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• an instruction in a program that places a
value into a speci�ed variable
• programming statements are executed
consequently, as they appear in the program
• control structure in which there is a test to
• �ltering out and concentrating on the decide if certain instructions are executed
relevant information in a problem; allowing a • testing 2 possible outcomes
programmer to deal with complexity • testing more than 2 outcomes
• breaking down problems into sub- • control structure in which a group
problems in order to understand a process more clearly; of statements is executed repeatedly
program modules, procedures and functions all help the • count-controlled; executed a set no. of
programmer to break down large problems times
• a solution to a problem expressed as a • pre-conditional; executed based on
sequence of steps condition at start of statements
• post-conditional; executed based on
condition at end of statements
As for selecting what loop to use, it is best to use FOR loops
• name given to a variable in order to call it when you know the number of iterations required, and a
• An identi�er table depicts information about the WHILE or REPEAT loop if you do not know the number of
variable, e.g. iterations required.
• Iterate over an array: FOR Loop
• Reading a �le into a variable: WHILE Loop
• Asking for user input: WHILE/REPEAT Loop
• A loop that should execute n times: FOR Loop
•
• Must be unique
• Spaces must not be used • Process of developing a modular design by splitting a
• Must begin with a letter of the alphabet problem into smaller sub-tasks, which themselves are
• Consist only of a mixture of letters and digits and the repeatedly split into even smaller sub-tasks until each is
underscore character ‘_’ just one element of the �nal program.
• Must not be a ‘reserved’ word – e.g. Print, If, etc.
• This refers to a modular program design
• self-contained section of code, performing
a speci�c task; part of the main program
• performs a speci�c task, no value returned
to part of code where called
• performs a speci�c task, returns a value to
part of code where called
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< Less than
<= Less than/equal
• An object that stores data, information, settings or
> Greater than commands
>= Greater/equal
= Equal to
• Can be opened, saved, deleted & moved
<> Not equal to • Transferrable across network connections
• Uses 1 byte to store a character
• 7 bits available to store data and 8th bit is a check digit
• 27 = 128, therefore 128 di�erent values
• ASCII values can take many forms: numbers, letters
(capitals and lower case are separate), punctuation, non-
• Positive or negative number; no fractional part
printing commands (enter, escape, F1)
• Held in pure binary for processing and storage
• Some languages di�erentiate short/long integers (more
bytes used to store long integers)
• ASCII allows few number of characters; it is good for
English
• Number that contains a decimal point
• Unicode allows others, too: Chinese, Greek, Arabic, etc.
• Referred to as singles and doubles depending upon the
• Di�erent types of Unicode:
number of bytes used to store
• UTF-8: compatible with ASCII, variable-width encoding
can expand to 16, 24, 32, 40, 48
• UTF-16: 16-bit, variable-width encoding can expand
• A character is any letter, number, punctuation or space to 32 bits
• Takes up a single unit of storage (usually a byte). • UTF-32: 32-bit, �xed-width encoding, each character
exactly 32 bits
• Combination of alphanumeric characters enclosed in “ ”
• Each character is stored in one byte using ASCII code
• Each character is stored in two bytes using Unicode • declared using a single index,
• The maximum length of a string is limited by available can be represented as a list
memory.
• Incorrect to store dates or numbers as strings
• Phone no. must be stored as a string; otherwise, the
initial 0 is lost
• It can store one of only two values; “True” or “False.”
• Stored in 1 byte: True = 11111111, False = 00000000
• Dates are stored as a ‘serial’ number
• Equates to the number of seconds elapsed since 1st
January 1970 00:00:00 UTC, excluding leap seconds. • declared using two indices,
• Usually takes 8 bytes of storage can be represented as a table
• Displayed as dd/mm/yyyy or mm/dd/yyyy
• Data structure consisting of a collection of elements
• Identi�ed by at least one array index (or key)
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• A FOR loop is set to stop the sort
• Setting a variable ‘sorted’ to be ‘true’ at the beginning
• Another FOR loop is set up next in order to search
through the array
• An IF is used to see if the �rst number of the array is
greater than the second. If true:
• First number stored to variable
• Second number assigned as �rst number
• Stored variable assigned to second number
• Set ‘sorted’ to ‘false’ causing loop to start again
• The second FOR loop is count based thus will stop after a
speci�c number of times
• • Goes through bigger FOR loop ∴ ‘sorted’ remains ‘true’
• 1-D Array: array = [] • This exits the loop ∴ ending the program
• 2-D Array: array = [[], [], [], …]
•
• Declaring an array: names = []
• Adding to an array: [Link](‘ZNotes’)
• Length of array, i.e. number of elements:
len(names)
• Printing an element in a 1D array:
print(names[element position]) • A FOR loop goes through the array
• Printing element in a 2D array: print (a[row] • It compares item in question to those in list using an IF:
[column]) • If item matches with another then search is stopped
• Printing row in a 2D array: names[row] = [new • Also the location where it was found is returned
row] • If not found it exits the FOR loop
• Printing column: Use it for loop, add 1 to the row, and • Then returns fact that item in question is not in the list
keep the column the same.
