International Journal of Theoretical Physics (2024) 63:104

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Holographic F(Q,T) Gravity with Lambert Solution

Houda Filali1 · M. Koussour2 · M. Bennai2 · Rachid Ahl Laamara1,3

Received: 7 February 2024 / Accepted: 13 April 2024 / Published online: 26 April 2024
© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature 2024

Abstract
In this work, we study a model of holographic dark energy using FLRW cosmology in the
context of modified gravity. An extension of the symmetric teleparallel gravity is obtained by
considering the gravitational action L is given by an arbitrary function f of the non-metricity
Q, where the nonmetricity Q is responsible for the gravitational interaction, and of the trace
of the matter-energy-momentum tensor T , so that L = f (Q, T ). We expand on the features
of the derived cosmological model in view of the relation
 b−ln(1+z)  between cosmic time and redshift
kt0
as t(z) = b f (z) where f (z) = W k e b k and W denotes the Lambert function,
and discuss the evolution trajectories of the equation of state parameter and deceleration
parameters in the evolving universe using a special then a generalized version of the model.

Keywords Modified gravity · Holographic dark energy · Teleparallel gravity · Lambert

solution

1 Introduction

The accelerated expansion of the universe has been confirmed over the years by several
observations from Type Ia supernovae and CMB up to data from multiwavelength observation
of blazers and gravitational wave sirens with eLISA [1–5]. This expansion is believed to be
the product of dark energy (DE), a mysterious force driven by negative pressure. DE is
described as a dark component, and with dark matter (DM), comprises most of the content

B Houda Filali
houda_filali3@[Link]
M. Koussour
[Link]@[Link]
M. Bennai
mdbennai@[Link]; [Link]@[Link]
1 Laboratory of High Energy Physics, Modeling and Simulations, Faculty of Science, Mohammed V
University in Rabat, Rabat, Morocco
2 Quantum Physics and Applications Team, LPMC, Faculty of Science Ben M’sik, Casablanca
Hassan II University, Casablanca, Morocco
3 CPM, Center of Physics and Mathematics, Faculty of Science, Mohammed V University in Rabat,
Rabat, Morocco

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104 Page 2 of 13 International Journal of Theoretical Physics (2024) 63:104

of our universe today [6]. The exact nature of DE is unknown but many models have been
introduced in an attempt to shed light on the mystery and they can be classified into two main
categories: First, added-on matter components like the cosmological constant () which
happens to be the favorite candidate [7]. It originates from vacuum energy and has a constant
EoS of ω = −1, agreeing with observational data. However, the model suffers from various
problems such as the fine-tuning and coincidence problem [23, 24]. Other models have
been suggested in the same category as an alternative to the cosmological constant, mainly
dynamical scalar field models like quintessence, k-essence, or phantom which introduce extra
exotic components [8–10].
The second category includes models that modify the Einstein-Hilbert action by intro-
ducing some arbitrary function f , changing the geometrical nature of [Link] this
category, we can find various modified gravity theories expanding from Ricci scalar f (R) to
Gauss-Bonnet theories [11, 12, 29].
F(Q) gravity provides for an interesting alternative description of spacetime geometry
considering that the gravitational interactions described by the non-metricity Q can be pre-
sented as an equivalent geometric representation of general relativity without the need for
curvature or torsion, relying only on the variation of the length of a vector in the parallel trans-
port in a flat spacetime. The recent interest for this model inspired thorough investigations
on both geometrical and physical aspects, from the propagation speed of the gravitational
waves to energy conditions and observational constraints, and it does provide with some
very interesting results, especially from a cosmological point of view where studies were
able to show that the accelerated expansion of the universe was an intrinsic property of the
symmetric teleparallel gravity geometry without the need for an exotic dark energy or extra
fields.
In this paper, we explore the f (Q, T ) gravity [23], recently introduced as an extension of
symmetric teleparallel gravity and represented as an arbitrary function of the non-metricity
scalar Q and the trace of matter-energy momentum tensor T , where the non-metricity Q
is non-minimally coupled to the trace of the matter-energy-momentum tensor T , which
results in a non-vanishing divergence of the matter-energy-momentum tensor that leads to
the appearance of an extra force that can represent either imperfect exotic fluids or quantum
phenomena. The model proved interesting through its compatibility with energy conditions
[26] and the non-conservation of the energy-momentum tensor that results from the Q and T
coupling yields important thermodynamic changes in the Universe on top of the geometrical
ones [28]. While this model is able to provide with valid results on the cosmological level
by obtaining a late time de Sitter phase that results from an interesting combination of non-
metricity and matter, it’s not completely able to work as an effective replacement for C D M
at present times [23].
In the present work, we attempt to propose a solution for this issue by studying the
f (Q, T ) model in two different forms, a simplified version and then a more generalized one,
assuming the time-redshift relation follows a Lambert function distribution to solve the field
equations and find crucial parameters like the energy density, equation of state parameter
and deceleration parameter. We introduce Holographic dark energy through an add-on dark
energy density with the Hubble horizon as the IR cut-off, which allows us to study the effects
of a quantum gravity theory in the framework of teleparallel gravity. This study is especially
motivated by recent findings of the Planck telescope confirming the presence of quantum
fluctuations during the cosmic inflation era.
This paper is organized in the following manner: Section 2 is a general introduction of the
f (Q, T ) model, Section 3 we develop the field equations followed by the subsequent Eos
and decelerations parameters; In Section 4 we explore the solutions for the field equations by

