J Child Fam Stud (2016) 25:1755–1764

DOI 10.1007/s10826-015-0358-5

ORIGINAL PAPER

Sibling Relationships in Emerging Adulthood: Associations

with Parent–Child Relationship
Laura Collier Portner1 • Shelley A. Riggs1

Published online: 18 January 2016

Ó Springer Science+Business Media New York 2016

Abstract Conflicting theories (e.g., compensatory and historically has been underestimated by clinicians and
congruence) describe the effect of the parent–child rela- researchers (Cicirelli 1995; Connidis 2001; Feinberg et al.
tionship on sibling relationship quality. By identifying 2012). Positive sibling relationships are related to recip-
specific parenting factors (i.e., Care and Control) and rocal emotional support and can facilitate the development
specific aspects of the sibling relationship (i.e., Affect, of prosocial patterns of empathy, social skills, cooperation
Behaviors, and Cognitions), the current study sought to in peer relationships, emotional regulation, and even aca-
examine the factors related to either theory in order to demic competence (Brody 1998; Downey and Condron
better understand the sibling relationship in emerging 2004; Feinberg et al. 2012; Kim et al. 2007; Stormshak
adulthood. Data were collected from 575 undergraduate et al. 2009). Close, positive sibling relationships in early
students. A factorial MANOVA tested the relationship childhood through adolescence are also associated with
between parenting style and sibling relationship quality, positive adjustment and low levels of depressive symptoms
measured by the Lifespan Sibling Relationship Scale. (Kim et al. 2007; Pike et al. 2005; Waite et al. 2011),
Results primarily supported the congruence hypothesis and whereas conflicted sibling relationships in middle child-
revealed that parental Care and Control are important hood through adolescence are consistently related to
variables in understanding the sibling relationship. Addi- increased externalizing and internalizing symptoms,
tionally, the findings were consistent across racial/ethnic including aggression, depression, and anxiety (Kim et al.
groups. 2007; Stormshak et al. 2009; Waite et al. 2011).
Numerous studies have examined the influence of par-
Keywords Adult siblings
Parent–child relationship
enting styles on sibling relationships and yielded mixed
Emerging adulthood
Sibling relationship
Parental bond findings as to how parenting style impacts one’s relation-
ship with their sibling (Boer et al. 1992; Derkman et al.
2011; Feinberg et al. 2003; McGuire et al. 1996; Noller
Introduction 2005; Voorpostel and Blieszner 2008). One body of
research finds that behaviors in the parent–child relation-
Sibling bonds are often the longest lasting and most ship are replicated in the sibling relationship through social
enduring relationships that humans experience. Sibling learning processes and/or internal working models of
relationships serve as a powerful bond with an intense relationships initially developed in the context of the par-
emotional nature and relevance to human development that ent–child attachment bond (Boer et al. 1992; Derkman
et al. 2011; Noller 2005; Whiteman et al. 2011). Contrary
to this hypothesis, another empirically supported theory
proposes that siblings can serve as compensatory attach-
& Laura Collier Portner ment figures in families characterized by conflict and harsh
lauracollier@[Link]; riggs@[Link]
parenting (Bank and Kahn 1982; Furman and Buhrmester
1
University of North Texas, 1155 Union Circle # 311280, 1985; Voorpostel and Blieszner 2008; Whiteman et al.
Denton, TX 76203-1280, USA 2011). Our two primary purposes were to identify

