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Charging strategy effect on lithium polymer battery capacity: A case study

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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF
ENERGY AND ENVIRONMENT
Volume 11, Issue 2, 2020 pp.107-118
Journal homepage: [Link]

Charging strategy effect on lithium polymer battery

capacity: A case study

Dimitrios Rimpas1, Athanasios Kiatipis2

1
Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, University of West Attica, Egaleo, 12244,
Greece.
2
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of West Attica, Egaleo, 12244, Greece.

Received 21 Aug. 2020; Received in revised form 27 Oct. 2020; Accepted 30 Oct. 2020; Available online 1 Nov. 2020

Abstract
Since the invention of lithium ion batteries, charging strategies have met great acknowledgment and
research over the years. In this paper, a laptop with lithium polymer battery is monitored via three widely
used tools, during various operational and charging loads. Several key values are obtained in order to
evaluate the correlation between battery cycles, charging percentages and depth of discharge. Ultimately
the results show that massive discharges and continuous operation with the device plugged should be
avoided, though high load tasks require the AC charger to be connected. Ensuring that battery stays at safe
temperature and charging ranges can expand cell life and state, as well as prevent lithium deposits inside
the battery.
Copyright © 2020 International Energy and Environment Foundation - All rights reserved.

Keywords: Lithium; Battery; Cells; DoD; Discharge; cycles; Deposits; Laptop; Capacity; Polymer.

1. Introduction
Lithium ion batteries are the powerhouse of every modern application. They are used in microelectronics,
like smartphones, laptops, cameras, alarms and electric vehicles, and basically everywhere a battery is
needed. Developed by Akira Yoshino, based on Goodenough’s team research [1], they soon became
dominant in energy storage. The first massive commercial product was released by Sony Corporation,
after massive attempts by researchers to reduce cost and make them safe for usage [2], because of major
constructive issues like high flammability, oxidation and low charging cycles. They consist of a copper
anode and an aluminum cathode (later on lithium oxide), separated with liquid electrolyte.
The working principal is simple, as shown in Figure 1. The movement of lithium ions creates free electrons
in the anode, and thus a charge at the positive collector. The electrical current then flows through the load
to the negative current collector. The separator blocks the flow of electrons inside the battery [3].
From then, their evolution has been enormous [4, 5] with tests of different elements to ensure decent energy
density and cost savings [6].

2. Lithium Polymer Batteries

Even though li-ion batteries were adequate, the need to increase battery life and energy density turned
research towards another form of li-ion battery: The lithium polymer or Li-Po battery. This type of battery

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108 International Journal of Energy and Environment (IJEE), Volume 11, Issue 2, 2020, pp.107-118

offers easy and cheap manufacturing, excellent thermal stability [7] and flexibility. It is also lightweight,
safer and can be fitted at specialized equipment like microelectronics [8].
Using gel electrolyte and premium blending as stated at [9, 10] and demonstrated in Figure 2, supreme
ionic conductivity, chemical firmness and mechanical strength are achieved, preventing massive
deformation to enhance safety [11].

Figure 1. A typical ion battery as reproduced by Scrosati, B. and Garche, J. (2010) [3].

Figure 2. Lithium Polymer battery structure, by Costa et al. [10]

It is important to mention that the thickness of the plates and their ratio (Cathode-Anode) affect the
electrochemical properties of the cell, in addition to performance, design and output energy [12]. That ratio
alone under certain temperatures can accelerate aging, leading to increased internal resistance.
Additionally, capacity is reduced as a result of lithium plating [13].

2.1 Charging Techniques

Because of the electrochemical model complexity of the Li-Po battery, multiple charging methods have
been proposed:
a. Klein et al. [14] proposed a non-linear model predictive control (NMPC) based technique, where
charging is dependent to cell and ambient temperature. It has many advantages over a simple
CC/CV (Constant current-voltage) method, such as 50% faster charging time, but battery aging is
also a consequence of this proposal.
b. Vo et al. [15] focused their research on charging time, state of charge, temperature and protection
against overcharging, following the Taguchi method. It is a multi-stage charging method like Klein
et al. [14] but tested on different capacity batteries with great results, as displayed in Τable 1.
c. An algorithm-based approach was executed by Tolomin et al. [16], that calculated all available
data from sensors, time and computer predictions, improving charging quality for LiFePO4
batteries.
d. Waldmann et al. [17] compared different charging strategies, eventually concluding that charging
temperature is the most important factor, causing lithium deposition at the anode minimizing cell
capacity and eventually battery life.