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International Journal of Theoretical Physics (2024) 63:104 Page 3 of 13 104

introducing Holographic dark energy and the Lambert function distribution for the redshift.
We establish study cases, first a simplified form of the f (Q, T ) model then the general form.
We analyse the results for each case through the behavior of Eos and deceleration parameter.
Section 5 is for conclusion and discussion.

2 General Model

Let us consider the extension of the Lagrangian of the symmetric teleparallel gravity, given
by the following action [14, 26]:
  
1 √
S= f (Q, T ) + L m −gd 4 x (2.1)
16π
Where f (Q, T ) is a general function of Q and the trace of the matter-energy-momentum
tensor T , L m is the matter Lagrangian and g ≡ det(gμν ).
The non-metricity tensor is defined as

Q γ μν = ∇γ gμν (2.2)

and traces of the non metricity tensor can be derived as the following:

Q δ = g μν Q δμν , Q̃ δ = g μν Q μδν (2.3)

We also define the Super potential or non-metricity conjugate as:

δ 1 1 1
Pμν = − Q δμν + (Q δ − Q̃ δ )gμν − δ δ (μQν) (2.4)
2 4 4
Where the trace of the nonmetricity tensor becomes:

Q = −Q δμν P δμν (2.5)

The energy-momentum tensor is defined as:

√
−2 δ −gL m
Tμν = √ (2.6)
−g δg μν
δTαβ
θμν = g αβ μν (2.7)
δg
Variation of Tμν w.r.t gμν leads to the following equation:

δg μν Tμν
= Tμν + θμν (2.8)
δg αβ

Variation of action (2.1) with respect to the metric tensor components yields the field equations
for the symmetric teleparallel f (Q, T ) gravity as:
2 √ δ 1
− √ ∇δ ( f Q −g Pμν )− f gμν + f T (Tμν +θμν )− f Q (Pμδα Q δα δα
ν −2Q μ Pδαν ) = 8π Tμν
−g 2
(2.9)
where f Q = ddQf , f T = dT
df
and ∇δ is the covariant derivative.

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104 Page 4 of 13 International Journal of Theoretical Physics (2024) 63:104

3 Flat FLRW Universe in f (Q, T)

We now consider a flat, homogenous and isotropic FLRW spacetime of the form:

ds 2 = −N (t)2 dt 2 + a(t)2 (d x 2 + dy 2 + dz 2 ) (3.1)

where a(t) represents the scale factor and the lapse function N(t)=1 for a flat spacetime.
With the Hubble parameter being H ≡ aȧ , the non metricity tensor becomes:

H2
Q=6 ⇒ Q = 6H 2 (3.2)
N2
Considering a perfect fluid, we get:

