First French Empire

The First French Empire[5] or French Empire (French: Empire français; Latin: Imperium Francicum),
also known as Napoleonic France, was the empire ruled by Napoleon Bonaparte, who established
French hegemony over much of continental Europe at the beginning of the 19th century. It lasted
from 18 May 1804 to 6 April 1814 and again briefly from 20 March 1815 to 7 July 1815, when
Napoleon was exiled to St. Helena.[6]

Although France had already established a colonial empire overseas since the early 17th century,
the French state had remained a kingdom under the Bourbons and a republic after the French
Revolution. Historians refer to Napoleon's regime as the First Empire to distinguish it from the
restorationist Second Empire (1852–1870) ruled by his nephew Napoleon III.

On 18 May 1804 (28 Floréal year XII on the French Republican calendar), Napoleon was granted the
title Emperor of the French (Empereur des Français, pronounced [ɑ̃pʁœʁ de fʁɑ̃sɛ]) by the French
Sénat conservateur and was crowned on 2 December 1804 (11 Frimaire year XIII),[7] signifying the
end of the French Consulate and of the French First Republic. Despite his coronation, the state
continued to be formally called the "French Republic" until October 1808. The empire achieved
military supremacy in mainland Europe through the War of the Third Coalition, where French armies
scored a string of decisive victories against Austrian and Russian forces, most notably at the Battle
of Austerlitz in 1805.[8] French dominance was reaffirmed during the War of the Fourth Coalition, at
the Battle of Jena–Auerstedt in 1806 and the Battle of Friedland in 1807,[9] before Napoleon's final
defeat at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815.

A series of wars, known collectively as the Napoleonic Wars, extended French influence to much of
Western Europe and into Poland. At its height in 1812, the French Empire had 130 departments, a
population over 44 million people, ruled over 90 million subjects throughout Europe, maintained an
extensive military presence in Germany, Italy, Spain, and Poland, and counted Austria and Prussia as
nominal allies.[4] Early French victories exported many ideological features of the Revolution
throughout Europe: the introduction of the Napoleonic Code throughout the continent increased
legal equality, established jury systems and legalised divorce, and seigneurial dues and seigneurial
justice were abolished, as were aristocratic privileges in all places except Poland.[10] France's defeat
in 1814 (and then again in 1815), marked the end of the First French Empire and the beginning of
the Bourbon Restoration.
Origin French Republic
République française[a] (1804–1808)

In 1799, Napoleon Bonaparte was confronted by French Empire

Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès—one of five Directors Empire français (1808–1815)
constituting the executive branch of the French
1804 – 1814
government—who sought his support for a coup 20 March – 7 July 1815
d'état to overthrow the Constitution of the Year III.
The plot included Bonaparte's brother Lucien,
then serving as speaker of the Council of Five
Hundred, Roger Ducos, another Director, and
Flag Imperial coat of arms
Charles Maurice de Talleyrand. On 9 November
1799 (18 Brumaire VIII under the French Motto: Liberté, Ordre Public[2]
Republican Calendar) and the following day, ("Liberty, Public Order")

troops led by Napoleon Bonaparte seized control. Anthem: Chant du départ

("Song of the Departure"; official)
They dispersed the legislative councils, leaving a
3:22
rump legislature to name Bonaparte, Sieyès, and
Ducos as provisional Consuls to administer the
Veillons au salut de l'Empire
government. Although Sieyès expected to ("Let's ensure the salvation of the Empire";
unofficial)
dominate the new regime, the Consulate, he was
outmaneuvered by Bonaparte, who drafted the
Constitution of the Year VIII and secured his own
election as First Consul. He thus became the
most powerful person in France, a power that was
increased by the Constitution of the Year X, which
made him First Consul for life.