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parenting styles that are associated with positive or nega- competition and rivalry, assertion of power, and conflict, as
tive aspects of sibling relationships and to examine how the well as decreased warmth between school-aged siblings
two conflicting theories of parenting style are associated (Furman and Lanthier 1996). Additionally, harsh, authori-
with the sibling relationships during the under-researched tarian parenting, which is similar to Affectionless Control,
period of emerging adulthood. is related to emotionally distant and conflicted sibling
When trying to understand the many factors that affect relationships in adolescence (Derkman et al. 2011; McHale
the sibling relationship, it is important to explore the et al. 2000; Noller 2005; Stormshak et al. 2009).
influence of caregivers on the individual and the sibling Absent Parenting, characterized by low levels of Care
relationship in key developmental phases of childhood and and low levels of Control, reflects neglectful parenting,
adulthood (Voorpostel and Blieszner 2008). Longitudinal which is associated with negative outcomes, such as low
evidence supports the key role of the parent–child attach- self-esteem, low levels of life satisfaction, anxiety,
ment bond in individual development from infancy through depression, panic disorder, eating disorders in women, and
adulthood (for review of the major longitudinal studies, see increased depression (Kendler et al. 2000; Narita et al.
Grossmann et al. 2005). Similarly, a large empirical liter- 2000; Milevsky et al. 2007; Patton et al. 2001). Individuals
ature using the Parental Bonding Instrument (PBI; Parker who are neglected by their caregiver may seek out and
et al. 1979) to retrospectively assess the parent–child receive more emotional and practical support from their
relationship documents significant associations between sibling in childhood and adolescence (Bank and Kahn
levels of care and control from caregivers in childhood and 1982; Milevsky and Levitt 2005), particularly in adulthood
psychosocial functioning in adulthood. High levels of care, (Voorpostel and Blieszner 2008).
measured by the PBI, describe parenting that is emotionally There are two well-established but conflicting theories
warm and affectionate towards the child, while low scores to describe how parental factors contribute to sibling
on this dimension indicate coldness, rejection, and disin- relationship quality: the congruence hypothesis and the
terest from the parent (Chambers et al. 2000; Riggs and compensation hypothesis (Boer et al. 1992; Jenkins 1992;
Kaminski 2010). The PBI also measures levels of control Voorpostel and Blieszner 2008; Whiteman et al. 2011).
ranging from parenting that is highly controlling, over- While these theories are well supported in the literature, it
protective, intrusive, and denies autonomy to low control, remains an important next step to understand under what
characterized by parenting that encourages psychological conditions each of these processes occur (McHale et al.
autonomy (Chambers et al. 2000; Riggs and Kaminski 2012). The congruence hypothesis contends that behaviors
2010). in the parent–child relationship and interparental relation-
Parker et al. (1979) proposed four styles of parenting ship are modeled and ‘‘spill over’’ to the sibling relation-
based on levels of Care and Control: Optimal Parenting ship (Boer et al. 1992). Substantial evidence documents
(high Care, low Control), Affectionate Constraint (high congruent associations between positive parent–child
Care, high Control), Affectionless Control (low Care, high relationships and positive sibling relationships (Derkman
Control), and Absent Parenting (low Care, low Control). et al. 2011); likewise, negative parent–child relationships
With high levels of warmth and care from caregivers, are associated with negative sibling relationships in early
Optimal Parenting and Affectionate Constraint are gener- childhood through adolescence (McGuire et al. 1996;
ally associated with healthy relationships and psychosocial Noller 2005; Pike et al. 2005). The congruence hypothesis
wellbeing, as well as increased intimacy and warmth in is largely based on social learning theory’s idea that chil-
childhood sibling relationships (Feinberg et al. 2003; Par- dren observe and imitate their parents and each other, and
ker 1983; Voorpostel and Blieszner 2008; Yu and Gamble that family context provides an environment that shapes
2008). behavior and structures relationships (Bandura 1977;
Of the four PBI parenting styles, Affectionless Control Whiteman et al. 2011). That is, in the presence of warm,
is commonly associated with the worst outcomes. For positive parenting, siblings learn to exercise prosocial
example, highly controlling caregivers, who do not behavior and relate with one another in a positive way,
demonstrate care and warmth may foster in their children whereas when the parent–child relationship is conflicted or
the development of neuroticism, anxiety, depression, harsh and punitive, siblings learn to relate and engage with
dependency, disordered eating, panic disorder, and nega- one another in harsh, punitive, and possibly aggressive
tive self-interest (Kendler et al. 2000; Narita et al. 2000; ways (Derkman et al. 2011; Noller 2005; Voorpostel and
Parker 1983; Patton et al. 2001), and contribute to conflict, Blieszner 2008).
aggressiveness, rivalry, and self-protective behavior The congruence hypothesis is also consistent with
between siblings in early childhood through adolescence attachment theory, which proposes that internal working
(Brody 1998; McHale et al. 2000; Volling and Belsky models of self and other formed in the early parent–child
1992). In turn, neuroticism is associated with increases in attachment relationship greatly affect an individual’s