Tνμ = diag(−ρ, p, p, p)
θνμ = diag(2ρ + p, − p, − p, − p)

we finally obtain the modified Friedman equations with N=1 as

f 2G̃
8πρ = − 6F H 2 − ( Ḟ H + F Ḣ ) (3.3)
2 1 + G̃
and
f
8π p = − + 6F H 2 + 2( Ḟ H + F Ḣ ) (3.4)
2
where dot represents derivative with respect to time, F = f Q and 8π G̃ = f T .
Moreover, it is interesting to mention that the divergence of the matter-energy-momentum
tensor of the F(Q, T ) gravity can be expressed as:

1   16π 1
Dμ T μν = − Dμ f T μν − √ ∇α ∇μ Hν αμ + π∇μ √ ∇α Hν αμ
f T − 8π −g −g

1
−2∇μ Aμν + f T ∂ν T , (3.5)
2
μν
where Hγ is the hyper-momentum tensor density defined as,
√ √
−g δT δ −g L M
Hγ μν ≡ fT γ + γ . (3.6)
16π δ  μν δ  μν
The above equation shows that in the f (Q, T ) gravity theory, the matter-energy-momentum
μ
tensor is not conserved, i.e. Dμ T ν  = 0. This divergence can be interpreted as an additional
force or exotic field. It also indicates the amount of energy that either enters or exits a specific
volume of a physical system. It is worth mentioning that in the absence of the f (T ) term we
recover the results of the f (Q) model and the energy-momentum tensor becomes conserved
The evolution equation for the Hubble function can then be obtained in the following
form:
Ḟ 4π
Ḣ + H = (1 + G̃)(ρ + p) (3.7)
F F
And the equivalent Friedmann equations are;
f 4π
8πρe f f = 3H 2 = − ((1 + G̃)ρ + G̃ p ) (3.8)
4F F

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International Journal of Theoretical Physics (2024) 63:104 Page 5 of 13 104

and
− 8πρe f f = 2 Ḣ + 3H 2
f 2 Ḟ H 4π
=
− + ((1 + G̃)ρ + (2 + G̃) p) (3.9)
4F F F
Using the equations for ρ and p from (3.8) and (3.9) in the framework of our f (Q, T )
model and from (3.4), (3.5) and (3.6) we can write the density and pressure of our modified
gravity model in the form:
1 f 2G̃
ρ= [ − 6F H 2 − χ] (3.10)
8π 2 1+G
and
1 f
p= [− + 6F H 2 + 2χ] (3.11)
8π 2
with χ = Ḟ H + F Ḣ
The expression for the Equation of State parameter (ω = ρp ), which is a function of the
energy density and pressure, is an important parameter for the classification of the different
stages of the Univers’s expansion. The late-time accelerated expansion is represented by
ω < − 13 with varying models existing within this range. The EoS parameter for our f (Q, T )
model can be written:
4( Ḟ H + F Ḣ )
ω = −1 + (3.12)
(1 + G̃)( f − 12Fh 2 ) − 4G̃( Ḟ H + F Ḣ )
And deceleration parameter:
Ḟ H + 4π(1 + G̃)(ρ + p)
q = −1 + (3.13)
F H2
To compare our model with astronomical observations and established cosmological models,
we introduce the redshift z, instead of the time variable t, defined as:
1
1+z = (3.14)
a
The decelaration parameter as a function of z can be obtained as:
1 d H (z)
q(z) = (1 + z) −1 (3.15)
H (z) dz
We assume the late universe is filled with dust matter only, on negligible pressure. We can
then obtain the standard general relativistic energy conservation equation ρ̇ + 3H ρ = 0,
which allows us to write the evolution of the Hubble function in the following form:

H = H0 ( D M + b )a −3 +  (3.16)
where  D M ,b and  are the density parameters of the cold dark matter, baryonic matter,
and dark energy (interpreted as a cosmological constant), respectively. The density parameters
satisfy the important constraint  D M + b +  = 1. The deceleration parameter as a function
of the redshift z becomes [23]:
3(1 + z)3 ( D M + b )
q(z) = (3.17)
2[ (1 + z)3 ( D M + b )]

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104 Page 6 of 13 International Journal of Theoretical Physics (2024) 63:104