The Battle of Marengo (14 June 1800)

inaugurated the political idea that was to continue
its development until Napoleon's Russian
campaign. The Peace of Amiens, which cost him
control of Egypt, was a temporary truce. He
The First French Empire at its peak territorial
gradually extended his authority in Italy by control in September 1812
annexing the Piedmont and by acquiring Genoa, Directly administered
Parma, Tuscany, and Naples, and added this Client states
Military occupation
Italian territory to the Cisalpine Republic. Then he
Official borders of client states, but under
laid siege to the Roman state and initiated the neither French nor client control
Concordat of 1801 to control the material claims Capital Paris
of the Pope. When he recognised his error of Official languages French
raising the authority of the Pope from that of a
Religion Roman Catholicism
figurehead, Napoleon produced the Articles Lutheranism
Organiques (1802) with the goal of becoming the Calvinism
Judaism
legal protector of the papacy, like Charlemagne.
Demonym(s) French
To conceal his plans before their actual
execution, he aroused French colonial aspirations Government Unitary Bonapartist
absolute monarchy
and the memory of the 1763 Treaty of Paris, (1804–1814)
worsening British relations with France, whose Unitary Bonapartist
semi-constitutional
borders now extended to the Rhine and beyond, monarchy (1815)
to Hanover, Hamburg, and Cuxhaven. Napoleon
Emperor
would have ruling elites from a fusion of the new
bourgeoisie and the old aristocracy.[11] • 1804–1814, 1815 Napoleon I

On 12 May 1802, the French Tribunat voted Legislature Parliament

unanimously, with the exception of Lazare Carnot, • Upper house Tribunat (until 19
September 1807)
in favour of the Life Consulship for the leader of
Chamber of Peers
France.[12] This action was confirmed by the (from 22 April
1815)
Corps Législatif. A general plebiscite followed
thereafter resulting in 3,653,600 votes aye and • Lower house Corps législatif (until
4 June 1814)
8,272 votes nay.[13] On 2 August 1802 (14 Chamber of
Thermidor, An X), Napoleon Bonaparte was Representatives
(from 22 April
proclaimed Consul for life. Pro-revolutionary 1815)
sentiment swept through Germany aided by the
Historical era Napoleonic era
"Recess of 1803", which brought Bavaria,
Württemberg, and Baden to France's side. Prime • Constitution 18 May 1804
Minister William Pitt the Younger, back in power in adopted

Britain, appealed once more for an Anglo-Austro- • Coronation of 2 December 1804

Russian coalition against France to counter Napoleon

French expansionism.[14] • Treaties of Tilsit 7 July 1807

• Invasion of Russia 24 June 1812

• Treaty of 11 April 1814

Fontainebleau

• Hundred Days 20 March – 7 July

1815
 Area

1812[3] 2,100,000 km2

(810,000 sq mi)

Population

• 1812 44 million[4]

Currency French franc

Preceded Succeeded by
by

Imperial standard of Napoleon I French Kingdom of Fran

First S. Principality of t
On 18 May 1804, Napoleon was given the title of Republic United Netherlan
"Emperor of the French" by the Senate; finally, on 2 Kingdom United Kingdom of the Netherlan
of Neutral Moresn
December 1804, he was solemnly crowned, after Holland Luxembou
receiving the Iron Crown of the Lombard kings, Ligurian Grand Duchy of Tusca
Republic
and was consecrated by Pope Pius VII in Notre- Ando
Andorra
Mona
Dame de Paris. In four campaigns, the Emperor Principality of El
transformed his "Carolingian" feudal republican Provisional Government
Belgium (1814–181
and federal empire into one modelled on the
Roman Empire. The memories of imperial Rome
were for a third time, after Julius Caesar and Charlemagne, used to modify the historical evolution
of France. Though the vague plan for an invasion of Great Britain was never executed, the Ulm
campaign and the Battle of Austerlitz overshadowed the defeat at Trafalgar, and the camp of
Boulogne put at Napoleon's disposal the best military resources he had commanded, in the form of
La Grande Armée.

Early victories

The Battle of Austerlitz, 2nd December 1805, by François

Gérard
In the War of the Third Coalition, Napoleon swept away the remnants of the old Holy Roman Empire
and created in southern Germany the vassal states of Bavaria, Baden, Württemberg, Hesse-
Darmstadt, and Saxony, which were reorganised into the Confederation of the Rhine. The Treaty of
Pressburg, signed on 26 December 1805, extracted extensive territorial concessions from Austria,
on top of a large financial indemnity. Napoleon's creation of the Kingdom of Italy, the occupation of
Ancona, and his annexation of Venetia and its former Adriatic territories marked a new stage in the
French Empire's progress.