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coping strategies and social competence (see Riggs 2010, Kim et al. 2006). Although over time, increased physical
for review). Positive internal working models associated distance and less contact between siblings are typical,
with secure attachment contribute to tendency to seek out warmth towards siblings increases, and conflicts and riv-
and develop healthy relationships. In the case of an inse- alry generally decline with age (Cicirelli 1995; Scharf et al.
cure parent–child attachment, negative internal working 2005).
models promote insecure, strained relationships with oth- Emerging adulthood is an important and unique devel-
ers. From this perspective, a child with an insecure opmental period that encompasses the transition from
attachment to a primary caregiver will likely have poor adolescence to adulthood between the ages of 18 and 25.
relationships with siblings (Volling and Belsky 1992). Emerging adulthood is highly influential to adult devel-
The compensation hypothesis states that negative rela- opment and is considered an important stage of identity
tionships with some family members may be compensated development (Arnett 2000; Schwartz et al. 2005). During
for by more positive relationships with other family the process of identity development, individuals can feel
members, particularly in disharmonious homes (Furman lost and become vulnerable to serious mental health diffi-
and Buhrmester 1985; Voorpostel and Blieszner 2008). culties such as anxiety, substance use and abuse, and
Weiss (1974) proposed that individuals seek out provisions depression (Arnett 2007; Conger and Little 2010).
available in social relationships, and if not found in one Emerging adulthood is also time of transition for siblings,
relationship these provisions will be sought in other rela- whose relationship can shift from conflictual and rivalrous
tionships. Siblings are described as ‘‘prime candidates’’ in adolescence to one with greater emotional connection
(Whiteman et al. 2011) who can supply particular social and psychological support during adulthood (Cicirelli
provisions, thus, can be turned to for provisions missing in 1995; Scharf et al. 2005; see Van Volkom 2006, for
the parent–child relationship (Furman and Buhrmester review). While most individuals demonstrate less practical
1985; Jenkins 1992; Voorpostel and Blieszner 2008). support behaviors towards a sibling as they enter adult-
Attachment scholars have long recognized that individuals hood, there is often an increase in positivity and warmth
develop multiple attachment relationships with significant towards one’s siblings. Many individuals report feeling
others in their life, including parents, step-parents, grand- close to adult siblings even when they do not see each other
parents, siblings, and romantic partners (Howes and Spie- frequently (Scharf et al. 2005).
ker 2008). Further, individuals with an insecure attachment Sibling relationships change over time and serve a
to a primary caregiver will oftentimes seek security from variety of functions in different environments. In families
other attachment figures who may compensate for the whose structure has changed, for instance, through divorce,
negative effects of an insecure bond with their caregiver joint custody arrangements, or blending of families, a
(Doherty and Feeney 2004). Theoretically, a child who brother or sister’s consistent presence contributes a unique
lacks a sense of security, frequent contact, or a positive salience and importance to the sibling bond (Connidis
relationship with parents might seek comfort, security and 2001; McGuire and Shanahan 2010). The sibling bond is
emotional support from a sibling; the effects of which are considered a context in which social skills and emotional
documented from childhood through adulthood (Jenkins regulation are learned from childhood through adolescence
1992; Kim et al. 2006; Voorpostel and Blieszner 2008; (Downey and Condron 2004; Feinberg et al. 2012;
Whiteman et al. 2011). In particular, if siblings in adoles- Stormshak et al. 2009) and, when positive, the sibling bond
cence are treated equally negatively (e.g., with criticism, can be a protective factor for well-being and life satisfac-
harshness, or neglect), the siblings are likely to bond clo- tion through middle childhood to emerging adulthood
sely with one another to protect one another and possibly (Conger and Little 2010; Kim et al. 2007; Waite et al.
compensate for difficult parent–child relationships (Fein- 2011). This buffering effect may be particularly salient in
berg et al. 2003). emerging adulthood when individuals are experiencing
While there are many findings regarding sibling rela- substantial changes as they transition into adulthood
tionship trends in childhood, the literature on the adult (Conger and Little 2010). Although relatively few studies
sibling relationship, particularly in emerging adulthood, is have specifically investigated sibling relationship quality in
limited (Cicirelli 1995; Connidis 2001; Milevsky 2005; emerging adulthood (Cicirelli 1995; Feinberg et al. 2012;
Scharf et al. 2005). In childhood, there is often a strong Milevsky 2005), sibling support in emerging adulthood can
emotional bond between siblings and frequent behavioral promote mental health, life satisfaction, self-esteem, and
interactions, both warm and conflicted (see Van Volkom can potentially compensate for lack of peer support during
2006, for review). Over time, aspects of sibling relation- this sensitive developmental period (Conger and Little
ships change in quality and function. Sibling relationship 2010; Milevsky 2005).
quality tends to be positive in childhood, decline slightly in The first goal of our study was to explore sibling rela-
adolescence, and strengthen into adulthood (Cicirelli 1995; tionships among emerging adults by considering three