We now introduce the jerk parameter ( j) as a higher derivative of the deceleration q, in the
following form [34, 35]:
dq
j = (1 + z) + q(1 + 2q) (3.18)
dz

From (3.17) and (3.18), the jerk parameter becomes:

 
3 (1 + z)2 ( D M + b )[3( + (1 + z)3 ( D M + b )) 3(1 + z)3 ( D M + b )]
−
2 [ + (1 + z)3 ( D M + b )]2 [ + (1 + z)3 ( D M + b )]2
(3.19)

The sign of jerk parameter j regulates the change of the Universe’s dynamics, a positive
value indicating the instance of a transition time under which the Universe modifies the
expansion. In the following for the density parameters we adopt the numerical values  D M =
0.2589,  D M = 0.0486, and  D M = 0.6911. From these numerical values of the cosmological
parameters, it follows that the present value of the jerk parameter j(0) = 0.95. While we do
not obtain the usual j = 1 of the C D M model, our results remain very close to it.

4 Holographic Dark Energy, Lambert Function and Cosmological

Solution

4.1 The Holographic Dark Energy Model with Hubble Cut-off

As one of the most promising dynamical dark energy models of the recent past, the holo-
graphic dark energy model has laid an interesting template for research that aims to navigate
the dark energy problem. Considering the holographic principle [27] and Bekenstein bound
[21], the vacuum energy of a region of size L should not cross the bound of the mass of
a black hole of the same size. In the cosmological context, the holographic principle sets
an upper bound on the entropy of the universe. According to Cohen et al. [22], to maintain
effective quantum field theory, this bound in a region of size L with a short cut-off should
take the following form:
L 3 3 ≤ S B H = π L 2 M 2p (4.1)

Where  is the UV cut-off, S B H is the entropy of a black hole of size L and M p is the reduced
Planck mass.
Converting this relation to having the entire energy of a region of size L not exceed the
mass of a black hole of the same size, gives us the equation for the density of Holographic
dark energy bound:
ρ ≤ L −2 M 2p (4.2)

We choose to work in the case of the highest bound, giving us ρ = 3c2 M 2p L −2 , with
c being a free dimensionless parameter and we consider c2 = M 2p = 1 for the rest of our
work. The IR cut-off is supposed to be the particle horizon L p or the future event horizon
L F , which are determined respectively as:
 t  ∞
dt dt
Lp ≡ a , LF ≡ a (4.3)
0 a t a

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Taking the time derivative of the above equations, we get the expressions for the Hubble
parameter in terms of L p , L F , and their time derivatives as follows:

L˙p 1 L˙F 1
H (L p , L˙p ) ≡ − , H (L F , L˙F ) ≡ + (4.4)
Lp Lp LF LF
In the generalized form of the Holographic dark energy proposed by Nojiri [30, 31] the
infrared cutoff is presented with a combination of the natural FRW parameters such as Hubble
rate, particle and future horizons:
L I R = L I R (L p , L˙p , L¨p , ...., L F , L˙F , L¨F , ...a) (4.5)
As a more general form than (4.4), we may consider the case that L I R depends on the Hubble
rate H and the length scale l coming from the cosmological constant  = 12/l 2 as shown
in [30]:
L I R = L I R (L p , L F , ts , H , l) (4.6)
Where L I R can take the following form:
 
c H 1 2(α 2 − α − 1 L F α 2 (α + 2) L F 2
= + 1+ ) + (1 − ( (4.7)
LIR α+1 LF α+1 αl α+1 αl
Where α is a positive dimensionless parameter. In the present paper, considering the choice
of our model which is non minimally coupled to the trace of the matter energy-momentum
tensor T , we choose to work with the special case α = 0, therefore retrieving LcI R = H with
c = 1 and the Hubble parameter as the horizon cut off:
L I R = H −1 (4.8)
ρ D E = 3L −2 = 3H 2 (4.9)