To create satellite states, Napoleon installed his relatives as rulers of many European states. The
Bonapartes began to marry into old European royal families, gaining sovereignty over many states.
Older brother Joseph Bonaparte replaced the dispossessed Bourbons in Naples; younger brother
Louis Bonaparte was installed on the throne of the Kingdom of Holland, formed from the Batavian
Republic; brother-in-law Marshal Joachim Murat became Grand-Duke of Berg; youngest brother
Jérôme Bonaparte was made son-in-law to the King of Württemberg and King of Westphalia;
adopted son Eugène de Beauharnais was appointed Viceroy of Italy; and adopted daughter and
second cousin Stéphanie de Beauharnais married Karl (Charles), the son of the Grand Duke of
Baden. In addition to the vassal titles, Napoleon's closest relatives were also granted the title of
French Prince and formed the Imperial House of France.

Met with opposition, Napoleon would not tolerate any neutral power. On 6 August 1806 the
Habsburgs abdicated their title of Holy Roman Emperor in order to prevent Napoleon from
becoming the next Emperor, ending a political power which had endured for over a thousand years.
Prussia had been offered the territory of Hanover to stay out of the Third Coalition. With the
diplomatic situation changing, Napoleon offered Great Britain the province as part of a peace
proposal. To this, combined with growing tensions in Germany over French hegemony, Prussia
responded by forming an alliance with Russia and sending troops into Bavaria on 1 October 1806.
During the War of the Fourth Coalition, Napoleon destroyed the Prussian armies at Jena and
Auerstedt. Successive victories at Eylau and Friedland against the Russians finally ruined Frederick
the Great's formerly mighty kingdom, obliging Russia and Prussia to make peace with France at
Tilsit.
Height of the Empire

The Arc de Triomphe, ordered by Napoleon

in honour of the Grande Armée, is one of
several landmarks whose construction was
started in Paris during the First French
Empire.

Napoleon reviewing the Imperial Guard

before the Battle of Jena, 1806

The Treaties of Tilsit ended the war between Russia and France and began an alliance between the
two empires that held as much power as the rest of Europe. The two empires secretly agreed to aid
each other in disputes. France pledged to aid Russia against the Ottoman Empire, while Russia
agreed to join the Continental System against Britain. Russia also agreed to recognize the
Confederation of the Rhine, as agreed on by the treaty.[15] Napoleon also forced Alexander to enter
the Anglo-Russian War and to instigate the Finnish War against Sweden in order to force Sweden to
join the Continental System.

More specifically, Alexander agreed to evacuate Wallachia and Moldavia, which had been occupied
by Russian forces as part of the Russo-Turkish War. The Ionian Islands and Cattaro, which had been
captured by Russian admirals Fyodor Ushakov and Dmitry Senyavin, were to be handed over to the
French. In recompense, Napoleon guaranteed the sovereignty of the Duchy of Oldenburg and several
other small states ruled by the Russian emperor's German relatives.
The treaty removed about half of Prussia's territory: Cottbus was given to Saxony, the left bank of
the Elbe was awarded to the newly created Kingdom of Westphalia, Białystok was given to Russia,
and the rest of the Polish lands in Prussian possession were set up as the Duchy of Warsaw.
Prussia was ordered to reduce its army to 40,000 men and to pay an indemnity of 100,000,000
francs. Observers in Prussia viewed the treaty as unfair and as a national humiliation.

Aftermath of the Battle of Eylau, 1807

Talleyrand had advised Napoleon to pursue milder terms; the treaties marked an important stage in
his estrangement from the emperor. After Tilsit, instead of trying to reconcile Europe, as Talleyrand
had advised, Napoleon wanted to defeat Britain and complete his Italian dominion. To the coalition
of the northern powers, he added the league of the Baltic and Mediterranean ports, and to the
bombardment of Copenhagen by the Royal Navy he responded with a second decree of blockade,
dated from Milan on 17 December 1807.

