Environment
And
Ecology
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Environment
The word "environment" comes from the French word
"environia," which means "to surround”.
The environment can be defined as “the sum total of living,
non-living components; influences and events, surrounding
an organism”.
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Components of the Environment
Abiotic Biotic
A non-living condition or A living thing, such as an
thing, such as climate or animal or plant that
habitat that influences or influences or affects an
affects an ecosystem and the ecosystem.
organisms in it.
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Abiotic Components
Light Rainfall Temperature
Atmosphere Substratum
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Biotic Components
Plants Animals
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Ecology
The term Ecology was first coined by
a German zoologist Ernst Haeckel in
1866. It is derived from the Greek
word ‘oikos’ meaning ‘house’
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Ecological Levels of Organizations
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Biosphere
Earth is the only planet that sustains life forms and the space
accommodating these life forms is called Biosphere.
Atmosphere, Lithosphere and Hydrosphere are the three main
realms of Biosphere.
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Biome
A biome is often referred to as a global-scale community of
plants and animals and is the largest subdivision of the
biosphere.
Biomes in India:
[Link] humid forests
[Link] dry or deciduous forests
[Link] deserts and semi-deserts
[Link] forests
[Link] meadows
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Community
It is an aggregation of populations of different species living
together (inter dependent) in a specific area
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Ecological Succession
Ecological Succession is the progressive series of changes that
leads to an establishment of a relatively stable climax
community.
Types of Ecological Succession
[Link] Succession
[Link] Succession
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Primary Succession
• Succession which occurs in
areas where no living
organisms ever existed is
called primary succession.
• The species that invade a
bare area are called pioneer
species.
• Examples of areas where primary succession occurs are newly
cooled lava, bare rock, newly created pond or reservoir etc.
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Secondary Succession
• Secondary succession
occurs where vegetation
was present previously
but vegetation was
destroyed due to
natural or artificial
causes such as forest
fires, floods, droughts,
etc.
• Since some soil or sediment is present, secondary succession
is faster than primary succession.
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Important Terms
• Pioneer Community: First community to inhabit an area
• Climax Community: last and stable community
• Sere: Entire series of communities
• Seral stage: Community stage between pioneer and climax
community
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Adaptation
Adaptation is the physical or behavioral characteristic of
an organism that helps an organism to survive better in
the surrounding environment.
• Mammals from colder climates generally have shorter ears
and limbs to minimize heat loss. This is called Allen’s Rule.
• Such small changes that take place in the body of a single
organism over short periods, to overcome small problems
due to changes in the surroundings, are called
acclimatization.
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Habitat and Organism
Habitat is the
physical environment
in which an organism
lives
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Species
Species is a group of living organisms consisting of similar
individuals capable of exchanging genes or interbreeding
considered as the basic unit of taxonomy.
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Evolution
A valid theory of evolution was propounded by Charles
Darwin and Alfred Wallace in 1859. This theory has been
extended in the light of progress in genetics and is known
as Neo-Darwinism.
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Environment
And
Ecology
Part-II
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Biotic Interaction
The activities of living organisms which may cause the
marked effect on the survival of others are called Biotic
Interaction
Three Types:
[Link] Interaction
[Link] Interaction
[Link] Interaction
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Biotic Interaction
Positive Interaction- Member of one or both the interacting
species are benefited but neither is harmed. Example:
Mutualism and Commensalism.
Negative Interaction- One or both interacting species is
harmed. Example: Predation, Parasitism, Competition and
Ammensalism.
Neutral Interaction- Interacting species are neither benefited
nor do they suffer.
Examples: Birds and squirrel
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Biotic Interaction
Type of Biotic
[Link]
Interaction
Mutualism/ • This is a close association between two species in which
Symbiosis both the species depends on each other for growth and
survival. They basically benefit each other.
(++)
1.
• It is the obligatory relationship.
• Example: Lichens are mutualistic relationship between
algae and fungi
• Mycorrhizae are associations between fungi and the
roots of higher plants
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Biotic Interaction
Type of Biotic
[Link]
Interaction
• In this relationship one of the species benefits while the
Commensalism other is neither harmed nor benefited.
2. (+ 0 ) • Example: Sucker fish (Remora) often attaches to a shark
by means of its sucker which is present on the top side of
its head
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Biotic Interaction
Type of Biotic
[Link]
Interaction
• In this type of interaction, one species is harmed and the
Parasitism other is benefited.
• The parasite gets the nourishment from the host but it
3. (+ - ) does not kill the host.
• Type of Parasites:
• Ecto-parasite: lives on the body of host
Example- Lice, leech, etc
• Endo-parasite: lives in the body of host
Example: Tapeworm (lives in Intestine) and Plasmodium
(lives in RBC of human)
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Biotic Interaction
Type of Biotic
[Link]
Interaction
• A free living organism which catches and kills another
Predation species for food.
