Module 3 (Exchange and Transport) Revision Notes

How do Microorganisms Obtain Nutrients & Remove Waste?

 by exchange via their surface

 nutrients (e.g. glucose, oxygen) move in by diffusion via their surface
 waste (e.g. carbon dioxide) move out by diffusion via their surface

Why are Microorganisms able to perform exchange via their surface?

 have a large surface area to volume ratio

 have a short diffusion distance
 have low demand

Why can't Animals/Plants perform exchange via their surface?

 have a small surface area to volume ratio

 multicellular (large diffusion distance and high demand)
 impermeable surface (prevent pathogens entering and reduce water loss)
 therefore, require specialised Exchange & Transport systems
 exchange system = increases rate of diffusion of nutrients in and wastes out
 transport system = deliver nutrients and remove waste from all cells

Why do Fish have Specialised Gas Exchange Systems?

 multicellular organism so has a small surface area to volume ratio, large

diffusion distance, high demand & body surface impermeable
 therefore, cannot perform gas exchange (O2 in/CO2 out) via their surface,
they require a specialised gas exchange system called Gills

Structure of Gills in Fish?

 many gill filaments and gill lamellae = large surface area

 gill lamellae have a thin wall (short diffusion distance) and are permeable
 ventilation brings in pure water (high oxygen, low carbon dioxide) and
circulation brings in deoxygenated blood (low oxygen, high carbon dioxide), the
water and blood pass over in opposite directions (countercurrent flow), which
maintains concentration gradient all the way along the gill lamellae

Why do Insects have Specialised Gas Exchange Systems?

 multicellular organism so has a small surface area to volume ratio, large

diffusion distance, high demand & body surface made of exoskeleton (impermeable
barrier to reduce water loss)
 therefore, cannot perform gas exchange (O2 in/CO2 out) via their surface,
they require a specialised gas exchange system called Tracheal System

Structure of Tracheal System in Insects?

 starts with openings on body surface called Spiracles

 spiracles contain valves, open = gas exchange, closed = prevent water loss
 spiracles connect to Trachea
 trachea connect to Tracheoles
 tracheoles connect directly to Respiring Cells (delivering oxygen, removing
carbon dioxide)

How does Gas Exchange occur in Tracheal System of Insects?

 at rest = down a concentration gradient, oxygen moves in & carbon dioxide
moves out by simple diffusion
 when active = by ventilation, air inhaled for mass flow of O2 in & air
exhaled for mass flow of CO2 out

Function of Lungs? site of gas exchange in mammals

(oxygen into blood – used in cells for respiration,
carbon dioxide out of the blood – toxic waste product of
respiration)

What is Lungs made up of? Trachea, Bronchi, Bronchioles, Alveoli (+ capillaries)

Function of trachea, bronchi, bronchioles? transport of air and filter air,

(bronchioles also controls
amount of air reaching alveoli)

Structure of trachea/bronchi?

 wall made of c-shaped cartilage

 cartilage is strong so trachea/bronchi do not collapse
 cartilage is c-shaped to give flexibility
 lining made of goblet cells and ciliated epithelial cells
 goblet cells make mucus, which traps pathogens/particles
 ciliated epithelial cells have cilia, which pushes mucus up and out of lungs

Structure of bronchioles?

 wall made of smooth muscle

 smooth muscle contracts, lumen narrows, bronchiole constricts
 (occurs when surrounded by noxious gases – reduces amount reaching alveoli)
 lining made of goblet cells and ciliated epithelial cells

Adaptation of alveoli?

 millions of tiny alveoli that are folded (large surface area)

 thin wall/one cell thick/squamous epithelial cells (short diffusion distance)
 elastic tissue in wall (stretches when breathing in to increase surface area,
recoils when breathing out to push the air out)
 ventilation maintains concentration gradient (high oxygen, low carbon
dioxide)
Adaptation of capillaries?

 millions of tiny capillaries (large surface area)

 thin wall/one cell thick/squamous epithelial cells (short diffusion distance)
 narrow lumen (increases diffusion time, decreases diffusion distance)
 circulation maintains concentration gradient (low oxygen, high carbon
dioxide)

How O2 moves from the alveoli to the capillaries? by simple diffusion passing thru
the alveolar epithelium and
capillary epithelium

How CO2 moves from capillaries to the alveoli? by simple diffusion passing thru the
capillary epithelium and
alveoli epithelium

Describe the process of Breathing/Ventilation?

 Breathing In/Inhalation = external intercostal muscles contract (rib cage
moves up and out) & diaphragm contracts (flattens), therefore increase in volume in
chest and decrease in pressure, so air moves in
 Breathing Out/Exhalation = external intercostal muscle relax (rib cage moves
down and in) & diaphragm relaxes (back to dome shape), therefore decrease in volume
in chest and increase in pressure, so air pushed out (aided by elastic recoil in
the alveoli)

Formula for Pulmonary Ventilation?

