Rotational Motion of a Rigid Body

1. Angular Displacement (θ)

• Definition: The angle through which a point or line has been rotated in
a specified sense about a specified axis. Measured in radians (rad).
• Formula: ∆θ = θf − θi
• Origin: Analogous to linear displacement (∆x = xf − xi ).

Derivation
Angular displacement is defined as the change in angular position. For a point
on a rotating object, the angle θ is measured relative to a reference axis. The
difference between the final angle θf and initial angle θi gives the net rotation:

∆θ = θf − θi

This is a direct measurement, analogous to linear displacement ∆x = xf − xi ,

requiring no further derivation.

Applications
- Astronomy: Measuring the angular displacement of a planet or star across
the sky to track its motion. - Engineering: Calculating the rotation of a gear
in a mechanical system to ensure proper timing.

θf
∆θ
θi∆θ = θf − θi

Axis

Figure 1: Angular displacement as the angle between initial and final positions.

2. Angular Velocity (ω)

• Definition: The rate of change of angular displacement with respect to
time. Unit: radians per second (rad/s).
• Formula:

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 ∆θ
– Average: ωavg = ∆t
∆θ dθ
– Instantaneous: ω = lim∆t→0 ∆t = dt

• Origin: Similar to linear velocity (v = dx

dt ).

Derivation
Angular velocity is the time derivative of angular displacement. For a small
time interval ∆t, the average angular velocity is:
∆θ θf − θi
ωavg = =
∆t tf − ti
In the limit as ∆t → 0, the instantaneous angular velocity is:
∆θ dθ
ω = lim =
∆t→0 ∆t dt
dx
This mirrors the definition of linear velocity v = dt .

Applications
- Machinery: Determining the angular velocity of a turbine to calculate power
output (P = τ ω). - Sports: Analyzing the spin rate of a figure skater to
optimize rotation speed.

θ(t + ∆t)
∆θ ωθ(t)
dθ
ω= dt

Figure 2: Angular velocity as the rate of angular displacement.

3. Angular Acceleration (α)

• Definition: The rate of change of angular velocity with respect to time.
Unit: radians per second squared (rad/s2 ).
• Formula:
∆ω
– Average: αavg = ∆t
∆ω dω d2 θ
– Instantaneous: α = lim∆t→0 ∆t = dt = dt2

• Origin: Analogous to linear acceleration (a = dv

dt ).

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Derivation
dθ
Angular acceleration is the time derivative of angular velocity. Given ω = dt ,
the average angular acceleration is:
∆ω ωf − ωi
αavg = =
∆t tf − ti

In the limit as ∆t → 0:
d2 θ
 
∆ω dω d dθ
α = lim = = =
∆t→0 ∆t dt dt dt dt2
d2 x
This is analogous to linear acceleration a = dt2 .

Applications
- Vehicles: Calculating the angular acceleration of a car’s wheels during brak-
ing to design anti-lock braking systems. - Robotics: Controlling the angular
acceleration of a robotic arm for precise movements.

ωi ωf α α= dω
dt

Figure 3: Angular acceleration as the rate of change of angular velocity.

4. Rotational Kinematics Equations (constant α)

• ωf = ωi + αt
• ∆θ = ωi t + 21 αt2
• ωf2 = ωi2 + 2α∆θ

• ∆θ = 12 (ωi + ωf )t
• Origin: Derived by integrating the definitions of angular velocity and
acceleration with respect to time, assuming α is constant.

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Derivation
Assuming constant α, we integrate the definitions: 1. **ωf = ωi + αt**: Since
α = dω
dt , integrate both sides:
Z ωf Z t
dω = α dt
ωi 0

ωf − ωi = αt =⇒ ωf = ωi + αt
1 2 dθ
2. **∆θ = ωi t + 2 αt **: Since ω = dt and ω = ωi + αt, integrate:

dθ
= ωi + αt =⇒ dθ = (ωi + αt)dt
dt
Z θf Z t
dθ = (ωi + αt)dt
θi 0
1
∆θ = ωi t + αt2
2
dω dω dθ
3. **ωf2 = ωi2 + 2α∆θ**: Use the chain rule, α = dt = dθ · dt = ω dω
dθ . Thus:

αdθ = ωdω

Integrate from initial to final states:

Z ∆θ Z ωf
αdθ = ωdω
0 ωi

1 2 1 2
α∆θ = ω − ω =⇒ ωf2 = ωi2 + 2α∆θ
2 f 2 i
ωi +ωf
4. **∆θ = 21 (ωi + ωf )t**: The average angular velocity is ωavg = 2 . Since
∆θ = ωavg t:
1
∆θ = (ωi + ωf )t
2

Applications
- Flywheels: Designing energy storage systems by calculating rotation angles
and speeds. - Amusement Rides: Ensuring safe angular velocities for Ferris
wheels using kinematics equations.

5. Torque (τ )
• Definition: A twisting force that tends to cause rotation. Unit: Newton-
meters (Nm).

• Formula: τ = rF sin ϕ = rF⊥ , or in vector form ⃗τ = ⃗r × F⃗ .

• Origin: Rotational equivalent of force.

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 θ ω α

∆θ = ωi t + 21 αt2 ωf = ωi + αt
α = constant

t t t

Figure 4: Kinematics: θ, ω, and α vs. time for constant α.