4. (+ - )
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Biotic Interaction
Type of Biotic
[Link]
Interaction
• In this interaction one species is inhibited by toxic
Ammensalism secretion of another species. Inhibitor species is
neither benefited nor harmed.
5. (- 0 )
• Example, the bread mould fungi Pencillium produce
penicillin, an antibiotic substance which inhibits the
growth of a variety of bacteria
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Biotic Interaction
Type of Biotic
[Link]
Interaction
• Process in which the fitness of one species is significantly lower
Competition in the presence of another species.
• This is an interaction between two populations in which both
(- - ) species are harmed to some extent.
6.
• Inter-specific competition: occurring between individuals of
two different species in a habitat for the same resources. For
example, sharks, dolphins, and seabirds often eat the same
type of fish in ocean ecosystems.
• Intra-specific competition: occurs between individuals of same
species. An example among protozoa involves Paramecium
aurelia and Paramecium caudatum competing for the same
resources.
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Salient Features
• Population ecology is the study of populations in relation to
the environment.
• Population size is defined as the number of individuals present
in a subjectively designated geographic range.
• Population size is governed by 4 factors: Natality, Mortality,
Immigration and Emigration.
• The dispersion of a population is the pattern of spacing among
individuals within the geographic boundaries. It is of three
types: Clumped, Uniform and Random Dispersion.
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Salient Features
• Biotic potential is the maximum reproductive capacity of an organism
under optimum environmental conditions.
• The carrying capacity is the maximum number of a species that can be
sustainably supported by the environment.
• The activities of living organisms which may cause the marked effect on
the survival of others are called Biotic Interaction.
• There are two types of biotic interaction i.e. Intra-specific and Inter-
specific Interaction.
• Limiting factors are environmental conditions that control the rate at which a
process can occur.
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I
R-selected K-selected
species Specie
small
-
size
organism -large sized org
.
produce many
- offquint offspein
produce
I
time
long
short time
effexpectangl life
-
expectancy
-
fravis
evans↑ Ecosystem
~ the basic unit in
ecology
(19st)) Item :sy /1935]
An ecosystem is a unit of nature, where living organisms interact
among themselves and also with the surrounding physical
environment. Father Indian
of
:
Rand ecology
Misha
Following are some of the services provided by an ecosystem:
1. Provisioning services:
2. Regulating services:
3. Supporting services:
4. Cultural services:
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Ecosystem
[Link] services: The material benefits that people get from ecosystems for
e.g. supply of food, water, fibers, wood and fuels.
[Link] services: These are the benefits obtained from the regulation of
ecosystem processes e.g. the regulation of air quality and soil fertility, control of
floods or crop pollination.
[Link] services: These are necessary for the production of all other ecosystem
services, for e.g. by providing plants and animals with living spaces, allowing for
diversity of species, and maintaining genetic diversity.
4. Cultural services: These are non-material benefits people gain from ecosystems, for
e.g. educational, aesthetic and engineering inspiration, cultural identity and spiritual
well-being.
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Ecosystem
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Terrestrial Ecosystem
A terrestrial ecosystem is a land-based community of organisms and
the interactions of biotic and abiotic components in a given area
The following four ecosystems make up the terrestrial ecosystem:
a) Forest Ecosystems
b) Grassland Ecosystems
c) Desert Ecosystem
d) Tundra Ecosystem
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Deforestation
The deliberate clearance of forested terrain is known as deforestation
Cause of deforestation
a) Shifting cultivation
b) Development project
c) Fuel Requirements
d) Raw Material Requirements
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Effects of deforestation
• Immediate lowering of ground water level
• Long-term reduction of precipitation.
·
Landslide
·
Soil erosion
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Desertification
Desertification refers to the persistent degradation of dry land
ecosystems by climatic variations and human activities.
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Aquatic Organism
Classification of Aquatic Organism
1. Neuston > float/alledupper surface
-
to
of water
2. Periphyton > attached to the
-
surfaced
submerged
arobacteria detritus
3. Plankton
>A autotroph
eg
,
,
microscopic plants
-
2
-
4. Nekton -
like alal
5. Benthos
Explanation full
a
,
summy
->
-
crustaceans-
have protozoare
locomotory ability
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Aquatic Organism
Factors limiting productivity of Aquatic Habitats
Sunlight
a) Photic zone: This is the upper layer of the aquatic
ecosystem up to which light penetrates and within which
photosynthetic and respiration activity takes place.
b) Aphotic zone: It is the lower layer of aquatic ecosystem
where the light penetration and plant growth is restricted,
so only respiration activity is limited to this zone.