The application of the Concordat and the taking of Naples led to Napoleon's first struggles with the
Pope, centred around Pius VII renewing the theocratic affirmations of Pope Gregory VII. The
emperor's Roman ambition was made more visible by the occupation of the Kingdom of Naples and
of the Marches, and by the entry of General Sextius Alexandre François de Miollis into Rome; while
General Jean-Andoche Junot invaded Portugal, Marshal Murat took control of formerly Roman
Spain as Regent. Soon after, Napoleon had his brother, Joseph, crowned King of Spain and sent him
there to take control.

Napoleon tried to succeed in the Iberian Peninsula as he had done in Italy, in the Netherlands, and in
Hesse. However, the exile of the Spanish Royal Family to Bayonne, together with the enthroning of
Joseph Bonaparte, turned the Spanish against Napoleon. After the Dos de Mayo riots and
subsequent reprisals, the Spanish government began an effective guerrilla campaign, under the
oversight of local Juntas. The Iberian Peninsula became a war zone from the Pyrenees to the Straits
of Gibraltar and saw the Grande Armée facing the remnants of the Spanish Army, as well as British
and Portuguese forces. General Pierre Dupont capitulated at Bailén to General Francisco Castaños,
and Junot at Cintra, Portugal to General Arthur Wellesley.
Spain used up the soldiers needed for Napoleon's other fields of battle, and they had to be replaced
by conscripts. Spanish resistance affected Austria, and indicated the potential of national
resistance. The provocations of Talleyrand and Britain strengthened the idea that the Austrians
could emulate the Spanish. On 10 April 1809, Austria invaded France's ally, Bavaria. The campaign
of 1809, however, would not be nearly as long and troublesome for France as the one in Spain and
Portugal. Following a short and decisive action in Bavaria, Napoleon opened up the road to the
Austrian capital of Vienna for a second time. At Aspern, Napoleon suffered his first serious tactical
defeat, along with the death of Marshal Jean Lannes, an able commander and dear friend of the
emperor. The victory at Wagram, however, forced Austria to sue for peace. The Treaty of
Schönbrunn, signed on 14 December 1809, resulted in the annexation of the Illyrian Provinces and
recognised past French conquests.

The Pope was forcibly deported to Savona, and his domains were incorporated into the French
Empire. The Senate's decision on 17 February 1810 created the title "King of Rome", and made
Rome the capital of Italy. Between 1810 and 1812 Napoleon's divorce of Joséphine, and his
marriage with Archduchess Marie Louise of Austria, followed by the birth of his son, shed light upon
his future policy. He gradually withdrew power from his siblings and concentrated his affection and
ambition on his son, the guarantee of the continuance of his dynasty, marking the high point of the
Empire.

Intrigues and unrest

Napoleon demanded that Alexander I of

Russia and Frederick William III of Prussia
meet him at Tilsit in July 1807.

Undermining forces, however, had already begun to impinge on the faults inherent in Napoleon's
achievements. Britain, protected by the English Channel and its navy, was persistently active, and
rebellion of both the governing and of the governed broke out everywhere. Napoleon, though he
underrated it, soon felt his failure in coping with the Peninsular War. Men like Baron von Stein,
August von Hardenberg, and Gerhard von Scharnhorst had begun secretly preparing Prussia's
retaliation.

The alliance arranged at Tilsit was seriously shaken by the Austrian marriage, the threat of Polish
restoration to Russia, and the Continental System. The very persons whom he had placed in power
were counteracting his plans. With many of his siblings and relations performing unsuccessfully or
even betraying him, Napoleon found himself obliged to revoke their power. Caroline Bonaparte
conspired against her brother and against her husband Murat; the hypochondriac Louis, now Dutch
in his sympathies, found the supervision of the blockade taken from him, and also the defence of
the Scheldt, which he had refused to ensure. Jérôme Bonaparte lost control of the blockade on the
North Sea shores. The very nature of things was against the new dynasties, as it had been against
the old.