 PV = tidal volume x ventilation rate

 tidal volume = volume of air breathed in/out in one breath
 ventilation rate = number of breaths per minute
 Pulmonary Ventilation = volume of air breathed in/out per minute

Function of Intestines? site of exchange of digested nutrients in mammals

What is Digestion?

 Breakdown of Large Insoluble Molecules into Small Soluble Molecules (so they
can move into the blood and then into the body cells)
 Starch/Glycogen (Carbohydrates) into Glucose by Amylase (Salivary in mouth,
Pancreatic in small intestine) and Maltase/Lactase/Sucrase (on lining of small
intestine)
 Proteins into Amino Acids by Endopeptidase/Exopeptidase/Dipeptidase
(Endopeptidase in stomach, Exopeptidase in small intestine, Dipeptidase on lining
of small intestine)
 Lipids into Monoglyceride and 2 Fatty Acids by Lipase (in small intestine)

What do Intestine Absorb?

 Small Intestine absorbs small soluble nutrients (glucose, amino acids,

monoglyceride and fatty acid, vitamins and minerals)
 Large Intestine absorbs water

Why do Humans/Mammals require a Specialised Transport System?

 multicellular organisms therefore have large diffusion distances and high

demand
 need a transport system to deliver nutrients and remove waste from all cells
 transport system in humans/mammals called Circulatory System
 Circulatory System made of heart, blood vessels, blood
(heart pumps blood, blood vessels carry blood, blood carries
nutrients/waste)

Why is the transport system in mammals called a double circulatory system?

the heart pumps twice, the blood goes through the heart twice – generates
enough pressure to supply
all body cells

Why is the transport system in mammals called a closed circulatory system?

blood is transported in blood vessels – helps to maintain pressure and

redirect blood flow

Layout of Circulatory System?

 heart pumps blood which is carried in arteries which flow into arterioles
which flow into capillaries which then are carried in venules then veins back to
the heart
 Artery to Arterioles to Capillaries to Venules to Veins
 Artery/Arterioles carry blood away from the heart
(arterioles are small arteries)
 Capillaries are the site of exchange (nutrients out, waste in)
 Veins/Venules return blood back to the heart
(venules are small veins)

Heart?

 job is to pump blood around the body (delivers nutrients to cells and remove
waste)
 made of 4 muscular chambers (2 atria, 2 ventricles)
 atria pumps blood to ventricles, ventricles pump blood out of heart (R to
lungs, L to body)
 ventricles thicker then atria (has to pump blood further)
 left ventricle has a thicker muscular wall then right ventricle, therefore
has stronger contractions, so can generate higher pressure and pump the blood
further around the body

Blood vessels of the heart?

 artery takes blood away from the heart, vein returns blood to the heart
 Vena Cava supplies R atrium (with deoxygenated blood from body)
 Pulmonary Vein supplies L atrium (with oxygenated blood from lungs)
 R ventricle supplies Pulmonary Artery (deoxygenated blood to lungs)
 L ventricle supplies Aorta (oxygenated blood to body)

Job of valves in heart?

 Ensure one way flow of blood, no backflow

 (blood flows from atria to ventricles to arteries)
 2 sets of valves: Atrio-ventricular Valve & Semi-lunar Valve
 AV valve = between atria and ventricles
 SL valve = between ventricles and arteries

When are AV valves open or closed? Open = pressure in atria greater then pressure
in ventricles, Closed = pressure in ventricles
greater then pressure in atria

When are SL valves open or closed? Open = pressure in ventricles greater then
pressure in arteries, Closed = pressure in arteries greater then pressure in
ventricles

Describe the processes of the cardiac cycle?

 Filling Stage = atria relaxed, ventricles relaxed, AV valve open, SL valve

closed
 Atria Contracts = the SAN located in the R atrium initiates the heart beat
and sends the impulse across both atria making them contract, this pushes all the
remaining blood into the ventricles so it becomes full
 Ventricles Contract = the AVN picks up the impulse, delays it (stops the
atria and ventricles contracting at the same time, so the atria empties and the
ventricles fill), sends the impulse down the septum in the Bundle of His, then at
the apex the impulse goes up both walls of the ventricles in the purkine fibres, so
the ventricles contract from the base upwards, pushing the blood up thru the
arteries, when the ventricles start to contract the AV valve closes then the SL
valve opens and blood leaves the heart
 Ventricles Relax = the SL valve closes then the AV valve opens and filling
starts again

What causes the Heart Sounds?

 when the valves close

 1st = AV closes
 2nd = SL closes

Formula for Cardiac Output?