• Files are needed to import contents (from a �le) saved in
secondary memory into the program, or to save the
output of a program (in a �le) into secondary memory, so
that it is available for future use
• Opening a �le: OPENFILE <filename> FOR READ/
WRITE/APPEND
• Reading a �le: READFILE <filename>, <variable>
• Writing a line of text to the �le: WRITEFILE
<filename>, <string>
• Closing a �le: CLOSEFILE <filename>
• Testing for end of the �le: EOF(filename)
• Opening a �le: variable = open(“filename”,
“mode”)
Where the mode can be:
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‘’’python identi�er = value‘’’ or ‘’’python expression‘’’ or
r Opens �le for reading only. Pointer placed at the beginning of the �le.
w
Opens a �le for writing only. Overwrites �le if �le exists or creates new �le if it ‘’’python “string”‘’’
doesn’t
Opens a �le for appending. Pointer at end of �le if it exists or creates a new �le if
a
not
• Reading a �le:
• Read all characters: [Link]() • “IF” Statement
• Read each line and store as list: • Pseudocode: IF…THEN…ELSE…ENDIF
[Link]() • Python: if (expression): (statements) else:
• Writing to a �le: (statements)
• Write a �xed a sequence of characters to �le: • “CASE” Statement
[Link](“Text”) • Pseudocode: CASE OF variable: … … …
• Write a list of string to �le: [Link](‘ OTHERWISE: … ENDCASE
‘.join(‘Z’, ‘Notes’)) • Python: if (expression): (statement) elif
(expression): statement) … else:
(statement)
FOR <identi�er> ← <val1> TO <val2> STEP <val3>
An is a collection of data with <statement(s)>
ENDFOR
associated operations. There are three types of ADTs: for x in range(value1, value2):
statement(s)
Post condition Loop
• an ordered collection of items where the addition REPEAT
Not possible in Python
of new items and removal of existing items always takes <statement(s)>
UNTIL <condition>
Use ‘’’python WHILE‘’’ and ‘’’python IF‘’’
place at the same end. Pre-condition Loop
WHILE <condition>
• a linear structure which follows the First In First <statement(s)>
while expression:
statement(s)
ENDWHILE
Out (FIFO) mechanism. Items are added at one end
(called the rear) and removed from the other end (called
the front)
• a linear collection of data elements whose
order is not given by physical placements in memory
(non-contiguous). Each element to the next.
• Uppercase or lowercase all characters:
(“string”).upper() (“string”).lower()
• Finding length of a string: len(“string”)
• Converting:
• String to Integer - int(“string”)
• Programming is a transferable skill
• Integer to String - str(integer)
• skills developed in one situation
which can be transferred to another situation. [Link](a, b)
Where a and b de�nes the range
•
• Pseudocode: ‘’’DECLARE : ‘’’
• Python: no need to declare however must write
above as a comment (‘’’python #...‘’’) • Lines of code can be re-used; don’t have to be repeated
• • Can be tested/improved independently of program
• Easy to share procedures/functions with other programs
‘’’python ← ‘’’ or ‘’’python ‘’’ • Create routines that can be called like built-in command
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subroutine that performs a speci�c task without
returning a value • de�ne problem, record program
speci�cations and recognize inputs, process, output & UI
• • develop logic plan, write algorithm in
e.g. pseudocode or �owchart and test solution
• translate algorithm into high level
• When a procedure has a parameter, the function can language with comments/remarks and produce user
either pass it by either reference or value interface with executable processes
• data copied into procedure so variable • test program using test data,
not changed outside procedure �nd and correct any errors and ensure results are
correct
PROCEDURE <identifier> (BYVALUE <param>: • review program code, revise
<datatype>) internal documentation and create end-user
<statement(s)> documentation
ENDPROCEDURE • provide education and support to
def identifier(param): end-user, correct any bugs and modify if user requests
statement(s)
• link to variable provided so variable
changed after going through procedure (not in Python) • a classical model, used to create a
system with a linear approach, from one stage to
PROCEDURE <identifier> (BYREF <param>: another
<datatype>) • a initial representation starts with a
<statement(s)> small subset, which becomes more complex over time
ENDPROCEDURE until the system is complete
• a
• prototyping model, with no (or less) speci�c planning put
into it. More emphasis on development and producing a
product-prototype.