After national insurrections and family recriminations came treachery from Napoleon's ministers.
Talleyrand betrayed his designs to Klemens von Metternich and suffered dismissal. Joseph Fouché,
corresponding with Austria in 1809 and 1810, entered into an understanding with Louis and also
with Britain, while Louis Antoine de Bourrienne was convicted of speculation. By consequence of
the spirit of conquest Napoleon had aroused, many of his marshals and officials, having tasted
victory, dreamed of sovereign power: Marshal Jean-Baptiste Bernadotte, who had helped him to the
Consulate, played Napoleon false to win the crown of Sweden. Marshal Jean-de-Dieu Soult, like
Murat, coveted the Spanish throne after that of Portugal, thus anticipating the treason of 1812.

The country itself, though flattered by conquests, was tired of self-sacrifice. The unpopularity of
conscription gradually turned many of Napoleon's subjects against him. Amidst profound silence
from the press and the assemblies, a protest was raised against imperial power by the literary world,
against the excommunicated sovereign by Catholicism, and against the author of the Continental
Blockade by the discontented bourgeoisie, ruined by the crisis of 1811. Even as he lost his military
principles, Napoleon maintained his gift for brilliance. His Six Days' Campaign, which took place at
the very end of the War of the Sixth Coalition, is often regarded as his greatest display of leadership
and military prowess. But by then it was the end (or "the finish"), and it was during the years before
when various European states conspired against France. While Napoleon and his holdings idled and
worsened, the rest of Europe agreed to avenge the revolutionary events of 1792.
Last days

Napoleon and his staff during the War of the Sixth

Coalition, by Jean-Louis-Ernest Meissonier

Napoleon had hardly succeeded in putting down the revolt in Germany when the emperor of Russia
himself headed a European insurrection against Napoleon. To put an end to this, ensure his own
access to the Mediterranean, and exclude his chief rival, Napoleon invaded Russia in 1812. Despite
his victorious advance, the taking of Smolensk, the victory on the Moskva, and the entry into
Moscow, he was defeated by the country and the climate, and by Alexander's refusal to make terms.
After this came the terrible retreat in the harsh Russian winter, while all of Europe was turning
against him. Pushed back, as he had been in Spain, from bastion to bastion, after the crossing of the
Berezina, Napoleon had to fall back upon the frontiers of 1809, and then—having refused the peace
offered to him by Austria at the Congress of Prague (4 June – 10 August 1813), from fear of losing
Italy, where each of his victories had marked a stage in the accomplishment of his dream—on those
of 1805, despite the victories at Lützen and Bautzen, and on those of 1802 after his disastrous
defeat at Leipzig, when Bernadotte—now Crown Prince of Sweden—turned upon him, General Jean
Moreau also joined the Allies, and longstanding allied states, such as Saxony and Bavaria, forsook
him as well.

Following his retreat from Russia, Napoleon continued to retreat, this time from Germany. After the
loss of Spain, reconquered by an Allied army led by the Duke of Wellington, the uprising in the
Netherlands preliminary to the invasion, and the manifesto of Frankfurt (1 December 1813)[16] which
proclaimed it, he was forced to fall back upon the frontiers of 1795; and was later driven further
back upon those of 1792—despite the forceful campaign of 1814 against the invaders. Paris
capitulated on 30 March 1814, and the Delenda Carthago, pronounced against Britain, was spoken
of Napoleon. The empire briefly fell with Napoleon's abdication at Fontainebleau on 11 April 1814.

After less than a year's exile on the island of Elba, Napoleon escaped to France with a thousand men
and four cannons. King Louis XVIII sent Marshal Michel Ney to arrest him. Upon meeting Ney's
army, Napoleon dismounted and walked into firing range, saying "If one of you wishes to kill his
emperor, here I am!" But instead of firing, the soldiers went to join Napoleon's side shouting "Vive
l'Empereur!" Napoleon retook the throne temporarily in 1815, reviving the empire in the "Hundred
Days". However, he was defeated by the Seventh Coalition at the Battle of Waterloo. He surrendered
himself to the British and was exiled to Saint Helena, a remote island in the South Atlantic, where he
remained until his death in 1821. After the Hundred Days, the Bourbon monarchy was restored, with
Louis XVIII regaining the French throne, while the rest of Napoleon's conquests were disposed of in
the Congress of Vienna.