 CO = Stroke Volume x Heart Rate

 stroke volume = volume of blood pumped out of the heart in one beat
 heart rate = number of beats per minuted
 Cardiac Output = volume of blood pumped out of the heart in one minute

Coronary Heart Disease and Myocardial Infarction?

 high blood pressure damages lining of coronary artery

 fatty deposits/cholesterol builds up beneath the lining, in the wall =
Atheroma
 the atheroma breaks thru the lining forming a Atheromatous Plaque on the
lining, in the lumen
 this causes turbulent blood flow
 a blood clot (thrombus) forms
 this block the coronary artery
 therefore less blood flow to the heart muscle
 less glucose and oxygen delivered
 the heart muscle cannot respire
 so it dies (myocardial infarction)

Risk Factors of CHD?

 Age, gender, ethnicity

 Saturated fats (increases LDL, LDL deposits cholesterol in the arteries to
form atheroma)
 Salts (increases blood pressure – lowers water potential of the blood so it
holds the water)
 Smoking (nicotine = increase HR and makes platelets more sticky – blood clot,
carbon monoxide = permanently blocks haemoglobin)
 Obesity and Lack of Exercise

Atheroma & Aneurysm? atheroma weakens wall of artery, blood builds up in the wall,
the wall swells then bursts = aneurysm

Role of Arteries/Arterioles?

 generally carry oxygenated blood away from the heart

 for example, Coronary Artery to heart muscle
Hepatic Artery to liver
 Renal Artery to kidneys
 exception = Pulmonary Artery carries deoxygenated blood to lungs

Role of Veins/Venules?

 generally carry deoxygenated blood back to the heart

 for example, Coronary Vein from heart muscle
Hepatic Vein from liver
Renal Vein from kidneys
 exception 1 = Pulmonary Vein carries oxygenated blood back to the heart
 exception 2 = Hepatic Portal Vein carries deoxygenated blood from digestive
system to liver (for
filtering)

Function of Arteries/Arterioles?

carry blood away from the heart so should be able to withstand high blood
pressures & maintain high blood pressures

Structure of Arteries/Arterioles?

 narrow lumen = maintains pressure

 lining made of squamous epithelial cells = smooth lining to reduce friction
 thick wall = withstand pressure
 elastic tissue in wall,
ventricles contract – elastic tissue stretches to withstand pressure
ventricles relax – elastic tissue recoils to maintain pressure and
smooth out flow
 smooth muscle in wall (particularly in arterioles),
smooth muscle contracts – lumen narrows and arteriole constricts
smooth muscle relaxes – lumen widens and arteriole dilates
 collagen in wall
prevents artery from tearing

Function of Veins/Venules? return blood back to the heart, the blood is under low
pressure

Structure of Veins/Venules?

 wide lumen = ease of blood flow

 lining made of squamous epithelial cells = smooth lining to reduce friction
 thin wall = vein can be squashed by skeletal muscle pushing blood back to the
heart
 valves in lumen = prevents backflow of blood

Function of Capillaries?

 site of exchange
 3 locations,
With Alveoli, takes in O2 and removes CO2
With Microvilli, takes in glucose/amino acids/monoglyceride and fatty
acids/vitamins/minerals
With All Cells, deliver nutrients and remove waste

Adaptation of Capillaries?

 many small capillaries = large surface area

 thin wall, one cell thick, squamous epithelial cells = short diffusion
distance
 pores between cells = allows fluid to move in and out
 narrow lumen = increase diffusion time and decrease diffusion distance

Content of Blood?

 main component = Plasma (fluid)

 plasma carries,
 Cells = red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets
 Solutes = nutrients, waste, protein

How does exchange occur between Capillaries & All Cells?

 by mass flow
 fluid moves out of the blood in the capillaries carrying the nutrients
 fluid moves back into blood in the capillaries carrying the waste
 (fluid in the blood called plasma, fluid surrounding cells called tissue
fluid, fluid in lymph system called lymph)

How is tissue fluid formed and returned to circulatory system?

 at the start of the capillary (arterial end) there is a build up hydrostatic

pressure
 this pushes fluid out of the capillary via the pores
 the fluid carries the nutrients with it
 the fluid surrounds the cells, this is called tissue fluid
 at the finish of the capillary (venous end) the fluid moves back in by
osmosis
 the capillary has low water potential due to the presence of proteins (too
large to move out of capillaries)
 any excess tissue fluid is picked up by the lymph system and deposited in the
vena cava

Why does high blood pressure cause accumulation of tissue fluid?

increases hydrostatic pressure, so more tissue fluid is formed – not as much

can be returned to the circulatory system

Why does diet low in protein cause accumulation of tissue fluid?

the water potential in the capillary is not as low as normal, so not as much
fluid can move back into the capillary by osmosis

Blood Pressure changes along the Circulatory System?