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aspects of the sibling relationship: Affect, Behavior, and identified their primary caregiver as male, and 0.5 % did
Cognition. In the current study, Affect refers to emotion not report the sex of their primary caregiver. The median
towards a sibling and sibling relationship, while Behavior income of the participant’s family of origin was $60,000–
refers behavioral interactions between siblings and the $79,999. Regarding family structure, 29.0 % of the sample
positivity of these interactions. Cognition describes beliefs reported that their parents were divorced, 67.5 % reported
that an individual has about their sibling and their sibling that their parents were still married, and 3.3 % reported
relationship (Riggio 2000). Based on findings that in that their parents were never married. The number of sib-
emerging adulthood sibling warmth and positivity are lings in the participant’s family ranged from 1 to 13, with a
likely to increase, and that interactions between siblings are median of 5 siblings, and the mean number of siblings in a
more infrequent (Cicirelli 1995; Scharf et al. 2005; see Van family totaling 2.2, SD = 1.4.
Volkom 2006, for review), we expected that sibling Affect
and Cognition would be positive in adulthood while sibling Procedure
Behavior scores would be lower than Affect and Cognition.
Another goal of the current study was to investigate how Participants were recruited through flyers on campus and
memories of parenting experiences in childhood are asso- an online system used by students to participate in research
ciated with sibling relationship dynamics in emerging studies for course credit. Participants attended scheduled
adulthood. We expected to find support for both the con- data collection sessions with approximately 20 peers and
gruence or compensation hypothesis related to different completed measures via pencil-and-paper format. Data
parenting styles represented by PBI quadrants. In line with were entered into SPSS data files by undergraduate
the congruence hypothesis, we predicted that Optimal research assistants. Of the 598 total participants, 11 par-
Parenting and Affectionate Constraint would be associated ticipants did not complete all the measures, 10 participants’
with positive perceptions of the current sibling relationship questionnaire packets contained errors, and two partici-
and Affectionless Control would be associated with more pants did not meet study criteria. These participants were
negative perceptions of the current sibling relationship excluded from the study, resulting in a total sample of 575
relative to the other parenting styles. Based on findings that participants.
in the presence of neglectful parenting, children and adults
seek comfort and practical support from siblings (Bank and Measures
Kahn 1982; Milevsky and Levitt 2005; Voorpostel and
Blieszner 2008), we predicted that Absent Parenting would A demographic form gathered basic demographic infor-
be associated with more positive sibling relationships, thus mation, such as age, sex, race/ethnicity, family structure,
supporting the compensation hypothesis. and family income. In addition, participants were asked to
provide information regarding their sibling(s), mental
health history and parents’ marital status.
Methods The Parental Bonding Instrument (PBI; Parker et al.
1979) is a 25-item questionnaire that measures retrospec-
Participants tive perceptions of the parent–child relationship prior to
16 years of age. A modified version of the PBI asked
Data were collected from undergraduate students at a large participants to identify their primary caregiver and respond
public university in the Southwestern United States. Par- to the items in regard to their identified caregiver (i.e., the
ticipants were recruited through university courses that caregiver they spent the most time with growing up). The
offered extra credit for participation in research. To be PBI yields two scales: Care and Control. The PBI measures
eligible, participants must have had at least one sibling and dimensions of Care, ranging from high emotional warmth
have lived in the same home as a primary caregiver and and affection (high Care) to low scores, reflecting coldness
sibling(s) until the age of 16. Of the 575 participants, and rejection from the parent (low Care). The PBI also
51.0 % were female and 48.5 % were male, while 0.5 % measures dimensions of Control ranging from rigid over-
did not report their sex. The mean age of the sample was control and intrusiveness (high Control) to parenting that
20.6 years old (SD = 4.3) with 55.1 % (n = 317) identi- encourages psychological autonomy (low Control). Twelve
fying their race/ethnicity as Caucasian, 17.4 % (n = 100) items comprise the Care scale [e.g., (caregiver) spoke to
African American, 13.9 % (n = 80) Hispanic, 13.6 % me in a warm, friendly voice], while 13 items comprise the
(n = 78) identifying as another race/ethnicity, including Control scale [e.g., (caregiver) tended to baby me]. Par-
Asian American, Native American, and international stu- enting styles may also be classified into quadrants by
dents, or multiracial. The majority of participants (83.0 %) established cutoff scores for the Care scale (i.e., 27.0 for
identified their primary caregiver as female, but 16.5 % mothers and 13.5 for fathers) and for the Control scale (i.e.,

