Semiconductor Diode
Course Name: Basic Electronics
Couse Teacher: Sajib Kumar Mohonta
Lecturer
Department of Physics, SUST.
Semiconductor
A semiconductor is a substance which has resistivity (10−4 to 0.5 Ώ
m) in between conductors and insulators e.g. germanium, silicon,
selenium, carbon etc.
Properties:
(a) It has negative temperature coefficient i. e. resistivity
decreases with temperature.
(b) Rapid change in current conduction for little impurity.
There are two types of semiconductors
1. Intrinsic : A pure semiconductor.
2. Extrinsic : Semiconductor with little impurity.
Doping
The electrical characteristics of silicon and germanium are improved
by adding materials in a process called doping.
Depending upon the type of impurity added, extrinsic semiconductors
are classified into:
(i) n-type semiconductor
(ii) p-type semiconductor
n-type Semiconductor
At the time of doping if the impurity element
is pentavalent i.e. (As, At etc.) then it’s called
n-type semiconductor.
Consider a pure germanium crystal. Each
germanium atom has four valence electrons.
When arsenic is added to germanium crystal,
a large number of free electrons become
available in the crystal. Because Arsenic is
pentavalent i.e. its atom has five valence
electrons. An arsenic atom fits in the
germanium crystal in such a way that its four
valence electrons form covalent bonds with
four germanium atoms. The fifth valence
electron of arsenic atom finds no place in co-
valent bonds and is thus free. Therefore, for
each arsenic atom added, one free electron
will be available in the germanium crystal.
Though each arsenic atom provides one free
electron, yet an extremely small amount of
arsenic impurity provides enough atoms to Figure: n-type Semiconductor.
supply millions of free electrons.
p-type semiconductor
If the doping is trivalent (Br, Ga etc), then
it’s called p-type semiconductor.
Consider a pure germanium crystal. Each
germanium atom has four valence electrons.
When gallium is added to germanium
crystal, a large number of free holes
become available in the crystal. Because
gallium is trivalent i.e. its atom has three
valence electrons. An gallium atom fits in
the germanium crystal in such a way that
its three valence electrons form covalent
bonds with three germanium atoms. The
fourth bond is incomplete; being short of
one electron. This missing electron is called
a hole. Therefore, for each gallium atom
added, one hole is created. A small amount
of gallium provides millions of holes. Figure: p-type Semiconductor.
p-n junction formation
When a p-type semiconductor is suitably joined to n-
type semiconductor, the contact surface is called pn
junction.
Formation:
In Alloying method, a small block of indium
(trivalent impurity) is placed on an n-type
germanium slab.
(i). The system is then heated to a temperature
of about 500ºC. The indium and some of the
germanium melt to form a small puddle of molten
germanium-indium mixture.
(ii). The temperature is then lowered and puddle
begins to solidify. Under proper conditions, the
atoms of indium impurity will be suitably adjusted
in the germanium slab to form a single crystal. The
addition of indium overcomes the excess of
electrons in the n-type germanium to such an
extent that it creates a p-type region.
(iii). When all germanium has been redeposited, the
remaining material appears as indium button which
is frozen on to the outer surface of the
crystallised portion .
Depletion Region
At the p-n junction, the excess conduction-band electrons on
the n-type side are attracted to the valence-band holes on the
p-type side. The electrons in the n-type material migrate across
the junction to the p-type material (electron flow). The electron
migration results in a negative charge on the p-type side of the
junction and a positive charge on the n-type side of the
junction.
The result is the formation of a depletion region around the
junction.
Reverse Bias
External voltage is applied across the
p-n junction in the opposite polarity of
the p- and n-type materials.
(a)The reverse voltage causes the
depletion region to widen.
(b)The electrons in the n-type
material are attracted toward the
positive terminal of the voltage
source.
(c) The holes in the p-type material
are attracted toward the negative
terminal of the voltage source.
So with reverse bias to the junction,
a high resistance path is established
and hence no current flow occurs.
Forward Bias
External voltage is applied across the
p-n junction in the same polarity as the
p- and n-type materials.
(a) The forward voltage causes the
depletion region to narrow.
(b) The electrons and holes are pushed
toward the p-n junction.