Arteries = - highest pressure (connects directly with

heart/ventricles)
- pressure fluctuates (increases when ventricles contract
which causes the elastic tissue to stretch, decreases
when ventricles relax which causes the elastic tissue to
recoil)
- overall decrease in pressure due to friction

Arterioles = large decrease in pressure due to increase in total

cross-sectional area (ensures pressure is not to high to
damage capillaries)

Capillaries = pressure here is called hydrostatic pressure

(decreases due to a loss in
 fluid)

Venules/Veins = blood under low pressure

Job of Red Blood Cells?

 found in humans/mammals (animals)

 carries haemoglobin
 haemoglobin carries oxygen

Structure of Haemoglobin?

 globular protein (soluble & specific 3d shape)

 quaternary structure made of 4 polypeptide chains (2α, 2β)
 each chain carries a haem group
 each haem group carries Fe2+
 each Fe2+ carries an O2
 therefore, each haemoglobin carries 4 lots of O2

Job of Haemoglobin? load oxygen in the lungs and deliver it to the respiring
tissues

What is Affinity?

the level of attraction haemoglobin has to oxygen

(high affinity = strong attraction, low affinity = weak attraction)

Role of haemoglobin in oxygen transport?

 haemoglobin has High Affinity in the lungs – due to high partial pressure of
oxygen and low partial pressure of carbon dioxide, so haemoglobin loads/associates
oxygen in the lungs and becomes saturated (full)
 the haemoglobin is transported in the blood in the red blood cell
 at the respiring tissues, haemoglobin has Low Affinity – due to low partial
pressure of oxygen and high partial pressure of carbon dioxide, so oxygen is
unloaded/dissociated/delivered and haemoglobin becomes unsaturated

Relationship between O2 Partial Pressure & Affinity/Saturation of Haemoglobin?

 positive correlation
 as O2 partial pressure increases, affinity/saturation of haemoglobin
increases
 the correlation is not linear but is curved (produces a s-shaped, sigmoid
curve called Oxygen Dissociation Curve)
 middle portion of ODC has a steep gradient so when respiring tissues change
from resting to active and partial pressure of O2 falls, there is a large drop in
affinity, so more O2 would be delivered to the respiring tissues

Relationship between CO2 Partial Pressure & Affinity/Saturation of Haemoglobin?

 negative correlation
 as CO2 partial pressure increases, affinity/saturation of haemoglobin
decreases
 this occurs at the site of respiring tissues = the carbon dioxide lowers the
pH of the blood, makes the haemoglobin change shape, so oxygen is released,
lowering affinity. this shifts the ODC to the right, called the bohr shift. benefit
= more oxygen delivered to respiring cells
How does a Fetus receive oxygen? from mother's blood, oxygen dissociates from
mother's haemoglobin and associates with fetal haemoglobin in the placenta – fetal
haemoglobin has a higher affinity compared to mother's haemoglobin

Benefit of fetal haemoglobin having high affinity? fetal haemoglobin's ODC will be
to the left, it has high affinity – so the oxygen will dissociate from the mother's
haemoglobin and associate with the fetal haemoglobin at the low partial pressures
of oxygen in the placenta, so it has enough oxygen for its needs

Why do adults not keep with fetal haemoglobin? the high affinity will mean less
oxygen will be unloaded at the
respiring tissues

Affinity of Organisms in a Low Oxygen Environment?

has a high affinity, curve to the left, therefore it can readily associate
oxygen at the low oxygen partial pressures

Affinity of Active Organisms?

has a low affinity, curve to the right, therefore more oxygen can be unloaded
to meet the cell's demand for more respiration

Affinity of Small Organisms?

have a large surface area to volume ratio, lose a lot of heat, needs to
respire to generate heat, therefore has a low affinity, curve to the right, so
unloads enough oxygen for the cells demand of more respiration

What are the Exchange & Transport Systems in Plants?

 exchange systems = leaf and root

 leaf to absorb light and CO2 for photosynthesis
 roots to absorb water and minerals
 transport systems = xylem and phloem
 xylem transports water and minerals
 phloem transports glucose/sugars
 xylem transports in one direction from roots to leaves, phloem transports in
both directions

Job of the Roots?

 absorb water and minerals

 absorbs water by osmosis
 absorbs minerals by active transport
 plants need water for photosynthesis, cytoplasm hydration, turgidity of cells
 plants need magnesium, nitrate, phosphate (magnesium to make chlorophyll,
nitrate to make amino acids, phosphate to make phospholipids/ATP/DNA)