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 International Journal of Energy and Environment (IJEE), Volume 11, Issue 2, 2020, pp.107-118 109

e. Another charging pattern using a buck DC-DC converter and multiple sensors is suggested by
Hoang et al. [18], with improved charging time and energy efficiency. Additionally, three more
methods are summarized and the results are presented in Table 2.

Table 1. Experimental results comparing two distinct charging methods [15].

Table 2. Side by side results of different charging methods [18].

2.2 State of Charge

State of Charge (SOC) is a valuable battery characteristic. It is defined as the ratio of the current capacity
of the battery, to the nominal capacity stated by the manufacturer [19], showing the maximum charge the
battery can store. The SOC can be measured with different techniques, with later ones having more accurate
approach. It is a crucial parameter for battery life.
Two new methods of SOC estimation have been released:
 Meng et al. [20] used an adaptive Kalman filter-based algorithm, testing both fast and slow charging
profiles with an error of 2%, proving that the algorithm is accurate and feasible.
 Particle filter-based data fusion was selected by Zhou et al. [21] to estimate state of charge both battery
voltage and output, as Figure 3 suggests. Linear and non-linear approaches are presented and
computational speed is performed to minimize the error.

Figure 3. SOC estimation by [21].

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110 International Journal of Energy and Environment (IJEE), Volume 11, Issue 2, 2020, pp.107-118

State of Charge is also affecting lithium deposit formation at the conductive layers. According to Agubra
et al. [22], changes at SOC levels lead to thick layer of deposits by side reactions. That contained lithium,
shown in Figure 4, is practically lost and not available for usual electrochemical reaction, so charge transfer
capability is decreased and consequently, useful battery capacity is lost.
Additionally, reducing the charge rate, thus the potential, results in dropped deposit thickness, with high
cycling charge rate causing additional lithium trapped in the anode. Direct connection of captured lithium-
layer thickness and capacity loss are formed and highlighted on Table 3 [23].

Figure 4. Deposit layer concentration taken by an anged anode electrode after 600 battery cycles as
shown at [22].

Table 3. Connection between capacity decrease and Lithium layer thickness presented by [23].

2.3 Discharge characteristics

Besides the fact that battery lifetime drops as cycles are increased, discharge cycles appear to damage the
cells [24]. Hence is it essential to avoid using the battery below safe limits. Keeping the discharge values
close to nominal value and current on maximum 2C rate, guarantees that the battery stays at normal
temperature with slow discharge time [25].
Furthermore, charging voltage can be reduced slightly to improve useful cycles, at the expense of lower
range, as reported by Grin Technologies portrayed in Figure 5 [26].

Figure 5. Useful cycles and charge voltage interaction as represented by [26].

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 International Journal of Energy and Environment (IJEE), Volume 11, Issue 2, 2020, pp.107-118 111

3. Methodology
3.1 Objectives of Experiment
The aim of this paper is to test different charging techniques and patterns, based on battery changing range
and cycle. With this approach, it is investigated how charging characteristics can affect battery capacity
and what is the ideal usable range providing battery capacity endurance. Moreover, a mini battery
calibration is executed (15% >> 100%), not only for data validation, but also to check battery calibration
importance. This sequence is taking place via extensive laptop operation with AC adapter plugged in, while
battery percentage is kept at full charge.

3.2 Selection of measured values and access

The monitored device is a 2018 Macbook Pro 13inch, A1989 Model with Touchbar, by Apple Inc. [27]
with a built-in 58 Watt-hour Lithium Polymer battery and a 61W Charger. The device capacity is 97.8%
at 125 battery cycles and it is mainly used for office work and browsing. The operating system installed
during experimentation is macOS Catalina 10.15.2.
For this project, it has been decided to gather specific values that were easily obtainable through common
software tools and applications. The reason of that call was to simplify readings and compare values that
are easily understandable and widely available to everyone. So, the selected values are:
a. Battery capacity percentage
b. Battery capacity (mAh)
c. Battery cycles
d. Battery Voltage
e. Charging rate
f. Charging percentage
Those parameters were monitored after each charging session after the charger was plugged off. The
required data is gathered by 3 widely utilized and renowned tools/applications introduced at Figure 6
below:
1. Apple integrated system information utility
2. Coconut battery, a notable application by coconut-flavour and
3. Battery health application from FIPLAB limited

Figure 6. Software tools employed for experimentation. From left to right: Apple System Information,
Coconut battery and Battery Health.