Nature of Napoleon's rule

The Napoleonic Code

Napoleon gained support by appealing to some common concerns of the French people. These
included dislike of the emigrant nobility who had escaped persecution, fear by some of a restoration
of the Ancien Régime, a dislike and suspicion of foreign countries that had tried to reverse the
Revolution—and a wish by Jacobins to extend France's revolutionary ideals.

Napoleon attracted power and imperial status and gathered support for his changes of French
institutions, such as the Concordat of 1801 which confirmed the Catholic Church as the majority
church of France and restored some of its civil status. Napoleon by this time, however, thought
himself more of an enlightened despot. He preserved numerous social gains of the Revolution while
suppressing political liberty. He admired efficiency and strength and hated feudalism, religious
intolerance, and civil inequality.

Although a supporter of the radical Jacobins during the early days of the Revolution out of
pragmatism, Napoleon became increasingly autocratic as his political career progressed, and once
in power embraced certain aspects of both liberalism and authoritarianism—for example, public
education, a generally liberal restructuring of the French legal system, and the emancipation of the
Jews—while rejecting electoral democracy and freedom of the press.

France justified the spread of her empire as one of spreading her superior culture, bringing
Enlightenment thinking and modern civilisation to what they viewed as backwards peoples.
However this consequently led to attitudes of contempt against many of the nations France
conquered and repression against recalcitrant populations.[17]
Maps

French départements in 1801 during the French départements in 1812

Consulate
Map of the First French Empire in 1812, divided Europe in 1812, with the French Empire at its
into 130 départements, with the kingdoms of peak before the Russian Campaign
Spain, Portugal, Italy and Naples, and the
Confederation of the Rhine and Illyria and
Dalmatia

See also

Armorial of the First French Empire

France portal

French Revolution

History of France

List of Napoleonic battles

Military career of Napoleon Bonaparte

Paris under Napoleon

Succession of the Roman Empire

Notes

a. Domestically styled as French Republic (French: République française) until 1808: compare the
French franc minted in 1808 and 1809, as well as Article 1 of the Constitution of the Year XII.[1]
References

1. "Constitution de l'An XII – Empire – 28 floréal An XII" ([Link]

s-constitutions-dans-l-histoire/constitution-de-l-an-xii-empire-28-floreal-an-xii) . Conseil
constitutionnel. which reads in English The Government of the Republic is vested in an Emperor,
who takes the title of Emperor of the French.

2. "National Motto of France" ([Link] . French

Moments. 7 May 2015. Archived ([Link]
[Link]/national-motto-of-france/) from the original on 31 May 2023. Retrieved 21 May
2020.

3. Taagepera, Rein (September 1997). "Expansion and Contraction Patterns of Large Polities:
Context for Russia" ([Link] . International Studies
Quarterly. 41 (3): 501. doi:10.1111/0020-8833.00053 ([Link]
0053) . JSTOR 2600793 ([Link] . Archived ([Link]
[Link]/web/20180817161348/[Link] from the original
on 17 August 2018. Retrieved 20 August 2021.

4. Lyons, Martyn (1994). Napoleon Bonaparte and the Legacy of the French Revolution ([Link]
[Link]/books?id=7ZBKEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA232) . Bloomsbury. p. 232. ISBN 978-
1349234363 – via Google Books. (paper ISBN 978-0333572917)

5. "Decree upon the Term, French Republic" ([Link]

ent/legislation/c_republic.html) . Archived ([Link]
tps://[Link]/research/government/legislation/c_republic.html) from the
original on 30 September 2022. Retrieved 30 March 2022.

6. texte, France Auteur du (23 January 1804). "Bulletin des lois de la République française" (http
s://[Link]/ark:/12148/bpt6k4453562) . Gallica. Archived ([Link]
20190823040943/[Link] from the original on 23
August 2019. Retrieved 23 August 2019.

7. Thierry, Lentz. "The Proclamation of Empire by the Sénat Conservateur" ([Link]

org/en/reading_room/articles/files/lentz_proclamation.asp) . [Link]. Fondation
Napoléon. Archived ([Link]
en/reading_room/articles/files/lentz_proclamation.asp) from the original on 23 March 2016.
Retrieved 15 August 2014.
 8. "Battle of Austerlitz" ([Link]
z) . Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived ([Link]
[Link]/EBchecked/topic/43578/Battle-of-Austerlitz) from the original on 8
October 2014. Retrieved 15 August 2014.