Function of the Xylem? transport water and minerals from roots, up the plant, to
the leaves

Structure of the xylem?

 long continuous hollow tube (no resistance to water flow)

 narrow lumen
 wall made out of lignin
 lignin: strong, waterproof, adhesive
 wall contains pits/pores (water and minerals can leave)

How does water move up the xylem?

 loss of water at the leaves (transpiration)

 water moves from the top of the xylem into the leaf by osmosis
(transpirational pull)
 this applies TENSION to the column of water in the xylem
 the column of water moves up as one as the water particles stick together,
COHESION
 this is is the cohesion-tension theory
 it is supported by capillary action, adhesion and root pressure
 (capillary action = water automatically moves up narrow lumen of xylem)
 (adhesion = water particles stick to lignin in wall of xylem)
 (root pressure = water absorbed at the roots pushes the column of water up
slightly by hydrostatic
pressure)

Why does the diameter of a tree decrease during the day?

 more light and higher temperature

 increase rate of transpiration
 increase transpirational pull
 water pulled up xylem by cohesion-tension
 because the water particles stick to the wall of the xylem (adhesion)
 the walls of the xylem are pulled inwards

Structure of Leaves?

 upper layer called Upper Epidermis

 waxy cuticle on upper epidermis (barrier to reduce water loss)
 beneath the upper epidermis are Palisade Cells
 palisade cells are were photosynthesis takes places
 beneath palisade cells are Spongy Mesophyll Cells
 are loosely packed leaving air spaces to allow ease of gas exchange
 lower layer called Lower Epidermis

Adaptation of palisade cells for photosynthesis?

 located near top of leaf, closer to light

 large size, large surface area for light
 thin cell wall, short diffusion distance for carbon dioxide
 contains many chloroplasts, site of photosynthesis
 large vacuole, pushes chloroplast to the edge of the cell closer to light

Structure of chloroplast?

 organelle for photosynthesis

 has double membrane
 contains discs called thylakoids
 thylakoids contain chlorophyll
 stack of thylakoids called granum
 thylakoids surrounded by a fluid called stroma

How does Exchange occur in Leaves?

 lower epidermis of leaf contains pairs of cells called Guard Cells

 when turgid, guard cells form an opening called Stomata
 gas exchange occurs via the stomata
 In Day, plant photosynthesises and respires, CO2 moves in for photosysnthesis
and O2 moves out (some is used in respiration)
 At Night, plant only respires, O2 moves in for respiration and CO2 moves out

What is Transpiration? loss of water vapour from the leaf via the stomata

How does Transpiration occur?

 moist lining of spongy mesophyll cells evaporate forming water vapour

 water vapour builds up in air spaces
 if water vapour concentration is high enough & stomata is open, water vapour
diffuses out

Factors that increase rate of transpiration?

 light = more light, more stomata open, increase surface area for
transpiration
 temperature = more temperature, more evaporation (increase water vapour
concentration) & more kinetic energy
 wind = more wind, maintains concentration gradient
 humidity = less humidity, less water vapour in the surrounding air, increase
in water vapour concentration
gradient

What is a Potometer? apparatus used to measure rate of transpiration

Principle of potometer?

 as transpiration occurs from the leaves, the plant will pull up more water
from the potometer by cohesion-tension causing the bubble to move towards the plant
 the more water lost by transpiration, the more water taken up, the further
the bubble moves

Measuring Rate of Transpiration?

 rate of transpiration = volume of transpiration divided by time

 for volume of transpiration, distance bubble moved x cross-sectional area of
tube (πr2)

How to set up a potometer?

 choose healthy leaf and shoot

 cut shoot underwater and connect to potometer underwater (prevents air
bubbles
entering/blocking xylem)
 ensure potometer is air tight and water tight

What does a potometer actually measure?

measures rate of water uptake as a result of water loss from plant

(water loss can be due to: transpiration, photosynthesis, making cells
turgid, loss from
potometer)
What is a Xerophyte? a plant adapted to reduce water loss (reduce transpiration)

Adaptations of Xerophyte?

 spiky, needle like leaves = reduced surface area

 thick waxy cuticle = waterproof, impermeable barrier
 densely packed spongy mesophyll = less air spaces, less water vapour build up
 sunken stomata/hairy leaves/rolled up leaves = traps moist layer of air,
reduces concentration gradient

Function of Phloem? transport organic material (e.g. Sucrose) up and down a plant

Structure of phloem? made of 2 parts (Sieve Tube with Companion Cells alongside)

How does phloem transport organic material like sucrose?

 by principle of Mass Flow (mass flow of water carries the sucrose)

 Sucrose loaded into Phloem at Source
 Hydrogen Ions (H+) actively transported from companion cells into source
 therefore, H+ diffuses back into companion cells from source
 as they do, they pull in sucrose with them by co-transport
 sucrose then diffuses into sieve tube
 this lowers the water potential of sieve tube so water follows by osmosis
 this water will carry the sucrose by hydrostatic pressure (mass flow)
 Sucrose unloaded from Phloem at Sink
 sucrose moves out of phloem/sieve tube into sink by diffusion
 water follows by osmosis

Enzymes of Carbohydrate Digestion?