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24.0 for mothers and 12.5 for fathers) (Parker et al. 1979). sample was classified in the Optimal Parenting group,
The quadrants are constructed as follows: Optimal Par- 32.5 % was classified Affectionate Constraint, 21.4 % of
enting (i.e., high Care and low Control), Affectionate the sample was classified Affectionless Control, and 6.6 %
Constraint (i.e., high Care and high Control), Affectionless of the sample was classified Absent Parenting (see
Control (i.e., low Care and high Control), and neglectful or Table 1).
Absent Parenting (i.e., low Care and low Control) (Parker Demographic data were assessed to explore any poten-
et al. 1979). Internal consistency reliability for the Care tial correlations with the LSRS and PBI scores. Sex of the
scale was a = .92 while internal consistency reliability for participant was not associated with LSRS scores. With few
the Control scale was a = .84. exceptions, sex of the primary caregiver and number of
The Lifespan Sibling Relationship Scale (LSRS; Riggio siblings were not associated with LSRS scores. Sex of the
2000) is a 48-item self-report questionnaire that measures primary caregiver was significantly correlated with adult
retrospective and current perceptions of the sibling rela- sibling Affect, r = -.08, p = .047. Additionally, the
tionship. Individuals are instructed to choose the sibling number of siblings was significantly associated with both
who had the greatest impact on their lives and respond to adult sibling Behaviors and adult sibling Cognitions
all items in regard to the chosen sibling. The LSRS yields a r = .12, p = .003, and r = .11, p = .010. Race/ethnicity
childhood sibling relationship scale and an adult sibling was significantly correlated with both LSRS scores and PBI
relationship scale, each with three subscales: Affect, Cog- quadrants. There was a significant relationship between
nitions, and Behavior. For the purposes of this study, only African Americans and reported adult sibling Behaviors
the adult subscales were utilized in this study. The Affect and adult sibling Cognitions, r = .10, p = .022, r = .08,
subscale focuses on emotions toward the target sibling p = .047, respectively. For both African Americans and
(e.g., ‘‘I am frequently angry at my sibling,’’ ‘‘I am proud those endorsing other race/ethnicity, there was a significant
of my sibling’’), the Behavior subscale measures how fre- relationship with the Optimal Parenting group, r = -.10,
quently the participant and the target sibling engage in p = .018 and r = -.09, p = .028, respectively. There was
activities (e.g., ‘‘My sibling and I often help each other,’’ ‘‘I also a significant relationship between Caucasians and the
presently spend a lot of time with my sibling’’), and the Optimal Parenting and Affectionate Constraint groups,
Cognition subscale measures beliefs about the target sib- r = .11, p = .011 and r = -.11, p = .012, respectively.
ling (e.g., ‘‘My sibling and I have a lot in common,’’ ‘‘I Results of a Chi square test for independence indicated a
believe I am very important to my sibling’’), (Riggio 2000). significant association between PBI quadrants and race/
Respondents rate items on a five-point Likert scale ranging ethnicity, x2(9, 575) = 19.33, p = .023. Based on adjusted
from strongly disagree to strongly agree, in which high residual scores (R C 2.00), African Americans and those
scores indicate positive attitudes towards the target sibling, endorsing other race/ethnicity were less likely to report
with subscale scores ranging from 0 to 40. Items worded in Optimal Parenting, whereas Caucasians were less likely to
a negative tone (i.e., ‘‘I was frequently angry at my sibling report Affectionate Constraint but more likely to report
when we were children’’) are reversed scored. Riggio Optimal Parenting.
reported high internal consistency (a = .96) and good test– A 4 (PBI quadrant) 9 4 (race/ethnicity) factorial
retest reliability (a = .91) for the total LSRS (Riggio MANOVA was conducted using LSRS adult sibling scores
2000). In the current study, Cronbach’s alphas for the six as the dependent variables (see Table 1). Results of the
subscales were good, ranging from a = .86 and .92. MANOVA revealed that the main effect of PBI quadrant
was significant, F(9, 1356) = 2.63, p = .005; Wilks’
Data Analyses k = .95; partial g2 = .01 (see Table 1; see Fig. 1). In
contrast, the main effect of race/ethnicity was not signifi-
Missing values made up \5 % of each questionnaire so cant F(9, 1356) = 1.04, p = .403; Wilks’ k = .98, nor was
mean replacement procedures were utilized. A factorial the interaction of PBI quadrant and race/ethnicity F(9,
MANOVA tested associations between parenting style and 1627) = 1.06, p = .382; Wilks’ k = .95. Follow-up
sibling relationship quality. ANOVAs revealed significant mean differences between
PBI quadrants for all adult sibling relationship scales: adult
sibling Affect F(3, 574) = 6.82, p \ .001, partial
Results g2 = .04, adult sibling Behaviors F(3, 574) = 3.84, p =
. 010, partial g2 = .02, and adult sibling Cognitions F(3,
The means and standard deviations for the LSRS subscales 574) = 7.25, p \ .001, partial g2 = .04. Posthoc compar-
are listed in Table 1. Based on published cutoffs for the isons indicated that adult sibling Affect scores in the
PBI (Parker et al. 1979), participants were classified into Optimal Parenting group were significantly higher than
quadrants of parental Care and Control: 39.5 % of the Affect scores in the other three parenting styles.