4. Experimentation and results

At the start of the project, initial capacity was 97.8% at 4,976mAh and 124 battery cycles. Temperature
ranged between 26 to 40 degrees Celsius throughout the experiment as the laptop was charged inside our
lab, thus no need for external cooling by pads or AC system was required. Total project duration is 4 and
a half months that equals to 140 days.
During the experimentation, we retrieved battery capacity and percentage measurements that were directly
compared with Apple Integrated Monitoring System (since all three tools monitor the same values) as a
first validation of the system. The temperature was not recorded, but random checks with a thermal camera
were performed for further validation.

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112 International Journal of Energy and Environment (IJEE), Volume 11, Issue 2, 2020, pp.107-118

4.1 Battery cycles – Battery capacity after charging

As depicted in Figure 7, battery cycles factor is not directly affecting the capacity as standalone. Capacity
remains between 97.5 to 98.5 % but after 70 measurements it starts dropping, until it reaches the minimum
of 93.8% that is a 5% reduction. After this point, capacity starts consistent fluctuations, finally reaching
the maximum design capacity, 100% at 5,088mAh. Then a semi-calibration with 12% battery remaining
and plugged in to charger makes it collapsing to 95.3%.

200 Battery Cycles - Battery Capacity after charging 100

180 99

160 98

140 97

Battery Capacity (%)

120 96
Battery Cycles

100 95

80 94

60 93

40 92

20 91

0 90

Measurements
Battery Cycles Battery Capacity %

Figure 7. Battery capacity after charging to battery cycles comparison. Cycles follow a linear increase as
expected whereas capacity ranges substantially.

4.2 Battery capacity – Battery Voltage

The next data analysis, shown at Figure 8, is about the two most important battery values: Capacity and
Voltage. Even though a relation of these parameters is not clear enough, a small variation in inverse
proportion has to be stated.

Battery capacity - Battery Voltage

13500 5150

5100
13000
5050

12500 5000
Battery Capacity (mAh)

4950
Voltage(mV)

12000
4900

4850
11500
4800

11000 4750

4700
10500
4650

10000 4600

Measurements
Voltage mV Battery Capacity mAh

Figure 8. Battery capacity and Battery voltage contrast.

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 International Journal of Energy and Environment (IJEE), Volume 11, Issue 2, 2020, pp.107-118 113

Having the device run at higher voltage, over 12.5 Volts, it needs less current to cover the necessary
output wattage required by the workload. The battery then runs at lower temperatures which also boosts
expected lifespan as heat can severely damage the cells.

4.3 Battery capacity – Charge Percentage

As portrayed in Figure 9, Battery charging technique is an immense factor affecting battery percentage.
Major discharges/charges really decrease the ability of the battery to store charge and last as expected, due
to manufacturer design. Small, quick charges at medium to high percentage really helps the battery function
at low temperatures keeping the capacity as normal due to manufacturer specifications. Major charging
sequences like No.71 or No.105, feature operation at high loads while charging. Those points confirm that
the AC adapter needs to be plugged in for maximum device speed, avoiding extreme cells pressure, which
also implies a slight battery capacity increase.

Battery Capacity- Battery Percentage

5150 100

5100 90

5050
80
Battery Capacity (mAh)

5000
70

Charge Percentage (%)

4950
60
4900
50
4850
40
4800

30
4750

20
4700

4650 10

4600 0

Measurements
Battery Capacity mAh Charge percentage %

Figure 9. Battery capacity - charge percentage.

4.4 Battery voltage – Charge Percentage

Because battery voltage in millivolts would make presentation difficult and less understandable, that value
is converted to Volts. Hence, illustrated in Figure 10, is the almost complete interrelation between battery
charge percentage and voltage. Keeping the battery well charged, guarantees higher voltage leading to
smoother operation.