 Starch/Glycogen (Salivary Amylase in Mouth, Pancreatic Amylase in Small

Intestine) into Maltose
 Maltose (Maltase on lining of Small Intestine) into Glucose
 Lactose (Lactase on lining of Small Intestine) into Glucose and Galactose
 Sucrose (Sucrase on lining of Small Intestine) into Glucose and Fructose

Enzymes of Protein Digestion?

 Endopeptidase (in stomach), hydrolyses peptide bonds in middle of polypeptide

chain into many smaller chains
 Exopeptidase (in small intestine), hydrolyses peptide bonds at end of chains
to leave dipeptides
 Deipeptidase (on lining of small intestine), hydrolyse dipeptides into amino
acids

Enzymes of Lipid Digestion?

- Lipase in Small Intestine leaves Monoglyceride and 2 Fatty Acids

Adaptations of SI for Absorption?

 folded to form Villus (large surface area)

 cells lining SI have Microvilli (large surface area)
 wall of SI is thin (short diffusion distance)
 rich blood supply (maintains concentration gradient)
 cells lining SI have transport proteins, enzymes (maltase, lactase, sucrase,
didpeptidase) and many mitochondria
Absorption of Glucose and Amino Acids in SI?

 sodium ions are actively transported from the cells lining the SI into the
blood
 lowers the sodium ion concentration in the cell
 therefore sodium ions move from the lumen of the SI into the cell
 this pulls in glucose and amino acids via a cotransport protein
 therefore glucose and amino acids builds up in the cell and moves into the
blood by diffusion

Absorption of Monoglyceride and Fatty Acids?

 Lipids initially emulsified by Bile into Micelles (smaller droplets)

 Micelles digested by Lipase into Monoglyceride and 2 Fatty Acids
 Monoglyceride and Fatty Acids absorbed by Cells lining SI by simple diffusion
 Form a Chylomicron (lipid + cholesterol + lipoprotein)
 Enters Lymph as Lacteal, then enters Blood

What is Lactose Intolerance

 Person does not make Lactase Enzyme

 Lactose remains Undigested
 Leads to Diarrhoea and Flatulence
 Undigested Lactose in Lumen of Intestine lowers it's water potential, so
water enters the lumen by osmosis leading to water faeces (Diarrhoea)
 Undigested Lactose brokendown by micro-organisms in Large Intestine, giving
off gas (Flatulence)

Module 4 (Diversity) Revision Notes

What is Biodiversity?

 variety in an ecosystem
 variety of habitats and variety of species

What is Species Diversity?

 number of different species

 number of individuals for each species

What is Genetic Diversity?

 variety of alleles in a species population

 the larger number of individuals in a species, the larger the genetic
diversity

Benefit of high species diversity?

 Stable ecosystem
 each species is less likely to become extinct (due to high genetic diversity)
 & if a species does become extinct it will not affect the food chain as there
are other species available

How to measure Species Diversity for an area?

 Species Diversity Index

 takes into account the number of different species and how many individuals
there are for each species
 the larger the species diversity index, the larger the species diversity

How does deforestation lower species diversity?

 (deforestation is the removal of trees for wood & space)

 decreases plant species diversity
 less variety of habitats
 less variety of food sources
 decreases animal species diversity

How does agriculture/farming lower species diversity?

 deforestation to make space for farm

 only grow a few plants & keep a few animal species
 selectively breed plants & animals
 use pesticides to kill other species

What is Classification? placing organisms into groups

What is Hierarchical Classification?

 large groups divided into smaller groups with no overlap

 domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, species

What is Binomial Naming System?

 using Genus name and Species name to name organism

 Genus name first in capital, Species name second in lower case
 e.g. tiger = Felix tigris

What is a Species?

a group of individuals with similar characteristics that can interbreed to

produce fertile
offspring

Why are the offspring from 2 different species mating infertile?

 offspring will have a odd number of chromosomes

 therefore, cannot perform meiosis, cannot produce gametes
 example: horse + donkey = mule,
mule is infertile,
horse has 64 chromosomes/donkey has 62 chromosomes,
horse gamete has 32 chromosomes/donkey gamete has 31 chromosomes,
therefore, mule has 63 chromosomes

What is Phylogenetic Classification?

based on evolutionary relationships – how closely related different species

are and how recent a common ancestor they have

3 ways of comparing relationship between different species?