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Table 1 Factorial MANOVA results for PBI quadrants and race/ethnicity in relation to LSRS scales
LSRS PBI quadrants PBI Race/ PBI quadrants x
subscales quadrants F ethnicity F race/ethnicity F
Total LSRS Optimal Affectionate Absent Affectionless
subscale parenting constraint parenting control
(N = 275) (n = 227) (n = 187) (n = 38) (n = 123)
M SD M SD M SD M SD M SD

MANOVA 2.63** (.01) 1.04 (.01) 1.06 (.02)

Sibling affect 32.83 6.30 34.40a 5.62 32.80b 6.08 31.55b,c 6.03 30.42c 7.07 6.82*** (.04) 0.73 (.00) 0.94 (.01)
Sibling 25.99 8.18 27.43a 7.88 26.01a 8.05 25.66a,b 7.79 23.45b 8.51 3.84* (.02) 0.65 (.00) 0.57 (.01)
behaviors
Sibling 30.94 7.39 32.59a 6.85 31.04a 7.16 30.11a,b 7.54 28.00b 7.80 7.25***(.04) 1.70 (.01) 0.97 (.01)
cognitions
Possible range of scores was 8–40 for each LSRS subscale. Means within each row whose subscripts differ are different at p \ .05 or greater
* p \ .05 ** p \ .01 *** p \ .001. Numbers in parentheses = partial g2

Fig. 1 PBI quadrants and

sibling relationship aspects
(means of LSRS subscales)

Additionally, Optimal Parenting and Affectionate Con- Discussion

straint were associated with significantly higher scores than
Affectionless Control on all LSRS adulthood subscales. The current study sought to clarify the link between par-
Absent Parenting did not differ significantly from the other ent–child bonds in childhood and sibling relationship
three groups on adult sibling Behaviors and adult sibling quality in emerging adulthood. Consistent with hypotheses
Cognitions. Therefore, results primarily supported the based on previous findings that sibling’s experience
congruence hypothesis, in which the relationship with a warmth but have fewer interactions with their sibling
parent spills over to the relationship with siblings. (Scharf et al. 2005), emerging adults in this study reported