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Aquatic Organism
Factors limiting productivity of Aquatic Habitats
Dissolved Oxygen
Dissolved oxygen (DO) is one of the most important
pop-4
indicators of water quality.
is
The colder water is, the more oxygen it can hold. As the
water becomes warmer, less oxygen can be dissolved in the
water. Many aquatic creatures die when the dissolved
oxygen content goes below 3-5 ppm.
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Lentic Ecosystem
• They include all ecosystems with static or still water.
• Lakes and ponds are among the most common examples of the
Lentic Ecosystem.
• It is also called the lacustrine ecosystem or the still water ecosystem.
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Lotic Ecosystem
• These primarily relate to fast-moving water bodies that
run in one direction, such as rivers and streams.
• It is also called the riverine ecosystem.
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Marine Ecosystem
• Marine ecosystems are defined as bodies of water with a
salt concentration equal to or greater than that of seawater
(i.e. 35 ppt or above).
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Coral Reefs
• Coral reefs are built by and made up of thousands of tiny
animals—coral “polyps”—that are related to anemones and
jellyfish.
• Polyps are shallow water organisms which have a soft body
covered by a calcareous skeleton.
• When the coral polyps die, they shed their skeleton (coral) on
which new polyps grow.
• The cycle is repeated for over millions of years leading to
accumulation of layers of corals (shallow rock created by these
depositions is called reef).
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Coral Reefs
Ideal growth conditions for Coral reefs
Sunlight and temperature: Corals need to grow in shallow water as
sunlight is important for growth. (25-30%)
Clean Water: Corals need clear water as clean water lets sunlight
HodgXdL
-
through.
-
Saltwater: Corals need saltwater and a certain balance in the ratio of salt
-
-
to water to survive. This is why corals don’t live in areas of estuaries
-
-
-
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Coral Reefs
Types of coral reefs
E
a)
- Fringing reefs : Fringing reefs evolve and develop near the continent
-
and remain close to the coastline.
-
b) Barrier
- reefs : Barrier reefs are found offshore on the continental
-
-
-
shelf.
-
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Coral Reefs
Threats to the coral ecosystem
a) Global Warming:
b) Coral Bleaching: Most corals have a narrow temperature tolerance. Coral
bleaching when corals are stressed due to warmer ocean waters. Corals eject the
symbiotic algae that live inside them when stressed.
c) Rising sea-surface temperature:
d) Natural Disaster:
e) Ocean Acidification: As the oceans absorb CO2, they become more acidic.
With increased acidity in the water, coral may form weaker skeletons
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Coral Reefs
Coral reefs in India
India has four coral reef areas:
1. Gulf of Mannar
2. Andaman and Nicobar Islands
3. Lakshadweep islands
4. The Gulf of Kutch
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Estuary Ecosystem
An estuary is a place where a river or a stream opens into the sea
(mouth of the river). . Transition
-
2 ecosyst Lol
Estuaries form a transition zone (ecotone) between river
environments and maritime environments
In general, the phytoplanktons of estuaries are diatoms,
dinoflagellates, green algae, blue-green algae.
*
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Mangroves
Mangroves are the characteristic littoral plant formation and subtropical
-
coastlines.
Since mangroves are located between the land and the sea, they represent the best
example of ecotone.
Mangroves are salt tolerant trees, also called halophytes, and are adapted harsh
-
coastal conditions.
They produce pneumatophores (blind roots) to overcome the respiration problem
parau-seeds
in the anaerobic soil.
quminat
They require high solar radiation to filter saline water through their roots
# +
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Mangroves
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Wetlands
Wetlands are defined as: "lands transitional between terrestrial and aquatic eco -
systems
Wetlands are transition zones (ecotone) between terrestrial and aquatic
ecosystems.
lak
Chilika
home
Keoladroq
Record
Montreux
- -
&
Oktal
Keolode
&
X
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Challenges of Aquatic Ecosystem
Eutrophication
• Lakes receive their water from surface runoff and along with its various
chemical substances and minerals.
• Over periods spanning millennia, ageing occurs as the lakes accumulate
mineral and organic matter and gradually, get filled up.
• The nutrient-enrichment of the lakes promotes the growth of algae, aquatic
plants and various fauna. This process is known as natural eutrophication.
• Similar nutrient enrichment of lakes at an accelerated rate is caused by
human activities and the consequent ageing phenomenon is known as
cultural eutrophication.
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Challenges of Aquatic Ecosystem
Effects of Eutrophication
- Loss of freshwater lakes
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Algal Bloom
• An algal bloom or marine bloom or water bloom is a rapid
increase in the population of algae in an aquatic system.
• Harmful algal blooms are overgrowths of algae in water.
Effects of Algal Bloom:
• Produce extremely dangerous toxins that can sicken or kill people
and animals.
• Create Dead Zones in the water.
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Algal Bloom
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foot
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Environment
And
Ecology
Part-III
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Energy Flow
Energy is the fundamental factor that drives all metabolic processes.