DNA Hybridisation: comparing DNA base sequence

- take DNA from 2 species to be compared

- radioactively label one of the DNA
- heat both sets so double strand separates
- cool so single strands join together
- look for Hybrid DNA (one strand from species A, one strand from
species B)
- identify Hybrid DNA by 50% radioactivity
- heat Hybrid DNA to measure similarity

results = higher temperature required

more hydrogen bonds present
more complementary base pairing
more similar the base sequence
more similar the species
more closely related
more recent a common ancestor

AA Sequence: comparing AA sequence for the same protein (e.g. haemoglobin in

mammals)

results = more similar the AA sequence

more similar the DNA base sequence
more similar the species
more closely related
more recent a common ancestor

(comparing DNA sequence better then comparing AA sequence:

DNA sequence provides information on INTRONS and triplet code is DEGENERATE)

Protein Shape: comparing shape of the same protein (e.g. albumin) using
immunological technique

- comparing species A and species B

- take albumin from species A
- place in a blood of rabbit
- rabbit will make antibodies against albumin of species A
- takes these antibodies and place in blood from species B
- if the albumin in species B has a similar shape to species A,
the antibodies will bind to form antigen-antibody
complexes,
this will then form a precipitate

results = more precipitate

more complexes
more similar shape
more similar the species
more closely related
more common recent ancestor

What is Variation? difference in characteristics between organisms

Types of Variation?

intraspecific = differences between organisms of the same species

interspecific = differences between organisms of different species

Causes of Intraspecific Variation?

 Genetic Factors = same genes but different alleles (allele are different
type/forms of genes)

Environmental Factors

Causes of Interspecific Variation?

Genetic Factors = different genes and different alleles

Environmental Factors

Types of Characteristics? Discontinuous and Continuous

Properties of Discontinuous Characteristics?

characteristics fall into certain groups with no overlap (e.g. blood group) –
determined by genetics only (a single gene)

Properties of Continuous Characteristics?

characteristics show a range (e.g. height) – determined by genetics (a few

genes, polygenes) and environment

What is Genetic Diversity? genetic variation, the variety of alleles within a

population of a species

Benefit of high genetic diversity? species able to adapt with changes in the
environment e.g. if a new disease arises, some individuals will have
characteristics to survive, and will reproduce passing on their alleles, so the
species does not become extinct

What can lower genetic diversity? small population size (e.g. founder effect –
where the numbers start low, or genetic bottleneck –
where the numbers decrease)

What is natural selection and adaptation?

 variation in population of species

(genetic diversity/genetic variation/variety in gene pool)
 new alleles arise by random mutation
 environment applies a selection pressure on the population
 those with favourable characteristics/favourable alleles/selection
advantage/better adapted survive, the others die [natural selection]
 the ones that survive will reproduce, passing on their favourable alleles
 if this happens for many generations, then that characteristic will become
most common – the allele will become more frequent [adaptation]

What are the 2 types of selection? stabilising and directional

What is stabilising selection?

 when the environment favours those with the most common characteristic –
those on the extreme dies out
 the common characteristic increases in proportion
 the range (standard deviation) will reduce

What is directional selection?

 when the environment favours those individuals with characteristics on one of
the extremes
 over time this will become the most common characteristic
 normal distribution will shift to that extreme

What is a Gene?

 a section of DNA that codes for a protein

 made out of intron and exon
 intron = non-coding DNA (function e.g. turns gene on or off)
 exon = coding DNA (codes for protein)

How does a Gene/Exon code for a Protein?

 made out of a sequence of bases

 each 3 bases code for 1 amino acid (called triplet code)
 therefore,
 sequence of bases
 determines sequence of triplet codes
 which determine the sequence of AAs
 = polypeptide chain/primary structure (folds to secondary, then to
tertiary/quaternary)

Properties of triplet code?

 degenerate = each AA has more than one triplet code

 non-overlapping = each base is read only once
 stop codes = occur at end of sequence – do not code for an AA

How does a mutation lead to a non-functional enzyme?

 change in base sequence

 change in sequence of triplet codes
 change in sequence of AAs
 change in primary structure
 change in hydrogen/ionic/disulfide bonds
 change in tertiary structure (3D shape)
 change in active site shape
 substrate no longer complementary
 can no longer form enzyme-substrate complex

How is a protein assembled?

 by transcription and translation

 transcription = production of a single stranded complementary copy of a gene
(called mRNA)
 translation = use sequence of codons on mRNA to assemble protein (tRNA brings
in AAs)
DNA vs RNA?