9. Hickman, Kennedy. "Napoleonic Wars: Battle of Friedland" ([Link]

214064202/[Link] .
[Link]. [Link]. Archived from the original ([Link]
m/od/napoleonicwars/p/[Link]) on 14 February 2017. Retrieved 15 August
2014.

10. Lyons 1994, pp. 234–236.

11. Haine, Scott (2000). The History of France ([Link]

age/92) (1st ed.). Greenwood Press. pp. 92 ([Link]
n/page/92) . ISBN 978-0-313-30328-9.

12. Fremont-Barnes, Gregory (2006). The encyclopedia of the French revolutionary and Napoleonic
Wars: a political, social, and military history, Volume 1. ABC-CLIO. p. 211. ISBN 978-1851096466.
"Elected to the Tribunate in 1802, he [Carnot] showed himself increasingly alienated by
Napoleon's personal ambition and voted against both the Consul for Life and the proclamation
of the Empire. Unlike many former Revolutionaries, Carnot had little (...)"; Chandler, David G.
(2000). Napoleon ([Link] . Pen and Sword.
p. 57. ISBN 978-1473816565.

13. Bulletin des Lois

14. Black, Jeremy (1994). British Foreign Policy in an Age of Revolutions, 1783-1793 ([Link]
[Link]/books?id=zgbjPESz3dcC) . Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521466844.

15. "Treaties of Tilsit" ([Link]

04634272) . Oxford Reference. Retrieved 22 September 2024.

16. The Frankfort Declaration, 1 December 1813: [Link]

[Link]/research/government/diplomatic/c_frankfort.html Archived ([Link]
rg/web/20200929140729/[Link]
c_frankfort.html/) 29 September 2020 at the Wayback Machine

17. Dwyer, Philip G. "Violence and the revolutionary and Napoleonic wars: massacre, conquest and
the imperial enterprise." Journal of Genocide Research 15, no. 2 (2013): 117-131.
Further reading

Primary sources

Anderson, F.M. (1904). The constitutions and other select documents illustrative of the history of
France, 1789–1901 ([Link] . The H. W. Wilson
company.

Surveys

Bruun, Geoffrey (1938). Europe and the French Imperium, 1799–1814 ([Link]
d/[Link].2015.183653/[Link]-And-The-French-Imperium-1799-1814_text.pd
f) (PDF).

Bryant, Arthur (1942). Years of Endurance 1793–1802. on Britsin

Bryant, Arthur (1944). Years of Victory, 1802–1812., on Britsin

Colton, Joel; Palmer, R.R. (1992). A History of the Modern World. New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc.
ISBN 0-07-040826-2.

Esdaile, Charles (2008). Napoleon's Wars: An International History, 1803–1815 ([Link]

[Link]/Napoleons-Wars-International-History-1803-1815/dp/B002ECEVS4) . Viking Adult.

Fisher, Todd & Fremont-Barnes, Gregory (2004). The Napoleonic Wars: The Rise and Fall of an
Empire. Oxford: Osprey Publishing Ltd. ISBN 1-84176-831-6.

Godechot, Jacques; et al. (1971). The Napoleonic era in Europe ([Link]

id=9rFmAAAAMAAJ) . Holt, Rinehart and Winston. ISBN 978-0030841668.

Grab, Alexander (2003). Napoleon and the Transformation of Europe. Macmillan.

Hazen, Charles Downer (1917). The French Revolution and Napoleon ([Link]
b/20180922121101/[Link]
n) . Archived from the original ([Link]
d-napoleon) on 22 September 2018. Retrieved 27 August 2017.

Lefebvre, Georges (1969). Napoleon from 18 Brumaire to Tilsit, 1799–1807 ([Link]

ails/napoleonfrom18br00lefe) . Columbia University Press.

Lefebvre, Georges (1969). Napoleon; from Tilsit to Waterloo, 1807–1815 ([Link]

m/books?id=mTwJAQAAIAAJ) . Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0231033138.