Derivation
Torque is the rotational effect of a force. For a force F⃗ applied at a distance ⃗r
from the pivot, only the perpendicular component F⊥ = F sin ϕ causes rotation.
The torque magnitude is:
τ = rF sin ϕ
In vector form, torque is the cross product:

⃗τ = ⃗r × F⃗

The cross product’s magnitude is |⃗r × F⃗ | = rF sin ϕ, confirming the scalar form.

Applications
- Mechanics: Calculating torque on a wrench to tighten a bolt. - Engines:
Determining the torque output of a car engine to optimize performance.

F⃗

τ = rF sin ϕ
ϕ

Pivot r
Rotation

Figure 5: Torque from a force applied at an angle.

6. Moment of Inertia (I)

• Definition: A measure of an object’s resistance to changes in its rotation.
Unit: kilogram-meters squared (kg m2 ).

• Formula:
mi ri2
P
– Discrete particles: I = i

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 r2 dm
R
– Continuous body: I =
• Origin: From Newton’s second law applied to rotating particles.

Derivation
Consider a rigid body as a collection of particles. For a particle of mass mi
at distance ri from the axis, its angular acceleration α relates to torque via
Newton’s second law in linear form. The tangential force is Fi = mi ai , where
ai = ri α. The torque is:

τi = ri Fi = ri (mi ri α) = mi ri2 α

Summing over all particles, the total torque is:

X X X 
τnet = τi = mi ri2 α = mi ri2 α

mi ri2 . For a continuous body, replace the sum with an integral:

P
Define I =
Z
I = r2 dm

Thus, τnet = Iα.

Applications
- Aerospace: Calculating the moment of inertia of a satellite to control its
orientation. - Sports Equipment: Designing a baseball bat with optimal moment
of inertia for swing speed.

m2
mi ri2
P
m1 I=
r2
r1
Axis

Figure 6: Moment of inertia for masses at distances from the axis.

7. Newton’s Second Law for Rotation

• Formula: τnet = Iα
• Origin: Rotational analog of Fnet = ma.

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Derivation
From the moment of inertia derivation, the net torque on a rigid body is:
X
τnet = mi ri2 α

mi ri2 , we have:
P
Since I =
τnet = Iα
This is the rotational form of Newton’s second law, Fnet = ma, where torque re-
places force, moment of inertia replaces mass, and angular acceleration replaces
linear acceleration.

Applications
- Pulleys: Analyzing the rotation of a pulley in a mechanical system to lift
loads. - Wind Turbines: Calculating torque requirements to start blade rota-
tion.

F⃗1

α τnet = Iα

F⃗2

Figure 7: Net torque causing angular acceleration.

8. Rotational Kinetic Energy (KR )

• Formula: KR = 12 Iω 2
• Origin: Sum of the kinetic energies of the mass elements of the rotating
body.

Derivation
For a particle of mass mi at radius ri , moving in a circular path with angular
velocity ω, its tangential velocity is vi = ri ω. Its kinetic energy is:
1 1 1
Ki = mi vi2 = mi (ri ω)2 = mi ri2 ω 2
2 2 2

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Summing over all particles:
X X1 1 X  1
KR = Ki = mi ri2 ω 2 = mi ri2 ω 2 = Iω 2
2 2 2
R 2
For a continuous body, I = r dm, yielding the same form.

Applications
- Energy Storage: Using flywheels to store rotational kinetic energy in vehicles.
- Gymnastics: Analyzing a diver’s rotational kinetic energy to optimize flips.

mi
vi = ri ω KR = 12 Iω 2

ri

Figure 8: Rotational kinetic energy from a mass element.

9. Angular Momentum (L)

• Formula:
– Rigid body: L = Iω
⃗ = ⃗r × p⃗
– Point particle: L
• Origin: Rotational analog of linear momentum.

Derivation
For a particle, linear momentum is p⃗ = m⃗v . The angular momentum about an
axis is:
⃗ = ⃗r × p⃗ = ⃗r × m⃗v
L
For a rigid body, each particle at radius ri has velocity vi = ri ω. The angular
momentum of a particle is:
Li = ri pi sin ϕ = ri (mi ri ω) = mi ri2 ω
Summing over all particles:
X X 
L= mi ri2 ω = mi ri2 ω = Iω

For a continuous body, I = r2 dm.

R

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Applications
- Spacecraft: Adjusting satellite orientation using reaction wheels via angular
momentum. - Figure Skating: Increasing spin speed by reducing moment of
inertia.

⃗
L ⃗ = ⃗r × p
L ⃗

Particle
p⃗
ω
⃗r
Axis

L = Iω

Figure 9: Angular momentum for a rigid body and a particle.

10. Conservation of Angular Momentum

• Statement: If τnet = 0, then L
⃗i = L
⃗f.

• Formula: Ii ωi = If ωf (for a rigid body with changing I).

• Origin: Derived from τnet = dL
dt .

Derivation
Angular momentum is defined as L = Iω. The rate of change of angular mo-
mentum is:
dL d dω dI
= (Iω) = I +ω
dt dt dt dt
dω
Since dt = α, and τnet = Iα, we have:

dI dL
τnet = Iα + ω =
dt dt
If τnet = 0:
dL
= 0 =⇒ L = constant =⇒ Li = Lf
dt
For a rigid body, L = Iω, so:
Ii ωi = If ωf

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Applications
- Astrophysics: Explaining the rapid rotation of neutron stars due to conserva-
tion of angular momentum. - Ice Skating: Demonstrating how pulling in arms
increases spin speed.

ωi
ωf

Ii ωi If ω f

Ii ωi = If ωf

Figure 10: Conservation of angular momentum: smaller radius increases ω.

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