Energy flow is the unidirectional movement of energy from the
producer to the top consumers. The study of trophic level interaction
in an ecosystem provides insight into the ecosystem's energy flow.
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Trophic level interaction
Trophic level interaction deals with how the members of an ecosystem
I plantsthe
are connected based on nutritional needs.
ofsuch
queen
-
It
Energy flow only from lower to higher tropic level, i.e it is
unidirectional.
Each trophic level loses some energy in the form of useless heat,
hence the energy level drops from the first trophic level upwards.
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Food Chain
A food chain is a series of organisms that feed on one another.
The food chain is the sequence of eating and being eaten that results
in the transfer of food energy.
The plant converts solar energy into chemical energy by
photosynthesis
Plant matter is consumed by small herbivores, who then transform it
to animal matter.
Large carnivores consume these herbivores.
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Types of Food Chain
[Link] food chain:
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Types of Food Chain
[Link] food chain:
It begins with microorganisms consuming the dead
organic matter of decaying animals and plant
bodies, followed by detritus-feeding creatures
known as detrivores or decomposers.
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Types of Food Chain
[Link] food chain:
The major source of energy in the grazing food
chain is live plant biomass, whereas the primary
source of energy in the detritus food chain is dead
organic matter or detritus.
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physical breakdown of
deed
Fragmentation
matter
P :
organic
pieces by organism like
into smaller beetles
& worm.
②
Leaching ; water soluble
compounds
are washed out
of decomposing material.
③ Latabolism: Microorganisms life
AgipBan seek down
the to the
organic
releasing siny
⑦
umification :
Remaining organic under further decomposition resulting
matter as
,
in
the
formation of Homes dont coloured
To
.
amorphors solid
compound
⑤
H
incralisation
This isthefinalstate
:
where componeor
anic molecule
Favorable
-
conditions
for Decomposition
1)
High tarp .
Nitrogen
2) content
High
3) chitin detritus
lignin y
Low in
Food Web
A food chain is just one aspect of the food or energy flow across an
ecosystem and it implies a simple, isolated relationship that is
seldom found in ecosystems.
"A food web depicts all
possible energy and
nutrition exchanges
among organisms in an
ecosystem, whereas a
food chain follows only
one food pathway”.
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Ecological Pyramids
stacks elton (1927)
Ecological pyramids
are diagrammatic
representations of the
stages of trophic
levels. The base of the
pyramid is the food
producer, and the apex
is the top carnivore.
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Do you
know?
Charles Elton developed the concept of the ecological
pyramids.
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Ecological Pyramids
The total number of individuals at each
trophic level in an ecosystem is represented
by the length of each bar. With each step
-
from the producer to the consumer level, the
number, biomass, and energy of organisms
decreases, and the diagrammatic depiction
takes on a pyramid form. There are three
types of ecological pyramids.
=>
1. Pyramid of numbers,~
>
#
2. Pyramid of biomass,
-
3. Pyramid of energy or productivity.
&
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Pyramid of Numbers
I
Thales elton (19)
In this pyramid, the number of individuals is decreased from lower level to
higher trophic level.
This type of pyramid can be seen in grassland ecosystem.
· in a deset
star
crosy
invated
t
-
&
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Pyramid of Biomass
/
Bodenheimer [1930]
Individuals at each trophic level are weighed rather than counted in this
method.
Pyramid of biomass is usually determined by collecting all organisms
occupying each trophic level separately and measuring their dry weight.
star
Faticinvented
Biomass is measured in g/m2.
ecor
Ag Phytoplaton Topplanton small fishes
>
- >
-
Big fishe
F
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Pyramid of Energy
Call Lindem an
& Hutchinson
- ↓
Pyramid of energy shows the rate of energy flow and/or productivity at
&
neud
successive trophic levels O
1942
Can
be
invented
Y
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Pollutants and Trophic Level
Pollutants especially non-degradable ones move through the various
trophic levels in an ecosystem.
Movement of these pollutants involves two main processes:
i. Bioaccumulation
ii. Bio-magnification
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Pollutants and Trophic Level
Bioaccumulation:
It refers to how pollutants enter a food chain.
In bioaccumulation there is an increase in concentration of a pollutant
from the environment to the first organism in a food chain.
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Pollutants and Trophic Level
Bio-magnification:
Bio-magnification refers to the
tendency of pollutants to
concentrate as they move from one
trophic level to the next.
Pyramid of energy shows the rate
of energy flow and/or productivity
at successive trophic levels.
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Pollutants and Trophic Level
Bio-magnification:
Bio-magnification refers to the
tendency of pollutants to
concentrate as they move from one
trophic level to the next.
Pyramid of energy shows the rate
of energy flow and/or productivity
at successive trophic levels.
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