Muir, Rory (1996). Britain and the Defeat of Napoleon: 1807–1815.

 Lieven, Dominic (2009). Russia Against Napoleon: The Battle for Europe, 1807 to 1814 ([Link]
[Link]/web/20130605171204/[Link] . Allen
Lane/The Penguin Press. Archived from the original ([Link]
[Link]) on 5 June 2013.

Schroeder, Paul W. (1996). The Transformation of European Politics 1763–1848 ([Link]

[Link]/books?id=BS2z3iGPCigC) . Oxford University Press. pp. 177–560. ISBN 978-
0198206545.

Pope, Stephen (1999). The Cassel Dictionary of the Napoleonic Wars. Cassel. ISBN 978-0-304-
35229-6.

Rapport, Mike (2013). The Napoleonic Wars: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press.

Ross, Steven T. (1969). European Diplomatic History, 1789–1815: France Against Europe.

Rothenberg, Gunther E. (1988). "The Origins, Causes, and Extension of the Wars of the French
Revolution and Napoleon". Journal of Interdisciplinary History. 18 (4): 771–793.
doi:10.2307/204824 ([Link] . JSTOR 204824 ([Link]
g/stable/204824) .

Rowe, Michael (2014). "Borders, War, and Nation-Building in Napoleon's Europe". Borderlands in
World History, 1700–1914. Palgrave Macmillan UK. pp. 143–165. ISBN 978-1-137-32058-2.

Schroeder, Paul W. (1994). The Transformation of European Politics 1763–1848 ([Link]

[Link]/web/20190407225933/[Link]
ropean-politics-1763-1848) . Archived from the original ([Link]
3/the-transformation-of-european-politics-1763-1848) on 7 April 2019. Retrieved 27 August
2017., advanced synthesis

Napoleon

Dwyer, Philip (2008). Napoleon: The Path to Power ([Link]

er-Philip-Dwyer-ebook/dp/B00280LN5G) . Yale University Press.

Englund, Steven (2010). Napoleon: A Political Life. Scribner. ISBN 978-0674018037.

McLynn, Frank (1997). Napoleon: A Biography. New York: Arcade Publishing Inc. ISBN 1-55970-
631-7.

Johnson, Paul (2002). Napoleon: A life. Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-670-03078-1.

Markham, Felix (1963). Napoleon ([Link] .

Mentor.
 McLynn, Frank (1998). Napoleon. United Kingdom: Pimlico. ISBN 978-0-7126-6247-5.

Mowat, R.B. (1924). The Diplomacy of Napoleon ([Link]

9) .

Roberts, Andrew (2014). Napoleon: A Life.

Thompson, J.M. (1951). Napoleon Bonaparte: His Rise and Fall ([Link]
id=s2uTaPHPnZ8C) . Oxford University Press.

Military

Bell, David A (2008). The First Total War: Napoleon's Europe and the Birth of Warfare as We Know It
([Link] .

Broers, Michael; et al., eds. (2012). The Napoleonic Empire and the New European Political Culture.
Palgrave Macmillan UK. ISBN 978-0230241312.

Chandler, David G (1995). The Campaigns of Napoleon. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-02-
523660-1.

Elting, John R (1988). Swords Around a Throne: Napoleon's Grande Armée. New York: Da Capo
Press Inc. ISBN 0-306-80757-2.

Gates, David (2011). The Napoleonic Wars 1803–1815. New York: Random House.

Haythornthwaite, Philip J. (1995). Napoleon's Military Machine. Da Capo Press. ISBN 1885119186.

Uffindell, Andrew (2003). Great Generals of the Napoleonic Wars. Kent: Spellmount. ISBN 1-86227-
177-1.

Rothenberg, E. Gunther (1977). The Art of Warfare in the Age of Napoleon.

Smith, Digby George (1998). The Greenhill Napoleonic Wars Data Book: Actions and Losses in
Personnel, Colours, Standards and Artillery.

External links

Napoleon, His Armies and Battles ([Link]

[Link]/napoleon/[Link]) (archived 25 October 2005)