4.2 Lambert function Solution and Results

If we attempt to solve the (3.7), (3.8) and (3.10), it would be very hard to do so without
any kind of further simplification considering that we have several unknown parameters and
variables. We already replaced the expression for the density of dark energy by introducing
the Holographic model and choosing the Hubble constant at the IR cut-off, but the rest of the
equations will require a mathematical approach to make them solvable.
For this reason, we assume that the redshift dependant time equation takes the form of a
Lambert function distribution, as:
mt0
t(z) = g(z) (4.10)
l
l−ln(1+z)
With g(z) = Lamber t W ( ml e m ), m and l are non negative constants and t0 represents
the age of the universe.
By using the Lambert solution, we can rewrite the previous equations as follows:
Hubble function:
m l
H= + (4.11)
t t0
Holographic dark energy density:
 2
m l
ρD E = 3 + (4.12)
t t0

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104 Page 8 of 13 International Journal of Theoretical Physics (2024) 63:104

We chose the model parameters as α = −7 and β = −1 to make the energy density positive
and the EoS parameter as per the observations.
We can consider any of the following forms of f (Q, T ):

⎧
⎨ f (Q, T ) = α Q + βT
f (Q, T ) = α Q n+1 + βT (4.13)
⎩
f (Q, T ) = −α Q − βT 2

For the purpose of simplicity, we choose to work first with the case f (Q, T ) = α Q + βT ,
where α and β are model parameters. The values of both f Q and f T are obtained as f Q =
F = α and f T = 8π G = β.
The equation of state parameter of Holographic dark energy becomes:

G2 m
3α( tl0 − t ) − α(2 + G − 1+G ) t 2
m 2
ωD E = (4.14)
6π( mt + t0 ) [(2 + G) + 4G − G ]
l 2 2 2

In Figs. 1 and 2 we plotted the behaviors of the density of Holographic dark energy
ρ D E and the equation of state parameter ω D E with the Hubble horizon cut-off in term of
redshift (z) for the three different values of m = 0.3, m = 0.4 and m = 0.5. We notice
that both functions are increasing with redshift, with the Eos function going from negative to
positive values around z = 1.5. We can see how the variations of the function represent the
cosmological evolution of the universe going from a quintessence state (−1 < ω < −0.33)
to a phantom phase (ω < −1), crossing the C D M state with ω = −1 at present times, as
observed in astronomical data, with that being correct for all values of m. While values of
the Holographic dark energy density are strictly positive, including in present time, which
reflects active action of quantum fluctuations still at work.

Fig. 1 Density of Holographic dark energy with different values of m

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Fig. 2 Equation of state parameter of holographic dark energy in Hubble’s cut-off of the f (Q, T ) = α Q + βT
gravity model

We attempt the same procedure for the general form of our f (Q, T ) model: f (Q, T ) =
α Q n+1 + βT , which results in the following EoS parameter:
t 2 −m m
−2π(1 + G)( mt + t0 ) + α(2n + 1)(n + 1) t 2 ( t + t0 )
l 2n
ω = (4.15)
2π( mt + tl0 )2 (1 + G)

In Fig. 3, we can see how the behavior of the EoS parameter changes when we study
the general form of our teleparallel gravity model. The choice of constants stays generally
unchanged except for the introduction of a new constant (n = 0.1) for this form of the model.
We notice that the curve still represents an evolution from a decelerated to an accelerated

Fig. 3 Equation of state parameter of holographic dark energy in Hubble’s cut-off of the generalized f (Q, T )
gravity model

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104 Page 10 of 13 International Journal of Theoretical Physics (2024) 63:104

Fig. 4 Deceleration parameter

expansion, especially at late time, the transition being around z = 2.2. But contrary to the
previous simplified f (Q, T ), we do not find ω = −1 at present time but rather a model that
behaves like quintessence for the different values of m and only reaches the C D M constant
later in time, avoiding a phantom scenario all together.
Figure 4 represents the variation of the deceleration parameter q with respect to the redshift
(z). We can see how values of the parameter go from negative to positive around z = 0.9,
depicting the transition from deceleration to the current acceleration phase. These results
show that our model is consistent with recent observational findings.