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positive emotions and thoughts towards their sibling cur- groups, with one exception in which individuals in the
rently, but fewer positive behavioral interactions with their Optimal Parenting group scored significantly higher on adult
sibling at present. As they enter emerging adulthood, many sibling Affect than those in the Absent Parenting group.
individuals transition to a new home, separate and apart Ratings of adult sibling relationship quality by participants
from their caregiver’s home and from siblings, which is who experienced Absent Parenting generally fell between
likely to limit opportunities to interact and demonstrate the ratings of the two groups experiencing warm parenting
supportive behaviors towards their siblings. Scharf et al. and the ratings of those experiencing Affectionless Control.
(2005) attribute the emotional shift of the sibling rela- That is, with the exception of Optimal Parenting and adult
tionship in emerging adulthood to the tendency to foster a sibling Affect, while the Absent Parenting group sibling
more autonomous but more emotionally attuned relation- relationships scores were not significantly more positive
ship with siblings, free of the daily tasks and hassles that than those in the Affectionless Control group, they were not
might provide opportunities for conflict. significantly more negative than the Optimal Parenting and
Current findings primarily support the congruence Affectionate Constraint group. It is possible that siblings
hypothesis (see Whiteman et al. 2011, for review), and who experienced Absent Parenting may be open to estab-
extend the literature by identifying the conditions under lishing better sibling relationships in emerging adulthood so
which these processes are likely to occur. As predicted, results may indicate that these individuals are beginning to
participants endorsing a history of experiencing the two compensate for Absent/neglectful parent–child experiences
parenting styles involving high levels of parental Care (i.e., by drawing a sibling near (Bank and Kahn 1982; Feinberg
Optimal Parenting and Affectionate Constraint) consistently et al. 2003; Voorpostel and Blieszner 2008). Additionally,
reported more positive sibling relationships in adulthood once out of the home, siblings might be able to share a
than participants in the low Care, high Control quadrant (i.e., relationship independent of their caregivers (Scharf et al.
Affectionless Control). With one exception (i.e., Affec- 2005), and develop more positive relationships with one
tionate Constraint and adult sibling Affect), greater parental another (Feinberg et al. 2003; Voorpostel and Blieszner
Care was associated with better sibling relationships 2008). Future research should clarify the connections
regardless of degree of Control, high levels of which have between the early experience of Absent Parenting and the
been linked to interpersonal difficulties (Brody 1998; later sibling relationship.
McHale et al. 2000; Stormshak et al. 2009; Volling and Finally, results from preliminary Chi square analyses
Belsky 1992). Of particular note, individuals who experi- indicated that some racial/ethnic groups were underrepre-
enced parenting characterized by Affectionless Control sented in certain parenting styles and that there were more
reported the lowest mean scores for each aspect of the sibling Caucasian individuals in the Optimal Parenting group than
relationship measured. This finding supports the congruence expected. Findings that African American participants
hypothesis of sibling bonds, in which the degree of care and were underrepresented in the Optimal Parenting group are
warmth modeled by the primary caregiver in the parent– consistent with other literature suggesting that African
child attachment relationship spills over and affects the American children experience high levels of control or
child’s emotions, behaviors, and thoughts regarding the protective parenting, which can be perceived as love and
sibling relationship. Additionally, the significant difference investment from the caregiver, and can be associated with
in adult sibling Affect scores between Optimal Parenting and the child developing autonomy (Boyd-Franklin 1989;
Affectionate Constraint groups draws attention to the asso- Carter et al. 2001; Jackson-Newsom et al. 2008; Lopez
ciation between controlling behavior and/or denial of et al. 2000). Additionally, those in the Other race/ethnicity
autonomy from a primary caregiver and feelings towards a group included a number of Asian-American students as
sibling in adulthood, regardless of the level of warmth/care well as international students, who might have different
from a primary caregiver. The pattern found by the current cultural norms that are not accurately captured by the PBI
study underscores the detrimental properties of intrusive, (Liu et al. 2011; Narita et al. 2000). With regard to sibling
controlling behavior by primary caregivers in the absence of relationships, African American individuals scored higher
care (Derkman et al. 2011; McHale et al. 2000; Noller 2005; on some measures of sibling relationship in adulthood than
Stormshak et al. 2009). Future research should seek to other racial/ethnic groups in the study, indicating more
understand mechanisms or potential mediators to better positive relationships with their siblings. Although there is
explain associations between Affectionless Control from a little research on racial/ethnic differences in the sibling
caregiver and sibling’s feelings, behaviors, and beliefs relationship, some studies suggest that African American
towards one another, particularly in terms of rivalry, jeal- youth experience discrimination, cultural identity devel-
ousy, or self-interest towards a sibling. opment, and caregiving responsibility for their siblings, all
Contrary to hypotheses, the Absent Parenting group did of which might strengthen their sibling relationships and
not significantly differ from those in other parenting style promote a greater capacity to handle crises (Brody et al.