subroutine that performs a speci�c task and
returns a value
Functions are best used to avoid having repeating blocks of • A software application that allows the creation of a
code in a program, as well as increasing the reusability of program e.g. Python
code in a large program. • Consists of a source code editor, build automation tools,
FUNCTION <identifier> (<parameter>: <data a debugger
type>) RETURNS <datatype>
<statement(s)>
ENDFUNCTION
def identifier(param): • Reserved words are used by it as command prompts
statement(s) • Listed in the end-user documentation of IDE
return expression • A series of �les consisting of preprogrammed-
subroutines may also be provided by the IDE
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• The IDE executes the code & initial error detection
carried out by compiler/interpreter doing the following:
• Syntax/Logic Error: before program is run, an error
message warns the user about this
• Runtime Error: run of the program ends in an error
• Single stepping: traces through each line of code and
steps into procedures. Allows you to view the e�ect of
each statement on variables • Implies that module is executed multiple
• Breakpoints: set within code; program stops temporarily times
to check that it is operating correctly up to that point
• Variable dumps (report window): at speci�c parts of
program, variable values shown for comparison
• used in structured programming to arrange
program modules, each module represented by a box
• Tree structure visualizes relationships between modules,
showing data transfer between modules using arrows.
• Example of a top-down design where a problem
(program) is broken into its components.
• Represents a programming module e.g. a
calculation
• Data being passed from module to module
that needs to be processed
• Check data sent to start or stop a process. E.g.
check if data sent in the correct format
• When source code does not obey rules of the language
• Compiler generates error messages
• Condition will be checked and depending on • Examples:
the result, di�erent modules will be executed • Misspell identi�er when calling it
• Missing punctuation – colon after if
• Incorrectly using a built-in function
• Argument being made does not match data type
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• Use test data for which results already calculated &
• Source code compiles to machine code but fails upon compare result from program with expected results
execution (red lines show up in Python) • Testing only considers input and output and the code is
• When the program keeps running and you have to kill it viewed as being in a ‘black box’
manually
• Examples:
• Division by 0
• Examine each line of code for correct logic and accuracy.
• In�nite loop – will not produce error message,
• May record value of variables after each line of code
program will just not stop until forced to
• Every possible condition must be tested
• Program works but gives incorrect output
• Stubs are computer programs that act as temporary
• Examples:
replacement for a called module and give the same
• Out By One – when ‘>’ is used instead of ‘>=’
output as the actual product or software.
• Misuse of logic operators
• Important when code is not completed however must be
tested so modules are replaced by stubs
• Corrective Maintenance is correcting identi�ed errors
• A process where code is manually traced, without any
• making sample data and running it
software used
through a trace table
• The value of a variable is manually followed to check
• technique used to test algorithms; make
whether it is used and updated as expected
sure that no logical errors occur e.g.
• Used to identify logic errors, but not execution errors
• A test where the code is reviewed carefully by the
developer’s peers, managers, team members, etc.
• It is used to gather useful feedback to further develop
the code.
• Taking modules that have been tested on individually
and testing on them combined together
• This method allows all the code snippets to integrate
with each other, making the program work.
• Making amendments to:
• due to changes in speci�cation
• to enhance functionality or more faster or • This is the testing done on software ‘in-house’, meaning it
both is done by the developers
• to make it more user friendly • Basically another term for ‘�rst round of testing’
• This is the testing done on the software by beta users,
who use the program and report any problems back to
the developer.
• Basically another term for ‘second round of testing’
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• A test carried out by the intended users of the system:
the people who requested the software.
• The purpose is to check that the software performs
exactly as required.
• The acceptance criteria should completely be satis�ed
for the program to be released.
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