4.5 Battery capacity – Charge start point

As depicted in Figure 11, maintaining the battery above 40% with small charges not greater than 40-45%
is the ideal range for keeping a stable capacity or even increase it at a certain quantity. When heavy work
load is needed, the charger must be plugged in. Thus, the battery does not reach operating limits which
will lead to overheating and lithium deposition at the anode, as stated before [22]. Massive draining of the

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114 International Journal of Energy and Environment (IJEE), Volume 11, Issue 2, 2020, pp.107-118

cells should be avoided, for the same purpose that can also prevent battery being pushed to safe mode due
to immense stress.

100
Battery Voltage - Charge Percentage 13.5

90
13
80

70 12.5
Charge Percentage (%)

Battery Voltage(V)
60
12
50
11.5
40

30 11

20
10.5
10

0 10

Measurements
Charge percentage % Battery voltage Volts

Figure 10. Battery percentage versus battery capacity in Volts.

Battery capacity - Charging start point

5150 120

5100

5050 100

5000
Battery Capacity (mAh)

Charge Percentage (%)

80
4950

4900
60
4850

4800
40
4750

4700 20
4650

4600 0
41

51

136
1
6
11
16
21
26
31
36

46

56
61
66
71
76
81
86
91
96
101
106
111
116
121
126
131

141
146
151
156

Battery Capacity mAh Charging Start point

Figure 11. The effect partial discharges have on battery capacity.

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 International Journal of Energy and Environment (IJEE), Volume 11, Issue 2, 2020, pp.107-118 115

5. Discussion
Battery cycle count is a very important battery life indication, but it also has limitations. Fluctuations occur
as cycles increase but not in an insignificant matter. A range of 2-3% would be expected, but changes up
to 5-6% at capacity are visible. Battery voltage has to be kept at high limits, operating plugged in during
higher workload. Low capacity ranges should be avoided, so the device draws less current in order to
produce the output power. It also has a decisive role on battery capacity, as the Energy management
controller reads this low voltage and misjudges the value. Furthermore, immense discharges-charges and
very low scores (like 10% battery left) are forbidden, so that voltage can be managed for safe and
understandable reading.
However, for the typical end-users that is often not feasible. Typical laptop users could work all day until
only 5-10% of battery capacity remains, then plug the devices in for a full charging session. Other users
operate the laptops constantly connected on AC, in order to avoid cycles count increasing. That technique
can be severe, because lithium deposition will gradually damage the cells, hence their ability to store charge
and power up as expected.
Figure 11 is a clear guide for the right utilization of lithium polymer batteries. When battery is at medium
ranges, small (15-25%) charges seem to form the ideal pattern for clever and long-term usage. Plugging
the device in at 80% or above is not harmful either, but not really doable. Leaving the cells drop to ultra-
low limits, can damage their structure leading to fast aging. That is also proved by [28-29], where partial
discharges seem to be the best option for proper battery management (Table 4 and Figure 12).

Figure 12. Reproduced Dynamic Stress test data comparison by Xu et al. [29]. This graph confirms the
DoD technique declared at precious chapters.

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116 International Journal of Energy and Environment (IJEE), Volume 11, Issue 2, 2020, pp.107-118

Table 4. DoD effect on Lithium polymer battery. Major discharges shock the battery and reduce
maximum capacity whereas low DoD increase it by a margin [28].

Depth of Discharge LiFePO4 Battery

100% ~600

80% ~900

60% ~1500

40% ~3000

20% ~9000

10% ~15000

6. Conclusions
This paper suggests a simple and functional charging strategy for electronic devices with lithium polymer
batteries. Crucial characteristics, such as State of Charge and Depth of Discharge, have been discussed
along with the importance of each parameter. Since LiFePO4 batteries may suffer from lithium deposition,
due to high temperatures and constant massive charging-discharging, an experiment has been executed to
find the optimum way of using the battery without heavily damaging it. The chosen values to be retrieved
(voltage, capacity, charge rate and battery cycles) were easily obtainable, with 3 software monitoring tools,
and were practical enough to reveal a pattern.
Even though battery cycles are accepted as the leading factor to evaluate battery life and battery capacity,
the drop is not as linear as the cycles are. Voltage has to be kept at high values so that operational hours
increase, thus more work can be done at the same battery state. On the contrary, implementing minimal
and frequent charges at high battery percentage -low Depth of Discharge- helps the capacity retention
phenomenon. In conclusion, avoiding High DoD which will cause lithium deposits, hence quick battery
aging, is what appears to be the best strategy for the end user.

Conflict of interest statement

Nothing declared.

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