Optic Cable

A fibre-optic cable is made of glass or plastic and transmits signals in the form of light.
For better understanding we first need to explore several aspects of the nature of light.
Light travels in a straight line as long as it is mobbing through a single uniform substance. If
ray of light travelling through one substance suddenly enters another substance (of a
different density), the ray changes direction.
Fiber Optic Cable:
A fiber-optic cable is made of glass or plastic and transmits signals in the form of light.
Optical fibers use reflection to guide light through a channel. A glass or plastic core is
surrounded by a cladding of less dense glass or plastic. The difference in density of the
two materials must be such that a beam of light moving through the core is reflected off
the cladding instead of being refracted into it.
Fiber Optic Cables
 Here, information is transmitted by propogation of optical signals (light) through
fiber optic cables and not through electrical/electromagnetic signals. Due to this,
fiber optics communication supports longer distances as there is no electrical
interference.
 As the name indicates, fiber optic cables are made of very thin strands of glass
(silica).
 As they support very high data rates, fiber optic lines are used as WAN backbone
and trunk lines between data exchange equipments.
 They are also used for accessing internet from home through FTTH (Fiber-To-The-
Home) lines.
 Additionally, they are used even for LAN environment with different LAN technologies like
Fast Ethernet, Gigabit Ethernet etc. using optical links at the physical layer.


OC-48, OC-192, FTTC, HFC are examples of Fiber Optical links.

Media Access Control: Because Ethernet is an imparted media and all gadgets can transmit
whenever, media access is controlled by a system called Carrier Sense Multiple Access with
Collision Detection (CSMA/CD) when working down the middle duplex mode.

Media Access Control: Because Ethernet is a shared media and all devices can transmit at
any time, media access is controlled by a method called Carrier Sense Multiple Access with
Collision Detection (CSMA/CD) when operating in half-duplex mode.

1. Q3 Devices that operate at the physical layer include repeaters, hubs, network
interface cards (NICs), cables and connectors. Repeaters are used to regenerate
electrical signals that have attenuated (i.e., weakened) as a result of distance.
Physical layer or below : Hubs, Repeaters, Cables, Fibers, Wireless..
2. Data-link layer: Bridges, Modems, Network cards, 2-layer switches.
3. Network layer: Routers, Brouters, 3-layer switches.
4. Hubs, Switches, And Routers

Two types of Data Link layer devices are commonly used on

networks: bridges andswitches. A bridge is an intelligent repeater that is aware of the
MAC addresses of the nodes on either side of the bridge and can
forward packets accordingly. At the Data Link layer, either a bridge or a Layer 2 switch can be
installed to segment a LAN. Hubs and repeaters at the Physical layer only serve to extend a network.
With segmentation, switches and bridges create a separate collision domain for each connected node,
which effectively reduces the number of collisions that occur on that network.
5. The words hub, switch and router are becoming common place terms in the
computer industry and in advertising. But what do they mean? What are they used
for? And how can I tell the difference?
6. In order for computers from different manufacturers to communicate with each other
a reference model was developed called the OSI seven layer network model. The
seven layers of the OSI model are:
 7. 7) Application
8. 6) Presentation
9. 5) Session
10. 4) Transport
11. 3) Network
12. 2) Data Link
13. 1) Physical
14. The Application layer, layer 7, is the closest to the user. Hubs, switches, and routers
operate at the lowest three layers of the OSI network model: the physical layer, data
link layer and network layer.
15. Hubs work at the first or Physical layer. It links all the devices connected to it and
forms a single network. Each device that directly connects to the hub uses a port on
the hub. When one device sends out a message to another device, the hub does not
decide where the message goes. It just repeats the message to all the ports. Each
device needs to decide whether this message is for itself or for others. One problem
with hubs is that they share bandwidth among everyone. A telephone party line is
like a hub. Each person decides by the ring if it is their phone call or someone else’s
call, BUT, everyone can listen in on the call.
16. Switches operate at the Data Link or second layer. Switches are “intelligent” hubs.
Switches can remember which ports are connected to which devices. When a switch
receives a packet (data), it resends that packet directly to the correct port. For
example, host A sends out a message through port A. The switch records into its
switch table that host A is on port A. When host B decides to send a packet to host A,
the switch first checks its switch table. If port A is registered in the switch table, it will
resend the packet directly to port A instead of sending it to all the ports. This also
means that switching gives dedicated bandwidth. A private phone call is like a switch.
The phone number that is entered is looked up in the table and the correct telephone
rings at the other end.
17. Routers are on the third layer, the Network layer. They are used to connect networks
together. The Internet consists of many interconnected routers. Using a network
protocol, like TCP/IP, a router can intelligently move data from one network to
another. For example, when a user sends a request for a server, the router in the
local network will check its routing table and decide where to resend the data. So, a
router needs to have a better understanding of the whole network structure than
does a switch. A long distance phone call uses a router like device. The initial one
plus area code tells the system that the call is not local but needs to be routed to a
distant phone network. The “phone router” then connects the call to the correct
distant phone network.

Q7 What is a Protocol? A protocol is a set of rules that governs the communications between
computers on a network.

HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol) provides a network protocol standard that web browsers
and servers use to communicate. It's easy to recognize this when visiting a website because it's
written right in the URL (e.g. [Link]

FTP is an acronym that stands for File Transfer Protocol. An FTP client is a program
that allows you to easily move files from one computer to another.
In the case of creating a Web site, this means that if you create the pages for your site
on your computer, either using a text editor or some other Web page editor, then you
will need to move it to the server where your site will be hosted. FTP is the main way to
do this.

SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)

SMTP is a standard electronic-mail protocol that handles the sending of mail

from one SMTP to another SMTP server. To accomplish the transport, the
SMTP server has its own MX (mail exchanger) record in the DNS database
that corresponds to the domain for which it is configured to receive mail.

Q6 When a DHCP server is configured, which two IP addresses should never be assignable to hosts?
(Choose two)
A. network or subnetwork IP address
B. broadcast address on the network

Network or subnetwork IP address (for example [Link]/8 or [Link]/16) and broadcast address (for
example [Link]/24) should never be assignable to hosts. When try to assign these addresses to
hosts, you will receive an error message saying that they can’t be assignable.