 deoxyribose sugar vs ribose sugar

 thymine vs uracil
 double stranded vs single stranded
 one type vs two types (mRNA and tRNA)

What is mRNA?

 messenger RNA
 single stranded complementary copy of a gene
 carries the code for assembling protein (on DNA called triplet code, on mRNA
called
codon)

What is tRNA?

 transfer RNA
 single stranded RNA folded over into a 'clover leaf' shape (held by hydrogen
bonds between the
bases)
 has an AA attachment site on the top
 has 3 specific bases on the bottom (anticodon)
 anticodon binds to complementary codons on mRNA

What is Transciption?

 occurs in nucleolus of nucleus

 producing a single stranded complementary copy of a gene (called mRNA)
 DNA is double stranded, 1 strand called coding strand & 1 strand called
template strand, the template strand will be used to build mRNA
 process,
 DNA Helicase breaks the hydrogen bonds between complementary bases in the
gene
 the double strand of the gene unwinds
 leaves 2 separate strands (1 coding strand and 1 template strand)
 complementary RNA nucleotides bind to exposed bases on the template strand
 RNA Polymerase joins the sugar-phosphate backbone of the RNA strand
 leaves pre-mRNA (contains introns and exons)
 the copies of the introns are removed by splicing
 leaves mRNA

What is Translation?

 takes place on ribosomes of Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum

 uses the sequence of codons on the mRNA to assemble the protein (tRNA brings
in AAs)
 process,
 mRNA leaves nucleus via nuclear pore
 mRNA attaches to a ribosome
 complementary tRNA carrying specific AAs bind to the codons on mRNA via their
anticodon
 the AAs on the tRNA are joined by peptide bonds

What does Meiosis produce?

 4 genetically different cells, haploid (half the amount of chromosome/DNA)

Benefits of Meiosis?

produces gametes which will be used in sexual reproduction in animals &

plants
(2 gametes fuse to form a zygote, zygote develops into organisms)

Stages of Meiosis? Interphase/Meiosis I/Meiosis II/Cytokinesis

Interphase? G1: protein synthesis

S: DNA replication (doubles set of DNA)
G2: organelle synthesis

Meiosis I?

Prophase I: DNA coils to form chromosomes, nucleus breaksdown, spindle fibres

form, crossing over occurs
Metaphase I: homologous pair of chromosomes line up in middle of cell and
attach to spindle fibre via centromere
Anaphase I: spindle fibres pull, homologous pair of chromosomes separate to
opposite sides by
independent assortment
Telophase I: chromosomes uncoil, nucleus reforms (left with 2 nuclei)

Meiosis II?

Prophase II: DNA coils to form chromosomes, nucleus breaksdown, spindle

fibres form
Metaphase II: chromosomes line up in middle of cell and attach to spindle
fibre via
centromere
Anaphase II: spindle fibres pull, centromere splits, sister chromatids move
to opposite sides by
independent assortment
Telophase II: chromatids uncoil, nucleus reforms (left with 4 genetically
different nuclei)

Cytokinesis? separating cell into 4 (each receives a nucleus and

organelles/cytoplasm)

How does Meiosis produce Variation? Crossing Over and Independent Assortment

What is crossing over?

occurs in Prophase I of Meiosis I

homologous pairs of chromosomes wrap around each other and swap equivalent
sections of chromatids – produces new combination of alleles

What is independent assortment?

- in Anaphase I of Meiosis I – the homologous pairs of chromosomes separate

- in Anaphase II of Meiosis II – the chromatids separate
- independent assortment produces a mix of alleles from paternal and maternal
chromosomes in gamete

What happens to DNA mass in meiosis? quarters

What happens to Chromosome number in meiosis? halves (haploid)

What is Mutation?

 Change in DNA
 2 types: Chromosome Mutation and Gene Mutation

What causes mutation? random or due to mutagens (e.g. chemicals, radiation)

What is a Chromosome Mutation?

 In plants, inherit more than one diploid set of chromosomes – called

polyploidy
 In animals, homologous pair of chromosome do not separate in meiosis, so
either inherit one extra or one less chromosome – called non-disjunction

What is a Gene Mutation?

 a change in the base sequence of DNA

 2 types = substitution and insertion/deletion
 substitution = replace one base for another, changes one triplet code
can be silent (new triplet code codes for same AA), mis-sense (codes
for a different AA, so protein shape changes slightly), non-sense (codes
for a stop codon, so polypeptide chain not produced)
 insertion = adding a base, deletion = removing a base
both insertion/deletion causes frameshift, all the triplet codes after
the mutation changes, so normal polypeptide chain/protein not
produced