5 Conclusion

In this paper, we have investigated the Holographic dark energy in the framework of the asym-
metric Teleparallel gravity model f (Q, T ), where the non-metricity scalar Q is responsible
for the gravitational interaction and T is the trace of the matter-energy-momentum tensor.
We considered two different forms of our model. First, a simplified version represented by
f (Q, T ) = α Q + βT then a more general form represented by: f (Q, T ) = α Q n+1 + βT
where α, β and n are free model parameters. In addition, we assumed that the redshift-time
relation follows the form of a Lambert function distribution for simplified results.
We study the behavior of various cosmological parameters such as the energy density,
Equation of state parameter, and deceleration parameter from which we get the following
results: We see that the Holographic dark energy density is a decreasing function of redshift
z that evolves in positive values for all choices of the constant m, especially in present time
(z = 0) where it represents the non-vanishing of quantum fluctuations (Fig. 1) and a clear
influence on the accelerated late time expansion. We study the evolution of the deceleration
parameter with respect to the redshift (z) and we can observe a transition from decelerated
to accelerated expansion around (z = 1) for all values of m.
Furthermore, we observed the evolution of the EoS parameter, which is a function of the
holographic dark energy density and pressure in the framework of our f (Q, T ) model, and it
shows the transition from the matter-dominated era to the accelerated expansion, first through

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International Journal of Theoretical Physics (2024) 63:104 Page 11 of 13 104

quintessence then into the C D M value of ω = −1 at present time, which is in agreement

with all observational data, and finally evolving into phantom-like behavior in later time.
This is correct for all chosen values of m which are perfectly compatible at present and later
time but show differences in the redshift at which the model enters the accelerated expansion
phase with m = 0.5 being the earliest (z = 2.3) and m = 0.3 the latest (z = 1.2). We see how
the introduction of Holographic dark energy is able to provide better cosmological results
within the F(Q, T ) gravity model at present times that are compatible with observational
data and can therefor provide a good description of our universe and plausible predictions
for it’s future and eventually be a proper alternative to the C D M model, while also being
a plausible candidate for the unknown force that is generated from non conservation of
the matter-energy-momentum tensor which we mentioned can be interpreted by quantum
phenomena.
The generalized form of our model shows some different results. First, the accelerated
expansion phase starts at a later redshift for all values of m, resulting in the study of dark
energy being independent of the free parameter we choose for it. Furthermore, the function
for this model stays in a quintessence state for much longer, even at present time, and only
reaches the ω = −1 value at a later time, avoiding a phantom state scenario. the results for
the first form the of f (Q, T ) model, which are in agreement with astronomical data, are a
special case. While the results for the generalized model do not concord with the current data,
they do however present a theoretically viable model that presents stable future predictions
while also respecting the various energy conditions [26].
The main difference that our model proposes is the study of HDE in the complete absence
of curvature which is an interesting angle considering that HDE finds its source in black hole
entropy. While our present paper focuses on the study of late-time acceleration, the premise
of our model opens the door for a redefinition of black hole dynamics and even a new form
of early time inflation. Another possible application of the f (Q, T ) theory is to consider
inflation in the presence of scalar fields, an approach that provides useful insights for the
description of the early phases of cosmological evolution and therefore a new unified model
can be explored in future work.
We can conclude that the presented approach predicts de Sitter type expansions of the
Universe, and thus it may represent a geometric alternative to dark energy. Furthermore, our
specific model of Holographic F(Q, T ) gravity can produce results that are very similar to the
C D M model when compared to recent observational data, with an all time positive value of
the density of dark energy, an EoS parameter that goes from matter dominated era to a present
day value of ω = −1, a deceleration parameter of q(z = 0) = −0.6 and q(z = −1) = −1
and a jerk parameter of j = 0.95. All these cosmological bounds, in addition to energy
conditions and observational constraints that have previously been explored, show that our
model can be considered as a serious alternative to GR, especially for late time acceleration.
Author Contributions Author H.F wrote the main manuscript text and prepared the figures, M.K provided the
original idea and parts of the analysis of the results, M.B and R.A contributed by overall review of the results
and conclusions. All authors reviewed the manuscript.

Data Availability No datasets were generated or analysed during the current study.

Declarations

Competing interests The authors declare no competing interests.

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104 Page 12 of 13 International Journal of Theoretical Physics (2024) 63:104

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