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1999; McHale et al. 2007). That is, socio-cultural processes healthy sibling relationships rather than positive Affect,
and adversity among African American may engender Behaviors, and Cognitions in sibling relationships and
adaptive coping strategies whereby siblings rely more on explore potential differences between those two measure-
one another for support (Brody et al. 1999; Kane 2000; ment approaches.
McHale et al. 2007). However, while significant correla- Furthermore, this study examined parenting styles rela-
tions and trends between race/ethnicity and the sibling ted to aspects of sibling relationships and therefore cannot
relationship variables emerged in preliminary analyses, determine directionality of influence. While parenting style
neither race/ethnicity nor the interaction term with PBI influences sibling relationships, sibling relationships also
parenting styles was significant in the factorial MANOVA. impacts parenting styles (Yu and Gamble 2008). This study
These findings are consistent with another study regarding also utilized the report of one informant rather than seeking
Mexican–American sibling groups (Updegraff et al. 2005) out parents and sibling reports and, in efforts to explore
and suggest that sibling relationship quality does not differ general sibling relationships from a broader context (Fur-
significantly by race/ethnicity and that early parenting man and Lanthier 2002; McGuire and Shanahan 2010), did
styles have similar effects on sibling relationships across not incorporate age differences between siblings or gender
cultural backgrounds. differences. Some uneven sample sizes were also present
Following the suggestions of Furman and Lanthier within parenting styles and race/ethnicity. While the PBI is
(2002) as well as McGuire and Shanahan (2010), the cur- thought to be quite robust, there are some studies that show
rent study considered the sibling relationship in a broader variability between cultures (Carter et al. 2001; Liu et al.
context, by focusing on relationships with parents rather 2011; Lopez et al. 2000; Narita et al. 2000). Additionally,
than on specific structural variables (e.g., birth order, the PBI was normed on a Caucasian sample (Parker et al.
gender dyads). Additionally, with the advantage of a wide 1979); therefore, the construct of Optimal Parenting might
ethnic distribution and representation, the current study be biased. The analyses were also correlational and effect
considered potential racial/ethnic differences, which is sizes for parenting style and sibling relationship were small.
needed to better understand cultural differences and simi- In conclusion, the current study identified parenting
larities with regard to parenting and sibling relationships styles that are associated with positive and negative aspects
(Milevsky et al. 2011; Updegraff et al. 2005). By of the sibling relationship and emerging adulthood and
requesting information regarding the participant’s primary extended the literature on two conflicting theories of the
caregiver, the findings are also meaningful to primary sibling relationship. That is, individuals who received
caregivers of both sexes rather than simply to mothers or parenting with high levels of care are likely to experience
fathers. The study also allowed the individual to report on positive sibling relationships in emerging adulthood. Fur-
the sibling who had the greatest impact and therefore thermore, individuals who received Absent Parenting were
encompassed older and younger siblings, as well as half- also likely to report sibling relationships somewhat similar
siblings and stepsiblings, rather than restricting participants to those who experience high levels of care from a care-
to traditional family structure norms. giver. Individuals who received overcontrol and low levels
Limitations of the current study include the use of self- of care in childhood were likely to report more negative
report questionnaires, one of which is retrospective, which sibling relationships. Because supportive sibling relation-
may be subject to personal bias and faulty memory. ships can be a protective factor for well-being in emerging
Additionally, the current study asked individuals to report adulthood (Milevsky 2005), it is important to investigate
on only one sibling who had the greatest impact on the methods of strengthening the sibling relationship, particu-
participant and only takes into account the effect of the larly for individuals who experience parenting with low
primary caregiver. Future researchers may wish to consider levels of care and high levels of control.
the influence of other siblings, as well as the influence of a
secondary or tertiary caregiver, if applicable. This study, Acknowledgments We wish to acknowledge Hannah K. Greer and
Kyle G. Parker for their hard work and dedication to data collection
like many others, examined positivity and conflict between and data management.
two siblings as a measure of healthy or unhealthy rela-
tionships. A recent study proposed that a positive rela-
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