(c) The electrons and holes have
sufficient energy to cross the p-n
junction.
So with forward bias to the junction, a
low resistance path is set up and hence
current flows in the circuit.
Volt-Ampere Characteristics of pn Junction
.
1. Initially there is no current at origin.
2. As we increased voltage in forward bias, after some few volts depends on
materials ( Si, Ge) the current is rapidly increased and independent of applying
voltage i. e. the depletion region is disappear.
3. In reverse bias as we increase the applied voltage there is a very small current
due to minority carriers which is called reverse saturation current. If we applied
very large voltage in reverse bias then the electrons get kinetic energy may
become high enough to knock out electrons from the semiconductor atoms. At this
stage breakdown of the junction occurs, characterized by a sudden rise of
reverse current and a sudden fall of the resistance of barrier region. This may
destroy the junction permanently.
Rectifier Equation
The general characteristics of a semiconductor diode can be
defined by the following equation for the forward- and reverse-
bias regions:
𝑘𝑉𝐷
𝐼𝐷 = 𝐼𝑆 (𝑒 𝑇 − 1)
Where
Is =reverse saturation current
k =11,600/η with η = 1 for Ge and 2 for Si for relatively low
levels of diode current (at or below the knee of the curve) and 1
for Ge and Si for higher levels of diode current (in the rapidly
increasing section
of the curve)
T =T+ 273°C
It is also known as rectifier equation.
Light-Emitting Diode (LED)
An LED emits photons when it is forward biased.
These can be in the infrared or visible spectrum.
The forward bias voltage is usually in the range of
2 V to 3 V. LEDs are made of gallium, phosphorus
and arsenic.
When light-emitting diode (LED) is forward
biased the electrons from the n-type material
cross the pn junction and recombine with holes in
the p-type material. Since these free electrons
are in the conduction band and at a higher energy
level than the holes in the valence band. When
recombination takes place, the recombining
electrons release energy in the form of heat and
light. In materials like gallium arsenide, the
number of photons of light energy is sufficient to
produce quite intense visible light.
Advantages: 1. Low voltage. 2. Longer life time
3. Fast ON-OFF switching.
Zener Diode
A properly doped crystal diode which has a
sharp breakdown voltage is known as a
zener diode.
The following points may be noted about
the zener diode:
(i) A zener diode is like an ordinary diode
except that it is properly doped so as to
have a sharp breakdown voltage.
(ii) A zener diode is always reverse
connected i.e. it is always reverse biased.
(iii) A zener diode has sharp breakdown
voltage, called zener voltage VZ.
(iv) When forward biased, its
characteristics are just those of ordinary
diode.
Zener Diode as a voltage Regulator
A zener diode can be used as a voltage regulator to provide a constant
voltage from a source whose voltage may vary over sufficient range. The
circuit arrangement is shown in Fig. (i). The zener diode of zener voltage
VZ is reverse connected across the load RL across which constant output
is desired. The series resistance R absorbs the output voltage
fluctuations so as to maintain constant voltage across the load. It may be
noted that the zener will maintain a constant voltage VZ (= E0) across the
load so long as the input voltage does not fall below VZ.
When the circuit is properly designed, the load voltage E0 remains
essentially constant (equal to VZ) even though the input voltage Ei and
load resistance RL may vary over a wide range.
i. Suppose the input voltage increases. It is clear that output voltage
remains constant at VZ (= E0). The excess voltage is dropped across
the series resistance R. So the value of total current I will increase.
The zener will conduct the increase of current in I while the load
current remains constant. Hence, output voltage E0 remains constant
irrespective of the changes in the input voltage Ei.
ii. Now suppose that input voltage is constant but the load resistance
RL decreases. This will cause an increase in load current. The extra
current cannot come from the source because drop in R (and hence
source current I) will not change as the zener is within its regulating
range. The additional load current will come from a decrease in zener
current IZ. Consequently, the output voltage stays at constant value.
Voltage drop across R = Ei − E0
Current through R, I = IZ + IL
𝐸𝑖 −𝐸𝑜
Applying Ohm’s law, we have, 𝑅 =
𝐼𝑍 +𝐼𝐿
Reference
Principles of Electronics by V. K. Mehta
ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUIT THEORY by Boylestad